CH 511 – The History of Christianity 2UNIT FOURSlides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez

The Medieval Sacramental System

Transubstantiation• Defined by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1215• CLASSIC DEFINITION: The conversion of the whole substance

of the bread and wine into the whole substance of the Body and Blood of Christ, only the accidents (i.e. appearances) of the bread and wine remaining

Avignon Papacy

Celestine V and Boniface VIII

Conflict of ideals• Celestine V (r. 1294) aspired to reform the church through

Franciscan simplicity; considered one of the humblest men to ever occupy the throne of St. Peter; he resigned the papacy after serving only five months and eight days

• Boniface VIII (1294-1303) had Celestine imprisoned and may have had Celestine murdered

• Not many were happy with Boniface’s election• The powerful Colonna family in Italy who had their own designs

on the papacy• The extreme Franciscans (the “Fraticelli”)• Many saw Celestine’s election as a fulfillment of a prophecy

announced by Joachim of Fiore that the “Age of the Spirit” had begun; Thus many did not accept his abdication

Boniface VIII (1294-1303)• The first part of his reign was successful• Dealt with the powerful Colonna family• Dealt with a rebellion in Germany• Held off the war between England and France• Declared a Year of Jubilee in 1303, granting a plenary indulgence

to anyone who visited the tomb of St. Peter• Relations between Boniface and Philip of France grew tense• Issued a the bull Unam Sanctum which asserted papal claims to

universal power, both ecclesiastical and political• After various mutual recriminations, Boniface attempted to

excommunicate Philip in September 1303 • Boniface was kidnapped by his enemies (Sciarra Colonna and

William Nogaret), on the eve of the excommunication, demanding his resignation

“The Slap of Anagni”• Boniface responded to the demand to resign by saying that he

would “sooner die”• This response elicited a famous slap • Boniface was then beaten badly, humiliated and nearly

executed; locals managed to secure his release after three days: He died in October 1303 of kidney stones

In the Aftermath of Anagni• The next pope, Benedict XI, restored the fortunes of many of

Boniface’s enemies, but refused to try the former pope posthumously; died after brief pontificate (perhaps poisoned)

• The “pro-French” party obtained an agreement from the cardinals on the election of Clement V • Clement never visited Rome even once; moved the papal curia to

Avignon, France in 1309• Clement agreed to try Boniface posthumously; though Boniface

was exonerated• Clement forgave Nogaret and his companions and commended

Philip of France• Under Clement, the Templars were tried and condemned

The first Avignon Pope: Clement V (1305-1314)

The “Babylonian Captivity” of the Church• Clement V moved the papal curia to Avignon in 1309• Clement had named twenty-four cardinals, all but one was

French, and several were his relatives• For nearly seventy years the popes would generally remain in

Avignon, and willingly serve as the tools of French policy

Avignon Popes• John XIII (1316-1334) – Elected at 72 and ruled for 18 years!• Benedict XII (1334-1342) – Built the great papal palace in

Avignon; alienated England and Germany during the 100 Years War

• Clement VI (1342-1352) – Tried to mediate the 100 Years War; many saw the Black Plague as divine punishment for the papacy’s absence from Rome

• Innocent VI (1352-1362) – Attempted to return to Rome, but died before accomplishing it

• Urban V (1362-1370) – Reforming pope; returned to Rome in 1365; the Romans received him with joy, but in the long run he failed to win their loyalty, so returned to Avignon

• Gregory XI (1370-1378) – Made a cardinal by his uncle, Clement VI when seventeen

Catherine of Sienna (1347-1380)

Catherine of Sienna• Joined the “Sisters of the Penance of St. Dominic” (A tertiary

order of the Dominicans) as a young girl• Two years later had a vision in which Jesus joined her in mystical

marriage and ordered her to serve others• Became a famous teacher of mysticism, gathering around her

followers (both men and women), some of whom were more educated than she; her Dominican followers kept her well versed in theological questions so that she could avoid heresy

• In 1370, she had a vision in which she claimed that her mission was to restore the papacy to Rome; she set out on a pilgrimage to bring about peaceful resolution of many of Italy’s wars and feuds

• Finally, in 1377, Gregory XI returned to Rome, ending the Babylonian Captivity; Catherine died three years later`

The Effects of the Avignon Papacy• Papacy had become a tool of French policies; other nations

began to view the papacy as a competing “foreign power”• As a result, nationalism was on the rise in Europe; resentment

towards the papacy• Revenues from unfilled vacancies poured into Avignon, France;

no motivation to fill vacant posts or to move back to Rome• Simony once again became prevalent in the church; to this

abuse was added the abuses of pluralism (the holding of more than one benefice or post), absenteeism, and nepotism

