Chapter 09 FIG 1

Figure 9.1 Courtship sequence of the mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum. The sequence begins at top center and proceeds clockwise. The male rubs the female; the female nudges the male's cloaca (bottom right), stimulating him to deposit a spermatophore (bottom left); the female briefly examines the spermatophore and then moves over it, picks up the sperm packet with her cloaca, and departs. Adapted from Shoop, 1960.

Chapter 09 FIG 2

Figure 9.2 A calling Graceful tree frog (Litoria gracilenta) from Australia. This frog has an exceptionally large median subgular vocal sac. Photograph by S. J. Richards.

Chapter 09 FIG 3

Figure 9.3 Sound production and call structure of the marine toad, Rhinella marina. Sound production (left) uses aspects of the respiratory ventilation cycle without releasing air to outside. Before calling begins, the buccopharyngeal force-pump inflates the lungs and vocal sacs. Then with nostrils closed, the body muscles contract, pushing a pulse of air through the larynx, vibrating the vocal cords. Sound radiates outward and is resonated by the vocal sac. The call of R. marinus is a deep, long trill of many continuous pulses (> 50) and lasts several seconds. The waveform (right top) and spectrogram (right bottom) show the energy envelope and pulse structure of brief segments of a call. Each pulse lasts about 0.03 second; the dominant frequency is 500–1000 kHz.Morphology adapted from Martin and Gans, 1972. Redrawn and reprinted, with permission of Wiley-Liss, a subdivision of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., © 1972. Call analysis courtesy of W. R. Heyer.

Chapter 09 FIG 4

Figure 9.4 Waveform and spectrogram of two individuals of the toad Rhinella ocellata, in which calls are alternated. Calls of Male B do not overlap those of Male A.

Chapter 09 FIG 5

Figure 9.5 Foot flagging in the Brazilian torrent frog, Hylodes asper (Leptodactylidae; left) and Dendropsophus parviceps (Hylidae; right). Photographs by W. Hödl.

Chapter 09 FIG 6

Figure 9.6 The aromobatid frog Allobates caeruleodactylus has brilliant blue toes, which are probably used in visual signaling. Photograph by A. P. Lima.

Chapter 09 FIG 7

Figure 9.7 Scramble competition in the frogs Bufo bufo and Rana temporaria during an explosive-breeding event. Photograph by W. Hödl.

Chapter 09 FIG 8

Figure 9.8 Mantelline frogs have well-defined femoral glands on the ventral surfaces of their thighs. The left row shows species in which the glands are typically composed of single granules, each of which is a separate secretory unit. The right row shows species in which the gland is composed of granules arranged in a circle; each granule opens into a central external depression. A, Mantella aurantiaca; B, Guibemantis liber; C, Guibemantis bicalcaratus; D, Gephyromantis pseudoasper; E, Gephyromantis cornutus; F, Gephyromantis luteus; G, Gephyromantis malagasius; H, Mantidactylus cf. ulcerosus; I, Mantidactylus cf. betsileanus; J, Mantidactylus albofrenatus; K, Mantidactylus brevipalmatus; L, Mantidactylus cf. femoralis; M, Mantidactylus argenteus; N, Mantidactylus grandidieri. Photographs by Miguel Vences.

Chapter 09 FIG 9

Figure 9.9 Sequence of behaviors that occur during an aggressive encounter between two male desert tortoises, Gopherus agassizii. Common alternative sequences are indicated by arrows. Terms in capital letters indicate specific behaviors that have been described. Adapted from Ruby and Niblick, 1994.

Chapter 09 FIG 10

Figure 9.10 Sequence of events involved in the production of the bellow of an alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Exhalation causes a fountain of water along the alligator's trunk and also produces a radiating series of ripples at the water surface. Adapted from Garrick and Lang, 1977.

Chapter 09 FIG 11

Figure 9.11 Mating behavior of the tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus. Adapted from Gillingham et al., 1995; redrawn by J. P. do Amaral.

