CHAPTER 07

The ways in which ICT is used

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Communications applications

Methods of communication include: Video conferencing Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) systems (e.g.

Skype) Emails

Ways of communicating information: Multimedia presentations Printing flyers / posters Using websites Music production Cartoon animations

Multimedia presentationsThis involves combing different media such as animation, video, sound and / or music and then projecting this onto a large screen using a multimedia projector for a large audience.

Paper based presentations

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Advantages include: The use of sound and

animation / video effects Interactivity and hyperlinks can

be built in More likely to hold audience’s

attention

Disadvantages include: Need special equipment

which may be expensive May need live / reliable

internet connection to include video / audio

Advantages Disabled people do not have

to go to the venue to see the presentation

Can be printed out in braille for blind / visually impaired

Can be read at any time Recipient has a permanent

copy that can be read at any time

Disadvantages May be difficult to distribute

hard copies No special effects (i.e.

multimedia) Printing costs may be

expensive

Flyers / Posters

Could be created as follows:1. Word Processor or DTP application is opened2. User creates frames, boxes and text boxes3. Photos are taken with a digital camera4. Images are uploaded from camera / downloaded

from internet5. Photos saved to a file6. Photos are imported / copied and pasted to the

flyer / poster7. Photos are edited8. Text is added and then formatted9. File is saved and printed

WebsitesCan be used for advertising and communication

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Advantages: Can add sound, video and

animation Can use hyperlinks to other sites Can use hot spots Can include buttons for navigation Can use hit counters for visitor

statistics

Disadvantages Site be hacked and changed There is a need for an internet

connection Not as portable as paper Time has to be spent maintaining

the site

Music Production Production of music and music scores can be done using software: Music samplers and mixers allow original studio tracks to be modified Electronic instruments can be played through electronic effects machines Synthesisers use simple wave forms to produce complex music creations Electronic organs can mimic other instruments Music scores can be generated automatically from the actual music using software Software can automatically correct music No need to understand music notation in order to write a score Music notes are automatically printed out in the correct format.

Cartoon animationsAnimation can be produced using computer hardware and software. With 3D animation, objects are designed on a computer and a 3D skeleton produced. The parts of the skeleton are moved by the animator using key frames (which define the start and end points to give a smooth animation effect). The difference in appearance of the skeleton in these key frames is automatically calculated by the software and is known as tweening (or morphing). The final stage is to make a realistic image by a technique known as rendering.

Embedded web technology Uses the internet in real time to control or interact with a device in the home or a device

which is part of an industrial application The device must contain a microprocessor the system to work The device can be controlled by an authorised user from a computer anywhere or from a

web enabled tablet or smartphone. Examples in the home that can be controlled:

o DVD recordero Satellite receivero Central heatingo Oven o Washing machine

Examples in industryo Scientific experimentso Applications in space or under the sea

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Satellite and mobile network communications

Mobile phone networksMobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover large areas. The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network

Rather than circular the cells are often referred to as hexagonal.

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Mobile phone networks continued .. Each tower transmits within its own cell. If you are driving a car and get to the edge of the cell the mobile phone signal starts to

weaken. This is recognised by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal in one of

the adjacent cells For connections (calls and texts) to people in other countries, satellite technology is used. Other mobile devices such as laptops and tablets can now also connect to the mobile

network to access the internet.

Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Systems Satellites surrounding the earth transmit signals to the surface Computers installed in the GPS device or mode of transport receive and interpret the signals Atomic cloks are used in the sateliites

to ensure accurate timing and therefore position

Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time.

Computer in the GPS / mode of transport calculates its exact position based on the information from at least 3 satellites.

In cars these details can be overlaid on a preloaded map

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Advantages: Driver doesn’t have to consult

paper maps so it is safer Reduces driver error (identifies one

way streets, road closures, etc.) Can warn about location of speed

cameras (increases safety) Estimates time of arrival Can program fastest route,

avoiding motorways, etc. Additional information such as

location of petrol stations, tourist sites can be given

Disadvantages: Maps need to be kept up to date

in order to remain accurate Some systems will not provide live

updates such as road closures, etc. Loss of satellite signals can cause

problems If an incorrect start or end point is

keyed in then the system will give incorrect information.