The Great Western Schism

Causes of the Great Schism• Gregory XI had actually considered returning to Avignon as

conditions in Rome proved to be less than ideal; he died before he had the chance

• The people of Rome feared that the majority of French cardinals would elect someone who would return the papacy to Avignon

• Fearing that the French cardinals were planning to escape Italy, a mob invaded the place where the conclave met and demanded the election of a Roman or at least an Italian

• Under duress, the cardinals elected the archbishop of Bari, an Italian, who took the name Urban VI; his coronation was one of great pomp in which all the cardinals, both French and Italian, participated

Urban VI (1378-1389)

The inflammatory reforming actions of Urban VI• In an effort to curb absenteeism, Urban declared all bishops

who formed part of his court (i.e. not in their dioceses) to be “traitors to Christ”

• He denounced the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and declared that those who received any gifts whatsoever were guilty of simony

• In an effort to curb French influence, he appointed a vast number of Italian cardinals

• Meanwhile, he appointed many of his relatives to positions of importance, thereby opening him up to the charge of nepotism

• Many of his cardinals charged that Urban had gone mad, and began to form an opposition party against him

The plot against Urban• Both French and Italian cardinals joined the opposition against

Urban, fled Rome and gathered in Anagni• There they declared that they had elected Urban under

coercion and thus his election was not valid• They then proceeded to elect a new pope (the Italians present

abstained, but did not protest), who took the name of Clement VII

• Thus an unprecedented situation developed; for the first time there were two popes elected by the same cardinals

• The new pope took up arms against Urban and attacked Rome; he was repulsed and resided in Avignon

• All of western Europe would now have to take sides

Divided Europe

Avignon Papacy

• France• Scotland• Castile & Aragon (at first

supporters of Urban)• A number of German

nobles who had reason to oppose the emperor

Roman Papacy

• England• Scandinavia• Flanders• Hungary• Poland• Holy Roman Empire

(Germany)

Divided Europe• Portugal changed allegiances repeatedly• In Italy, each city and each ruler followed its own course and

changed allegiances as political factors dictated• The Kingdom of Naples sided with Avignon (for the most part)

Urban’s Mess• Catherine of Sienna devoted herself to Urban’s cause before

her death; but Urban did not make things easy• Urban decided to created a principality for his nephew, and

thus became embroiled in a series of senseless wars; when some of his cardinals suggested he change this policy, Urban had them arrested and they died of suspicious means

• Urban died in 1389, and his cardinals elected Boniface IX• By taking the name Boniface, the new pope indicated that he

would follow the anti-French policies of the earlier Boniface

Two Lines of Popes• The Great Schism went beyond the election of two competing

popes to the election of their successors, and thus was created two competing lines of popes

• The Great Schism encouraged ecclesiastical abuses, especially that of simony as the competing popes were always in need of funds

Papal Claimants during the Great Schism (1378-1417)

Avignon Line (Anti-Popes)

• Clement VII (1378-1394)

• Benedict XIII (1394-1423)

• AbdicatedThree others not recognized by any nation:Clement VIIIBenedict XIV (Bernard Garnier)Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier)

Roman Popes

• Urban VI (1378-1389)

• Boniface IX (1389-1404)

• Innocent VII (1404-1406)

• Gregory XII (1406-1415)

• Interregnum (1415-1417)

• Martin V (1417-1431)

Proposal of the University of Paris (1394)Three possible solutions to the Great Schism:1. Both Popes resign, and a conclave consisting of both sets of

cardinals proceed with the election of a new one2. Question be settled by negotiation and arbitration3. A General Council be called to decide the matter

Charles VI of France attempts to intervene…• When Clement VII of Avignon died, Charles VI of France asked the

Avignon cardinals not to elect a new one, hoping that he could convince the Pope of Rome to abdicate

• The Avignon cardinals, feeling that their case could be weakened, went ahead an elected Benedict XIII anyway

• Charles responded by besieging Avignon, but had to abandon the siege due to changing political fortunes

• Meanwhile, the Roman popes began a series of maneuvers to make it appear that they wanted to end the schism

• Both sides, however, refused to negotiate, which ended up alienating many of the cardinals on both sides

• The Roman cardinals were the first to break with their pope begin negotiations with the Avignon Party; meanwhile France withdrew her support for Benedict

• The stage was set for the “Conciliar Movement”

Conciliarism

The Call for a General Council• Not since the days of Constantine did the church place so

much of hope on the convening of a universal council to settle the decades long Babylonian Captivity

• As it began to be articulated in western theology, conciliar theory (or conciliarism) held that a universal council, representing the entire church, had more authority than the pope