Chapter 09 FIG 12

Figure 9.12 Three types of visual displays in Anolis lizards. Adapted from Echelle et al., 1971.

Chapter 09 FIG 13

Figure 9.13 Display posture and movement-sequence diagram for a male desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. The line in the diagram denotes the relative height of the head during a push-up defensive display sequence. Adapted from Carpenter, 1961.

Chapter 09 FIG 14

Figure 9.14 Male–male combat in the Australian monitor lizard Varanus panoptes. Photograph by D. Pearson.

Chapter 09 FIG 15

Figure 9.15 Three general types of tactile signals are used by snakes during courting and mating. Adapted from Gillingham, 1987, with drawings adapted from Carpenter, 1977.

Chapter 09 FIG 16

Figure 9.16 Determinants of the mating system in salamanders. Adapted from Verrell, 1989.

Chapter 09 FIG 17

Figure 9.17 Mating systems as a function of the relative association between fecundity (number of offspring produced) and mating success for males and females. The line for each sex within a panel represents a sexual selection gradient. For example, in the panel in the lower left (polygyny), potential fecundity of males increases with increased number of mates, resulting in an increase in the intensity of sexual selection in males (line with a high slope), whereas females do not gain in fecundity by mating with additional males and thus there is little sexual selection operating on females (line with no slope).Adapted from Duvall et al., 1993.

Chapter 09 FIG 18

Figure 9.18 A male glass frog, Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni, calling from a leaf above a stream; below, a female is attracted to his call. Note that the eggs of the gravid female can be seen through the transparent venter. Photograph by W. Hödl.

Chapter 09 FIG 19

Figure 9.19 A pair-bonded male and female of the spotted poison frog, Ranitomeya vanzolinii, emerging from a small tree hole; the male (foreground) is transporting a single tadpole on his back. On the right, an opened vine shows the cavity within used as a tadpole nursery. Pointer shows three eggs that were deposited above the waterline. When opened, a large tadpole was found in the water in the cavity. Frogs, photograph by J. P. Caldwell; vine, photograph by L. J. Vitt.

Chapter 09 FIG 20

Figure 9.20 A marked female Osteocephalus oophagus (white waist band) returning to a small tree hole to deposit eggs as food for her offspring. Tadpoles nip at her cloaca to stimulate egg deposition. On the right, a tadpole that has just ingested eggs, which can be seen through the tadpole's transparent venter. Photographs by K.-H. Jungfer.

Chapter 09 FIG 21

Figure 9.21 The operational sex ratios (OSR) of prairie rattlesnakes are intimately affected by the amount of heat available for thermoregulation and gestation, and by feeding success because it influences energy available for reproduction. Reproductive success is influenced by body size because it determines the number of offspring produced in a given season. Adapted from Duvall et al., 1992.

Chapter 09 FIG 22

Figure 9.22 When the operational sex ratio in adders (Vipera berus) is low, male–male combat increases (left), resulting in increased sexual selection for large body size in males (right). Adapted from Madsen and Shine, 1993.

Chapter 09 FIG 23

Figure 9.23 Sexual dimorphism in the tympanum of the green frog, Lithobates clamitans. Female left, male right. Photographs by J. P. Caldwell.

Chapter 09 FIG 24

Figure 9.24 Male (left) and female (right) Leptodactylus ocellatus showing sexual dimorphism in forelimb size. Photographs by J. P. Caldwell.

Chapter 09 FIG 25

Figure 9.25 Sexual dimorphism in relative head size in the broad-headed skink, Plestidon laticeps. Note that the divergence between sexes in relative head size occurs after sexual maturity is attained (about 84 mm SVL). Scars on the head and neck of the male result from male fighting. Adapted from Vitt and Cooper, 1985.

Chapter 09 FIG 26

Figure 9.26 The number of mating opportunities (female/male) increases with body size for males of Anolis carolinensis. Adapted from Ruby, 1984.