Data Handling applicationsA number of applications make use of simple data handling techniques, such as:

Surveys Tuck shop (school sweet shop) records Clubs and society records Record keeping (e.g. a book shop)

Surveys

Tuck Shop RecordsUses a spreadsheet to keep a record of prices, money spent and money received.

Advantages: Easier to vary parameters to see how to

optimise profits or reduce losses Can be programmed to alert the user (using

macros) to warn of any problems

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Advantages of online surveys: No data preparation is needed as

data is sent directly to a database

Advantages of paper and online surveys (versus checking by hand)

Fast to get results Fewer errors Easier to do statistical analysis Less expensive to carry out as it

requires fewer people.

Club and society recordsClubs and societies keep records about members covering such things as names, addresses, subscription payments and talks that have been made. These tend to be kept on a computer database rather than paper records.

This data, which is of a personal nature, must obey the rules of the Data Protection Act 1998

8 Principles of the Data Protection Act 19981. Data must be fairly and lawfully processed2. Data can only be processed for the stated purpose3. Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive4. Data must be accurate5. Data must not be kept longer than is necessary6. Data must be processed in accordance with the data

subject’s rights7. Data must be kept secure8. Data must not be transferred to another country unless they too have adequate protection

Failure to obey the rules may lead to fines or even imprisonment.

How to stop data being obtained unlawfully Don’t leave personal data lying around (e.g. on a desk) when not being used. Lock all filing cabinets when not in use (especially at the end of the day) Log off or lock computer when not being used (do not leave data on the screen) Do not give your password to anyone else Change passwords regularly and select ones which are difficult to crack Do not send sensitive information in an email.

Record Keeping

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Advantages of computer records versus paper records: Less room used as no filing cabinets

required Quicker to search records using queries May save money as do not need to

employ a filing clerk Fewer errors as no manual checking of

files required

Disadvantages of computer records versus paper records: Initial expense of buying hardware and

software Take time and effort to transfer

existing paper records onto the computer.

Modelling applicationsA simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the behaviour of the system. The model is computer generated and is based on mathematical calculations.

The idea is to try and find out what mechanisms control how a system behaves and consequently predict the behaviour of the system in the future and also see if it possible to influence this future behaviour.

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Why use simulations? Less expensive than building the

real thing (e.g. a bridge) Safer (e.g. than performing

chemical experiments) Can try out different scenarios in

advance May be impossible to try out in

real life first (e.g. in outer space) Quicker than doing the real thing

(e.g. modelling climate change)

Limitations of simulations? They are only as good as the data

supplied and the algorithm programmed so outcomes may not always be reliable

Can be expensive to set up May need specialist software Due to the complex calculations,

may need to purchase an expensive, powerful computer.

Types of processingThere are three basic types of processing:

Batch processing Real time (transaction) or online processing Real time process control

Batch Processing A number of tasks (jobs) are collected together over a period of time These are then loaded onto the computer as a job queue Then processed all at once (i.e. as a batch) Once the processing is used, no human intervention is required Ideal when the processing doesn’t need to be done quickly or where responses are required

immediately Often done when the computer system is less busy (e.g. overnight) Examples:

o Utility (gas, electric, water and telephone) billso Payroll systemso Processing bank cheques.

Real time (transaction) processing or online processing This is an example of online processing Examples: Booking theatre or flight tickets; use ATM to get money (i.e. files are updated in

real time) The response to a query needs to be very fast in order to prevent ‘double booking’

o Seats need to be marked as unavailable immediately as the booking is made

Real time process control Also an example of online processing, but very different to real time (transaction) processing Usually involves sensors and feedback loops (e.g. monitoring and control applications) Physical quantities (such as temperature) are continually monitored and the input processed

sufficiently quickly to influence the input source.