• The question was: who had the authority to call a council of the whole church? In the Western Church, councils were summoned by popes; in the Eastern Church, councils had been summoned by emperors

• The difficulty was solved when cardinals of both parties issued a joint call to a great council to be held in Pisa in 1409

Council of Pisa (1409)• When the council gathered in Pisa, it had the support of both

colleges of cardinals and well as most of the courts of Europe – a very hopeful sign that was soon to be dashed

• Rather than try to determine who was the rightful pope, the council declared that both were unworthy, and thus both were deposed

• The council then went on to deal with the issues of simony and other abuses

• Meanwhile, the cardinals elected another pope who took the name Alexander V

• Convinced that they had ended the schism, the council adjourned

And then there were three…• Most of Europe accepted the decisions of Pisa and the new

pope, Alexander V• However, both rival Popes (Rome and Avignon) refused to

accept the decisions of the council of Pisa, and both had enough support to insist on their claims

• Alexander died less than a year after his election; the cardinals then proceeded to elect his successor, John XXIII

The Pisan Antipopes: Alexander V (1409-1410) and John XXIII (1410-1415)

The Intervention of Sigismund of Germany• John XIII found himself forced to flee Italy and seek asylum

from Emperor Sigismund of Germany, who at the time was the most powerful monarch of Europe

• Sigismund decided that it was time for another council to decide the issue once and for all, and required of John XXIII his agreement on the issue as a condition of asylum

• John XXIII was to convene the council, which would gather in Constance in 1414

Council of Constance (1414) finally settles the matter…• By convening the council, John XXIII assumed that those assembled

would support his claim to the papal throne; he was mistaken• The council was of a reformist mindset, and thus called for his

resignation; John fled• John was a fugitive for months, but eventually captured, brought back

to Constance and forced to resign; he was then condemned to prison for the rest of his life

• Gregory XII, the Roman pope, resigned as he promised to do if his rivals did likewise

• The council then elected Martin V• Benedict XIII refused to resign and took refuge in a fortress where he

continued to claim his legitimacy; no one paid much attention to him; he died in 1423

• Benedict had up to three successors, though since their elections were dubious, he is considered the last of the Avignon line.

The Three Reforming Councils• The Council of Constance (1414) – attempted to reform the

church, legislate against abuses, and rid the church of heretics; John Huss was condemned; Also decreed that councils should meet every ten years or so to continue the work of reformation

• The Council of Basel (1431) – Called by Martin V, but dissolved by his successor, Eugene IV; it refused to adjourn and ended up electing an antipope (Felix V – gave up claim in 1449)

• The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1439) – Eugene decreed the transfer of the Council of Basel to Ferrara (eventually to Florence); there the council attempted a formula of reunion between East and West as a condition for western aid to Constantinople

Waldensians

The Waldensians

• Unlike other medieval heresies (e.g. the Cathars), the Waldensians originated in no conscious hostility to the church

• Founder: Peter Waldo (more accurately Valdes), a wealthy merchant of Lyons; the name “Peter” was added by his followers of the late 14th century to link Waldo to the first apostle

Peter Waldo (c. 1140-1218)

Peter Waldo• Impressed by a song about St. Alexis sung by a traveling minstrel,

Waldo asked a master of theology “the best way to God.” The theologian quoted him, “If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heave; and come, follow me” (Matt 19:21)

• Selling all that he had, and making provision for his wife and endowing his daughters for life, he literally put this counsel into practice

• He procured vernacular translations of scripture passages and the fathers and walked the streets preaching a life of repentance for the forgiveness of sins

• Many thought he was mad, but he gained a following for his vita apostolica

• He soon aroused the suspicion and hostility of the archbishop and clergy of Lyons; Canon law restricted preaching to clergy

Waldensians• Waldo and his followers appealed to the Third Lateran Council,

who laughed at them as ignorant laymen but did not pronounce them heretics

• Pope Alexander III applauded their devotion to poverty but denied them the right to preach without first securing permission from their bishop

• At first they obeyed the restriction, but when permission was not granted they began to interpret the refusal of their right to preach as the word of man over against that of God

• They were excommunicated in 1182 and expelled from Lyons• The “Poor of Lyons” made their way to NE France and into

Germany, and southward into Lombardy• Condemned along with the Cathars in 1184 at the Council of

Verona by Pope Lucius III

Foreshadow of the Protestant Reformation?• Waldensian beliefs:• The Bible, particularly the New Testament, was the sole rule of

belief and life; every prescription must be followed to the letter• Preachers went out “two by two” in simple woolen robes,

barefooted or wearing sandals cut in a special pattern• Preached repentance unto life; rejected all oaths and shedding of

blood• Renounced marriage and all worldly goods; maintained themselves

through contributions of their sympathizers (“friends”, “believers”)• Did not consider episcopal ordination necessary; woman as well as

men were granted the right to preach• Lay celebration of the Lord’s Supper was permitted in regions

where the sacrament was not readily available from a Catholic priest

The Waning of the Medieval SynthesisThe Renaissance

The Renaissance• Meaning: “rebirth” – i.e. the rebirth of knowledge• Cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries• Flowering of art, science, literature, religion, and politics• Resurgence of learning from the classical period of Greek and