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Control Applications

Turtle graphics (LOGO)When answering a question on this in the exam, the commands are usually given for you; however, it is still wise to learn the following table:

Command MeaningFORWARD x Move x cm forwardBACKWARD x Move x cm backwardLEFT d Turn left through d degreesRIGHT d Turn right through d degreesREPEAT n Repeat the next set of instructions n timesENDREPEAT Finish the repeat loopPENUP Lift the pen upPENDOWN Lower the pen

Applications using sensors

Monitoring an application The computer reviews the data from the sensors Compares it to data stored in memory Updates its files May give a warning if values are outside parameters NO CHANGES TO THE PROCESS ARE MADE DURING MONITORING Monitoring examples

o Patient’s vital signs in a hospitalo Scientific experiment in a laboratoryo A burglar systemo Environmental monitoring (e.g. oxygen levels in a river)

Control applications The computer reviews the data from the sensors Compares it to data stored in memory If values are outside of predefined parameters, ACTION IS TAKEN TO GET THE VALUES BACK

WITHIN AN ACCEPTABLE RANGE For example by sending signals to devices controlling the process (e.g. motors, valves, etc.) Control examples:

o A chemical processo A nuclear reactoro A greenhouse environmento A central heating systemo A set of traffic lights

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NOTE:

Data received from sensors tends to be in analogue format so will need to be converted to digital using an ADC (Analogue to Digital Converter)

Data sent out by a computer will be digital and will need to be converted to analogue using a DAC (Digital to Analogue Converter).

Monitoring example 1: Patient’s vital signs in a hospital

Sensors read key vital signals (e.g. pulse / heart rate, temperature, blood pressure, respiration, etc.)

Data from sensors is converted using ADC Data stored in the computer’s memory Computer compares the data with that stored in its memory Results are output on a screen in the form of graphs and / or digital readouts Alarm is activated if data outside acceptable parameters System continues to monitor the patient until the computer is turned off.

Monitoring example 2: measuring oxygen levels in a river (environmental monitoring)

Sensors read data from the river (e.g. oxygen levels and acidity levels (using a pH sensor). Data from sensors is converted into digital using DAC Computer stores received data Oxygen and acidity levels are compared to stored data for acceptable parameters An alarm may be sounded or message displayed One of two things will now happen:

o Data is transferred to a memory stick, portable hard disk or optical disk and taken away for analysis later, or

o The computer is connected to a the internet and transmits the data automatically to a monitoring station

Advantages of using computers and sensors for monitoring (compared to humans taking the readings):

Computer will not forget to take readings Computer’s response time is time is much faster (very important in monitoring patients) Doctors, nurses, scientists, etc. can get on with other tasks whilst monitoring takes place Computers can monitor 24/7/365 Readings tend to more accurate Readings can be taken more frequently (at shorter time intervals) if they are done by a

computer and sensors May be safer if there are potential hazards (e.g. falling into a river when taking readings)

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Control example 1: A greenhouse environment Several sensors could be used with each essentially operating in the same way (e.g.

humidity, moisture, temperature, pH and light sensors) Each sensor sends a signal via an ADC to the computer The computer compares this input with a stored value and decides what action to be taken. If the value is too high, the computer sends a signal via a DAC to, for example, operate a

motor to open windows, thus reducing humidity. If the value is too low, the computer will send a signal via a DAC to, for example valves to

spray water into the air, thus increasing humidity. This system of feedback, comparison and action continues as long as the system is switched

on.

Control example 2: Chemical processNote: A certain chemical process only works if temperature >70 and pH <3.5. Heaters are used to control temperature and valves are used to add acid when necessary. The following shows how the sensors and computer are used to control this process.

Temperature and pH sensors read data from the chemical process Data is converted using a DAC Computer compares incoming data with ‘ideal’ data stored in memory

o If temperature too low / high, a signal is sent via a DAC to switch on / off the heaterso If temperature is within an acceptable range, no action is takeno If the pH is too high / low, a signal is sent via a DAC to open / close the valveo If the pH is with an acceptable range, no action is taken

This continues as long as the computer system is activated.

Advantages of using sensors and computer systems to control processes Computer will not forget to take readings Computer’s response time is time is much faster (very important in monitoring patients) Doctors, nurses, scientists, etc. can get on with other tasks whilst monitoring takes place Computers can monitor 24/7/365 Readings tend to more accurate Readings can be taken more frequently (at shorter time intervals) if they are done by a

computer and sensors May be safer if there are potential hazards (e.g. falling into a river when taking readings) or

in the case of a chemical process can ensure that the conditions are controlled in a more accurate way

If the process is dangerous it is better to control it from a distance!

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RoboticsRobots are used in many areas of manufacturing, from heacy work right through to delicate operations (e.g. paint spraying of car bodies, welding car body parts, manufacturing microchips, manufacturing electrical goods, and automatic warehouses.

Control of robots is either through embedded microprocessors or linked to a computer system. Programming of the robot to do a task is generally done in one of two ways:

1. Robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to carry out a series of tasks (e.g. spraying a car body with paint)

2. A human operator manually carries out a series of tasks and each task is done is relayed back to the robot (embedded processor) or controlling computer. The sequence of instructions is remembered so that the robot can automatically carry out each task identically each time (e.g. assembling parts in a television).

Robots often use sensors so that they can gather important information about their surroundings. This enables them to not do ‘stupid things’ such as spraying when there is nothing in front of them to spray or when the paint has run out.

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Advantages of using robots Can work in environments that might

be harmful to humans. Can work 24/7/365 Less expensive in the long term (high

initial cost but then no wages) Productivity is high (no holidays or sick

days) Greater consistency (every product

they produce is identical) Can do boring, repetitive tasks,

allowing humans to do the more skilled tasks

Disadvantages of using robots Robots find it difficult to do one-off

tasks (e.g. specialist glassware for a chemical company)

They replace skilled labour which leads to increased unemployment

May lead to deskilling No need for a local labour force so

manufacturing can be any way in the world, leading to local unemployment.

Batch processing applicationsThere are several applications that make use of batch processing; the most common ones being payroll, billing (electricity, gas, water and telephone) and cheque processing.

PayrollRun as batch processing as all the timesheets, etc. are gathered together before the payroll calculations are done in one go (often overnight when the computers are less busy). Since there is no need for any further input, nor is it urgent to get the output quickly (unlike in, for example, a ticket booking system), batch processing works efficiently.

At the end of each week or month a payroll system will be used to calculate wages, print out pay slips and pay employees

Inputs:o Employee details from file (rate of pay, tax code, bank details)o Number of hours worked (possibly from a timesheet)o Any overtime workedo Holidays

Processing:o Calculation of gross pay, tax and National Insurance deductions, net pay

Outputs:o Printed pay slipso Updated employee fileso Transfer to BACS (Bankers Automate Clearing Service) if wages are paid directly into

a bank account

Billing systems (electricity)Because companies send out their bill / invoices on a pre-determined date, all the information is gathered together and then processed in one go (batch).

Inputs:o Customer details (e.g. address)o Charge per kW (unit) of powero Previous readings o New readingso Bank account details if paying by direct debit

Processing:o Calculation of units of electricity used, cost, monthly payment made and

outstanding amount owed

Outputs:

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o Bill showing the details of amount paid (direct debit) or amount to payo Updating customer files

Barcodes Allow quick identification of product details once the barcode has been scanned by a

barcode reader. Used at EPOS / EFTPOS terminals which incorporates a barcode reader that

o scans the barcodeo retrieves the price of producto relays information back to the stock control system to update the files

See page 87 of textbook for how barcodes are validated using a check digit.

Automatic Stock control systemThe following description is a detailed account of how barcodes are used to control stock levels automatically in a supermarket. Other retailers use similar systems with only minor differences.