Roman antiquity (immediate past considered the “Dark Ages”)• Intellectual transformation that swept Europe, widely

considered the “bridge” between the Middle Ages and the Modern era

Characteristics of the Renaissance• Renaissance thinkers turned their gaze backward in historical

time; not to the immediate past which was arrogantly assumed to be "dark," but to the classical past of ancient Greece and Rome, which they assumed was bathed in light

• The Classic period was considered a “Golden Age.” Therein were found thinkers who had similar interests to the Renaissance thinker, and who had wrestled with identical problems

• Increasingly, Renaissance thinkers would view the medieval synthesis as too formal, too compartmentalized, too confining; it was too logical, too systematic, too Aristotelian

• The Renaissance would end up reacting strongly against the medieval synthesis -- against all “pigeon-holing”

Proto-Reformers

Two Types of Reform • One that addressed mainly moral and pastoral issues, such as

simony and absenteeism (Conciliar Movement)• One that also sought to reform not only the life, but also the

doctrines of the Church• John Wycliffe – 1328-1384• John Huss (Jan Hus) – 1369-1415

John Wycliffe (Wyclif), 1328-1384

Wycliffe’s Resume• Little is known of his early life• Spent most of his career in Oxford, England; famous for his

erudition and logic; not very good humored• In 1371, he left the university to serve the English Crown, first

as a diplomat then as a polemicist• This was during the time of the Avignon papacy, so Wycliffe’s

arguments on the nature and limits of lordship and dominion were well received by the English authorities

Wycliffe’s Position on Legitimate Dominion

• All legitimate dominion comes from God• Dominion is to be characterized by the example of Christ, who came

to serve, not to be served• Any dominion exercised for the profit of the ruler and not for the

good of the governed (commonwealth) is not true dominion, but rather usurpation

• The same is true of dominion that seeks to expand its power beyond the limits of its authority

• Therefore, any supposed ecclesiastical authority that collects taxes for its own benefit, or seeks to extend its power beyond the sphere of spiritual matters, is not legitimate

• Wycliffe applied this last principle to civil power, which must also be measured according to the service it renders to its subjects; Wycliffe eventually lost support of many of the English nobles for this view

The Radicalization of Wycliffe’s Views• Wycliffe’s views became more radical as the result of the

scandal of the Great Western Schism (1378)• The “true Church” is not the pope and his visible hierarchy, but

rather the invisible body of those who are predestined to salvation

• It is impossible to know for sure who is “predestined,” but there are indications or “fruits” of salvation in true believers

• Many ecclesiastical leaders were in truth “reprobate”; eventually Wycliffe would declare that the pope was among those who were probably reprobate

Wycliffe’s View of Scriptural Authority• Scripture is the possession of the Church and only the Church

can interpret Scripture correctly (as the Roman Church taught)• However, the Church that owns the Scriptures is the body of

all who are predestined• Therefore, the Bible ought to be put back into the hands of

believers, and in their own language• Wycliffe and his followers began to put this into practice by

translating portions of the Bible into English• By 1382, Wycliffe had managed to translate much of the New

Testament directly from the Latin Vulgate; Wycliffe’s Bible was complete by 1384

Wycliffe and the Mass• The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) had declared the doctrine

of Transubstantiation• Wycliffe would eventual reject this doctrine because he saw it

as a denial of the principle manifested in the incarnation• When God was joined to human nature, the presence of divinity

did not destroy the humanity• Likewise, when Christ unites himself with the bread and wine he

does not destroy them; in a sacramental or mysterious way, the Body (Blood) of Christ is present in communion; but so is the bread (wine)

• Wycliffe would be condemned in Oxford for this view; however, after a brief imprisonment, he was allowed to resume his studies and writings

Wycliffe’s End• In 1381, Wycliffe retired to his parish in Lutterworth, a

benefice that he had received from the Crown for services rendered (irony: Wycliffe profited from absenteeism)

• Wycliffe died of stroke in 1384 and buried in consecrated ground

• The Council of Constance (1415) later condemned him; had his remains disinterred and burned; ashes thrown in the River Swift