Barcodes are attached to all items sold by the supermarket Each barcode is associated with a stock file which contains details such as prices, stock levels

and product descriptions Customer goes to EPOS / EFTPOS terminal once they have completed their shopping Barcode on each item is scanned

o If it can’t be scanned, the number is typed in manually Barcode is searched for on the stock file record by record until a match is found The appropriate record is accessed The price and product description is sent back the EPOS / EFTPOS terminal The stock level for the product is found and reduced by one The new stock level is written back to the file If the stock level falls below or is equal to the re-order / minimum stock level then the

computer will automatically order a batch of items from the supplier (using details in the supplier file)

Once goods have been reordered a flag is placed next to the item to prevent it being reordered every time a new item is scanned before the new stock arrives.

This process is repeated for every item in the customer’s trolley / basket The customer is then given an itemised bill showing a list (with prices) of everything they

have bought (including the total amount to pay) Computer updates the files containing the daily takings If the customer has a loyalty card, the computer automatically updates their points total When the new stock arrives, the barcodes on the pallets will be used to update the stick file

and any flags associated with these goods will be removed so that stock checks can start to be made again.

Note: Some supermarkets now allow customers to scan their own items at special checkouts. These basically work in the same way as the EPOS / EFTPOS terminals.

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Online booking systemsThese rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing double booking, which could happen if the system response time was slow. Booking systems are used for transport (flights, trains and buses), cinemas and theatres. The example below is for a theatre booking system and assumes that the user is already logged onto the theatre booking website:

Customer clicks on the performance they wish to see They select the date and time for the performance They select the number of tickets that they require A seating plan of available seats is shown They choose the location of their seats The database searches to check the availability of the seats. If the seating plan is shown, this

step is not required. If the seats are available, they are shown along with the total price If they customer is happy with this, they click on ‘confirm’ The seats are now set to ‘temporarily unavailable’. If the customer is a returning visitor, their details may already be prefilled. If they are a new

customer, then they will have to complete their personal details. They then select the payment method (debit / credit card) The seats are then booked in the customer’s name Final details are shown on screen along with a reference number to quote in case there is a

query later on An email is sent to the customer that they can print out as proof of purchase (this may also,

in some cases, act as a e-ticket) The database is then updated with the transaction.

Note: Booking cinema seats is very similar; however, booking flights is more complicated as there are more factors to choose from (airline, airport, etc.).

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Banking applicationsThe use of computer technology has revolutionised how we do our banking transactions, for example:

Internet banking Use of ATMs (Automated Teller Machines) Chip & PIN Technology

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)Can be used to withdraw cash (or carry out other banking activities such as changing PIN, checking a balance or ordering a statement) using a credit or debit card. The table below summarises this process.

Sequence at ATM What goes on behind the scenesCustomer puts card into ATM Contact is made with ban’s computerPIN is entered using the keyboard PIN is checked to see if it is correct

Card is checked to see if it is validA number of options are given Change PIN Top up mobile See balance Get moneyThe customer selects the cash optionA number of cash amounts are shownThe customer accepts one of the options or types in a different amount

Customer account is accessed to see if there are sufficient fundsAlso checked to see if customer is trying to withdraw more than their daily limit

The customer is asked if they want a receiptThe card is returned Transaction is OKMoney is dispensed Customer’s account is updated

Disadvantages of ATMs They are sometimes in places where theft can go unnoticed ‘Fake’ ATMs can be set up to gather information about the card and retain the card Some banks charge customers for the use of ATMs Someone else could see the PIN being entered and could use this to commit fraud at a later

date (shoulder surfing)

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Chip and PINMany credit cards are equipped with a Chip as well as a magnetic stripe. The chip contains key information such as the PIN. This system is designed to enhance security since it is better than relying only on a signature.

When paying for items using a CHIP and PIN card a form of Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) takes place. In the example below, a customer is paying for a meal in a restaurant using a CHIP and PIN card.

Waiter inserts card into the chip and PIN reader Restaurant’s bank contacts customer’s bank Card is checked to see if it is valid (i.e. not expired, stolen, etc.) If card has expired or has been stolen then the transaction is terminated The customer enters their PIN using a keypad The PIN is read from the CHIP and compared with the one just keyed in If they are the same the transaction can proceed. If they are different, the transaction is

terminated (or the user may be asked to try again) A check is then made on whether the customer has enough funds in their account If there are enough funds, the transaction proceeds. If there aren’t enough funds, the

transaction is terminated An authorisation code is sent to the restaurant The price of the meal is deducted from the customer’s account The same amount of money is credited to the restaurant’s account A receipt is printed as proof of purchase

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Library systemsMany library systems are computer controlled and involve the use of barcodes on the books being borrowed and on the borrower’s library card.

The following describes a computerised library system based on barcodes:

There are two tables in a relational databaseo Book file (barcode, book title, Author, Date published, number of books, Date due

back)o Borrower’s file (borrower’s number, borrower’s name, borrower’s details, barcode

of book borrowed) When a borrower takes out a book, the book’s barcode is scanned. The books details are

then found on the book file The borrower’s library card barcode is then scanned for the borrower’s unique number. The book file is linked to the borrower’s file and both files are updated to indicate which

book has been borrowed and when it is due back On a daily basis the borrower’s file is interrogated (checked) by the computer to see which

books are overdue for return:o The computer reads a record from the book file.o It compares the date due back with the current dateo If the date due back is less than or equal to the current date (i.e. before today’s

date) ….o Using the barcode number of the book ….o The book file is linked to the borrower’s file ….o And the corresponding record is read from the borrower’s file.o The customer’s details are then found and a letter or email is automatically sent out.o The next record in the book file is then read ….o Until the whole file has been checked.

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Expert SystemsThese systems are designed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a particular field. Examples include:

Diagnosing a person’s illness Diagnosing (fining faults) in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.) Prospecting for oil and minerals Tax and financial calculations Chess games Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds Road scheduling for delivery vehicles

A basic expert system is made up of a number of elements, as shown in the diagram below:

DefinitionsKnowledge base: “This is a database designed to allow the complex storage and retrieval requirements of a computerised knowledge-based management system.”

Inference engine: “This is software that attempts to derive answers from the knowledge base using a form of reasoning. It is how expert systems appear to use human like reasoning when accessing information from the knowledge base in an effort to find a conclusion to a given problem. The inference engine is a type of reasoning engine.”

Rules base: “This is made up of a series of ‘inference rules’ (e.g. IF the country is in South America AND the language used is Portuguese THEN the country must be Brazil). These inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions. They closely follow human-like reasoning.”

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UserInterface

UserInterface

UserInterface

UserInterface

Advantages of expert systems: Provide consistent answers Never forget to answer a

question Reduces time taken to solve a

problem Less skilled workforce required

which could save money. Allows access to expertise in

areas of the world that normally couldn’t afford it.

Disadvantages of expert systems: Make lack common sense when

making decisions Errors in the knowledge base

leads to incorrect decisions Can be expensive to set up Lots of training required to make

sure that it is being used correctly by the operators.

How to set up an expert system Experts in the field are interviewed to find out what is needed in the expert system. Data is then collected from these experts A knowledge base is designed and then created The rules base is designed and then created An inference engine is designed and then created The user interface (input screen and output format) is designed and then created The expert system is tested against known conditions and scenarios It is also checked to see it if meets the original specification (i.e. what it was designed to do) Experts are interviewed about how effective it is before the expert system goes out on

general release.

Example of an expert system: oil prospecting An interactive user screen appears Questions are asked about geological profiles Answers to the questions and information about geological profiles are typed in Inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base The system:

o Suggests the probability of finding oil as an outputo Indicates the probable depth of depositso Makes predictions about geological deposits above the soilo Produces contour maps showing the concentration of minerals, rocks, oil, etc.

Past Paper questions – The ways in which ICT is used

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