• The movement called the “Lollards” took their inspiration from Wycliffe

The Lollards• Pejorative name meaning “mumblers”• Believed in vernacular translations of the Bible, preached

against clerical celibacy, pilgrimages, and the abuse of images• Also rejected Transubstantiation and prayers for the dead• At first Lollardy had adherents among the gentry, but a

number of failed political uprisings brought it into disfavor• Lollardy remained an underground movement in England up

to the 16th century; eventually Lollards would swell the ranks of the Protestants in England

John Huss (1369-1415)

John Huss of Bohemia• Famous preacher and scholar; rector of the University of

Prague (1402)• At first he had no intention of changing the traditional

doctrines of the church; he only sought the reform of the Christian life, particularly that of the clergy

• King Richard II of England had married a Bohemian princess; through this political connection many Czechs were able to study in England where they came into contact with the writings of John Wycliffe

• The writings of Wycliffe caused a great stir in the University of Prague, dividing the Germans and the Czechs in their opinions of him

John Huss• The Germans questioned Wycliffe’s orthodoxy, to which Huss

responded that it was the right of scholars to study Wycliffe even if they did not agree with all of his positions

• Huss himself did not agree with Wycliffe on the question of Transubstantiation

• The King of Bohemia supported the Czech scholars, compelling the Germans to leave Prague and found the University of Leipzig; on leaving Prague they declared Prague to have become a hotbed of heresies

Conflict with the Pisan Papacy• The Council of Pisa (1409) had attempted to end the Great

Schism by deposing two popes and electing a third (Alexander V and later John XXIII); now there were three popes

• The Archbishop of Prague obtained a papal decree banning the works of Wycliffe and ordering the preaching should only take place in cathedrals, parish churches and monasteries

• Huss decided he could not obey and continued preaching at the chapel of Bethlehem (which did not fall into any one of these categories)

• In 1410, Huss was summoned to Rome to answer for his disobedience; he refused to go and was excommunicated in 1411

• With the support of his king and the people of Bohemia, he ignored the papal sentence and continued to preach and teach

The Radicalization of Huss’ Views

• While not questioning the legitimacy of the Pisan pope, he nonetheless concluded that an unworthy pope was not to be obeyed; popes acting in their own interests, and not for the welfare of the church, were not to be obeyed

• Huss concluded that the Bible was the final authority by which the pope as well as any Christian is to be judged

• Huss protested against John XXIII’s sale of indulgences to pay for his crusade against Naples; he came to conclude that only God can grant forgiveness, and to sell that which can only come from God is a usurpation

• Huss also criticized John XXIII for making war against fellow Christians; the king of Bohemia (who needed the pope’s support) ordered Huss to silence his protest

John Huss’ Condemnation• After another excommunication, Huss withdrew to the

countryside to write on the needed reformation of the Church• In 1414, Emperor Sigismund (of Germany and Hungary) called

for a council to meet in Constance in order to end the “three-popes controversy”; he invited Huss to defend his views at the council and granted him safe-conduct to attend

• Upon entering Constance, it was clear that John XXIII wanted to try Huss outside of the council in a papal consistory; Huss was taken into custody and ordered to recant; Huss responded that he would recant only if someone could show him that he was a heretic

• He was then treated as a prisoner; the emperor at first protested, but then washed his hands of the affair

John Huss’ Condemnation• On June 5, 1415, Huss finally appeared before the Council of

Constance • John XXIII (the Pisan pope) had fled the council upon his

deposition, but had been captured and returned as a prisoner• The hope was that the council would see Huss as the enemy of

the anti-pope John and thus be dismissed without charge• Instead, Huss was condemned for his refusal to recant

John Huss’ Martyrdom

“I appeal to Jesus Christ, the only judge who is almighty and completely just. In his hands I place my cause, since he will judge each, not on the basis of false witnesses and erring councils, but of truth and justice.”

• On July 6, Huss taken to the cathedral, dressed in priestly garments which were then torn from him, shaved of his tonsure, and had a paper crown decorated with demons placed on his head; refusing one last chance to recant, he was burned at the stake as he recited the Psalms

• Jerome of Prague, Huss’ colleague, was burned a few days later

The Martyrdom of Huss

“Lord Jesus, it is for thee that I patiently endure this cruel death. I pray thee to have mercy on my enemies.”

Rebellion in Bohemia• Taborites and Horebites – two groups that claimed Huss as

their inspiration• The threat of armed intervention led the various “Hussite”

groups to agree to Four Articles:1. The Word of God to be preached freely2. Communion in “both kinds” (bread and wine)3. Clergy should live in “apostolic poverty”4. Gross and public sin should be punished severely

• One general council and two failed crusades against Bohemia finally convinced the Catholics that negotiation with the Hussites was necessary

The Church in Bohemia• As a result of these negotiations, the Church of Bohemia

rejoined the rest of western Christendom, but allowed to retain communion in both kinds and other elements of the Four Articles

• Most Bohemians, particularly the nobility, accepted the agreement; many left the church to found the Unitas Fratrum (Union of Brethren)

• The Brethren grew rapidly, not only in Bohemia but also in Moravia

• The Brethren established close ties with the Protestants in the 16th century, and some would ally with Lutheranism

• Hapsburg persecution in the 16th century almost wiped them out; the “Moravians” would eventually come to the new world

The Later Course of Scholasticism

But first we need to back up a bit…(Review)

Albert the Great (1206-1280)

The Synthesis of Philosophy and Theology in High Middle Ages

Philosophy• Operates on the basis of

autonomous principles• Can be known apart

from revelation• Seek truth by a strict

rational method• Does not seek to prove

what the mind cannot understand

Theology• Starts its inquiry from

the basis of revealed truths• Revealed truths are

those which cannot be known by reason alone• Revealed truths are

more certain than those of reason (which may err)

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224-74)

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-74)• Born in Roccasecca, Italy (father: Landulf of Aquino)• Nickname in childhood: “The Dumb Ox”; his teacher, Albert,

would later say, “The bellowing of that ox will be heard throughout the world.”

• Joined the Dominican Order in 1244; imprisoned by his family for a year

• Studied in Paris, Cologne• Author: Summa contra Gentiles• Arguments in favor of the Christian faith (benefit missionaries)

• Author: Summa theologiae (aka theologica)• Three parts• Detailed study of key aspects of Christian theology

Thomas’ lasting contribution

1. The “Five Ways” – arguments for the existence of God2. The Principle of Analogy – theological foundation for

knowing God through creation3. The relation of faith and reason

Later trends in Scholasticism• Constant search for ever subtler questions to pose• Ever finer distinctions to answer them• Development of a dense style and technical vocabulary• Theology was no longer accessible to the “uninitiated”• The “marriage” between philosophy and theology started to

unravel• Philosophy – what reason can discover• Theology – what can only be known through divine revelation

• While Thomas and his generation had held that there was a basic continuity between faith and reason (e.g. that the existence of God could be reached by proper use of reason), soon other thinkers would question this basic assumption

Duns Scotus (c. 1265-1308)• Little is known of his early life; possibly born in Duns,

Berwickshire, Scotland• Franciscan (“old” Franciscan school)• Known as the “subtle doctor”• Taught at Cambridge, Oxford, and Paris

Duns Scotus – noteworthy developments• Champion of Aristotle’s theory of knowledge• Doctrine of Voluntarism – the divine will takes precedence

over the divine intellect• The Immaculate Conception of Mary• Main point of disagreement with earlier scholastics: that

doctrines such as the immortality of the soul or divine omnipresence could be proven true by the sole and proper use of reason

• At most, reason could show that they were possible, but could not prove them: (e.g. Immaculate Conception)

William of Occam (c. 1280-1349)• Born in Ockham, Surrey, England• Studied at the University of Oxford• Franciscan theologian & philospher• Developed many of the lines associated with Duns Scotus• Pioneered “Nominalism”

Contributions of Ockham• Ockham’s “Razor” – the principle of parsimony• The elimination of all hypotheses that were not absolutely

essential• No need for intermediate steps (e.g. justification)

• Nominalism – “Universals” were declared to be totally a unnecessary hypothesis

God’s “absolute” vs. “ordered” power• Absolute power knows no bounds; whatever God pleases to

do is possible (voluntarism), nothing is above this, even reason• It is only according to “ordered” power that God acts

“reasonably,” and thus does good• Strictly speaking, one should not say that God always does

good, but rather that whatever God does, no matter what it might be, is good.

• Similarly, it is incorrect to say that God has to act reasonably. Reason does not determine God’s actions; sovereign will of God that determines what is to be considered reasonable, and then by the “ordered” power of God, he acts accordingly

Results of this thinking…• All traditional arguments whereby theologians had tried to

prove that a doctrine was reasonable, or fitting, lost their power

• E.g. – the Incarnation: Since Anselm, it had been argued that the incarnation was reasonable, since it canceled humankind’s debt

• Theologians of the 14th-15th century would now say that it doesn’t matter how reasonable it may look from our perspective, God could have done whatever he pleased to save man or not save man• Could have simply canceled our debt, or called “meritorious”

what was not meritorious

The Question of Authority• Paramount question in the 14th-15th centuries• If reason cannot determine that a doctrine was true or false,

one must make such determinations on the basis of infallible authorities

• Occam himself believed that both popes and councils could err, so only the Bible was infallible

• The Great Western Schism gave further impetus to the idea that a universal council was the final authority to which all opposition must yield

Conciliarism• The question of final authority is the basis for Huss’s

martyrdom• The power of reason was of little value to end the schism,

since it could not prove or disprove doctrine, so a final infallible authority must be invoked to settle the matter

• Had Huss been able to argue against the council it would have called into question the council’s authority to end the schism

The Mystical Alternative

Meister Eckhart (1260-1327)

Eckhart von Hochbheim (Meister Eckhart)• Essentially a Neoplatonist; essential goal to contemplate the

divine• All words about God are “inexact”; all language about God is

analogical• True knowledge of God is not rationally conceived, but rather

intuitive• God is not known by rational argument, but by mystical

contemplation in which one is finally lost in the divine

“Within that true essence of the godhead, which is beyond all being and every distinction, there I already existed. There I willed myself. There I knew myself. There I wished to create the man I am. For that reason, I am my own cause according to my being, which is eternal, although not according to my becoming, which is temporal.” (Sermon on Blessed are the Poor in Spirit)

Accused of heresy…• Such statement led naturally to charges of pantheism and

belief in the eternality (and divinity) of the soul• Eckhart protested that he had been misinterpreted• Convicted as a heretic toward the end of his life; appealed to

Rome, but died before his case was settled• After his death Eckhart’s teachings would be expounded in

more accessible terms by his followers, particularly by John Tauler and Henry Suso

Johannes Tauler (1300-1361)

Other mystics of the period• John of Ruysbroeck – follower of Eckhart, but his message was

more practical and related to everyday life• Gerhard Groote – along with Ruysbroeck, gave shape to what

came to known as “modern devotion”, consisting mainly in a life of disciplined devotion centered on the contemplation of the life of Christ (e.g. The Imitation of Christ)

Ruysbroeck and Groote

Brethren of the Common Life• Like others before him, Groote set out to attack corruption in

the church and called his followers to renewed holiness and devotion

• However, he did not call his followers to the monastic life; rather they were to stay within their several “callings” and follow the principles of “modern devotion”

• Many of his followers eventually did take monastic vows, but continued to dedicate themselves to helping those who pursued the “common life,” founding schools of training which became centers of renewal for the church

• The Brethren gained a reputation for fostering a critical and reforming spirit among their followers

• In time, the humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam would become their most famous alumnus

Thomas `a Kempis (1380-1471)

`a Kempis’ The Imitation of Christ• Author of The Imitation of Christ, the most important mystical

work of the Middle Ages• Four Books:• Helpful Counsels of the Spiritual Life• Directives for the Interior Life• On Interior Consolation• On the Blessed Sacrament

The Influence of Mysticism• The mystic movement was not overtly opposed to the church

or its hierarchy; though often criticized the abuses of the clergy

• That being said, the spirit of mysticism often found within itself the inner peace of its devotion

• Thus the tendency of mysticism was in effect to weaken the authority of the church; if through direct contemplation one can achieve communion with the divine, then what use are the traditional means of grace in the sacraments, preaching and even the Scriptures?

Revival of Classical LearningRenaissance and Humanism

Paradigm shift…• At its height (13th-14th centuries), the Scholastic movement of

the Middle Ages had produced some highly significant contributions to Christian theology

• A sense of tiredness and loss of intellectual energy sets in during the 15th century

• Meanwhile, the Renaissance was taking hold on many centers of education and learning, creating pressure for new theological paradigms

• Revival of the glories of “classical antiquity”• HUMANISM would provide both the impetus and the tools for

the drastic paradigm shift that would be “The Age of the Reformation”

• “Middle Ages” – the thousand years since the fall of Rome; seen as a negative “intermission” between classical antiquity and their own time

• “Gothic” – also a derisive term (as it was a barbarian tribe)• “Renaissance” – rebirth (intellectual, artistic)• “Humanism” – study of the humanities, what we call today the

“liberal arts”

Fall of Constantinople (1453)

Fifteenth Century• Byzantine exiles flooded into Italy, bringing with them their

knowledge of classical Greek literature• Awakened an interest in classical learning• Johannes Gutenberg (1436) – invention of the moveable-type

printing press

The impact of the printing press• Proliferation of books; proliferation of varying manuscripts of

important works, including the Bible• The degree of variance between manuscripts was an “eye-

opener”• Now that several hundred copies could be made of everything,

the question naturally arises: Which manuscripts should we mass produce? Which are the most accurate? How do we determine the “best reading” of two or more variations?

• The rise of the science of textual criticism, and the production of “critical editions” of Cicero, Jerome, and the New Testament

• Also called into question were the authenticity of some texts that had, for centuries, been taken for granted as genuine (e.g. Donation of Constantine)

Donation of Constantine• Forged imperial decree in which Constantine supposedly gave

the pope jurisdiction over Rome and the entire West• Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) studied the document and came to

the conclusion that its style and vocabulary showed that it was much later than the time of Constantine; Valla also offered strong arguments against the legend that the Apostles’ Creed had been composed by the original 12 apostles

A New Vision of Reality• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Michelangelo (1475-1564)

Humanismhttp://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQZ1OYy8T48ZspMrqNFn_oU8-xcHGQUgnFQu4sM3lhVz7r4qX4ToQ

Spirit of Humanism

• Inherent distrust of the clergy and clerical aspirations• Disdain for monasticism• Opposed to the allegorical interpretation of Scripture• Tendency towards philosophical pragmatism; but walk a

tight rope between pragmatism and idealism• Genuine interest in the study of the arts, and thus

indirectly concerned with the general welfare of man. The latter concern most often limited to theory, not practice• Championed simplicity in doctrine and practice• Favored political independence and the right

responsibility of free thought

Renaissance Popes

Nicholas V (1447-1455)• Spent most of his reign trying to gain political power for Rome

over the other Italian states• Goal to turn the city into the intellectual capital of the world

Calixtus III (1455-1458)• First pope of the infamous Borgia family from Spain• Dream of becoming a great secular prince; managed to unify

Italy in order to resist a possible Turkish attack• Paid more attention to military campaigns than his priestly

duties• Intera Caetera (1456) – reaffirmed Portuguese “right” to

enslave infidels and Africans

Pius II (1458-1464)• Last of the Renaissance popes to take his office seriously• Condemned the enslavement of newly baptized Christians

Paul II (1464-1471)• Nephew of Eugene IV (1431-1447)• At an early age he decided a career in ecclesiastical office was

more lucrative than one in trade• Main interest was collection of arts; main occupation was the

restoration of the monuments of pagan Rome• His concubines were publicly acknowledged in papal court

Sixtus IV (1471-1484)• Bought the papacy by promising gifts and privileges• Corruption and nepotism characterized his reign; the church

became a “family business” with nephews being elevated to prestigious positions

• Once excommunicated the whole city of Florence in a bloody feud with the Medici family

• Sistine Chapel is named for him

Innocent VIII (1484-1492)• Took an oath before his election that he would not elevate any

member of his family; broke it as soon as he was elected declaring that as pope he was not bound by it

• Acknowledged several of his illegitimate children• Sale of indulgences became a shameless business• Ordered Christendom “cleansed” of witchcraft

Alexander VI (1492-1503)• Rodrigo Borgia• Bought the cardinals’ votes; under him papal corruption

reached its peak; said to have committed publicly all the capital sins except gluttony (his digestion was not good)

• Acknowledged his illegitimate children in the papal court, and elevated many of them

• “Alexander is ready to sell the keys, the altars, and even Christ himself. He is within his rights, since he bought them.”

• He had secret dealings with the Turkish sultan• Italy was bathed in blood during his reign

Pius III (1503)• Alexander and his favorite son, Cesare, died of the same

disease (perhaps they were both poisoned)• Cesare had hoped to succeed his father, but the election fell to

Pius III, who showed early on that he would be a reformer• However, Pius died after being pope for 26 days

Julius II (1503-1513)• A “worthy successor” of Alexander VI• Took the name to indicate that his model would be Julius

Caesar, rather than a Christian saint• Patron of the arts; Michelangelo finished painting the Sistine

Chapel during his reign• Favorite past-time was war; nearly united Italy by the sword,

but opposed by France and Germany

Leo X (1513-1521)• Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Giovanni de Medici• Patron of the arts; tried to consolidate the political and

military gains of Julius II• Defeated by France, he was forced to sign an agreement that

gave the French king enormous authority in French ecclesiastical affairs

• Generally incompetent in both war and diplomacy, he turned his attention to his building projects in Rome

• His great dream was to complete the basilica of St. Peter’s in Rome; the financing of which would come from the sale of indulgences

• This would turn out to be the presenting cause for Luther’s protest in Wittenberg, Germany

Reformation in the Sixteenth Century

Reformation – or Reformations?

• “Reformation” traditionally used to refer to the western European movement centering upon individuals such as:• Martin Luther• Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli• John Calvin

Various Reformations• The German Reformation, which gave rise to Lutheranism• The Swiss Reformation, which gave birth to the Reformed

version of Christianity (Calvinism)• The “Radical Reformation,” often referred to as “Anabaptism”• The English Reformation, which gave rise to “Anglicanism”• The “Catholic Reformation,” often referred to as the “Counter

Reformation”• The “Second Reformation” within Protestantism through

which emerged the Confessional traditions

Martin Luther (1483-1546)