ch 2 scientific thinking

8/7/2019 Ch 2 Scientific Thinking

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Scientific Thinking

Written by: Mariyan Ivanov

Students number:1023315

JMSc European Business and Finance


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Styles of thinking


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Empiricism-to donate observations and propositions based onsense experience and/or derived from such experience by methods

of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics.

Rationalism-reason is a primary source of knowledge. Rationalism

differs from empiricism in that rationalists believe all knowledge

can be deduced from known laws or basic truths of nature. This is

claimed to be possible because underlying laws structure the

world logically.


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Untested opinion-form of knowing that people cling todespite contrary evidence.

Self-evident truth- is one that is known to be true by

understanding its meaning without proof.

Persons of authority- too often authority depends onstatus or position rather than on true expertise. Such

authorities are often wrong, so it is wise to accept their

views cautiously. Authorities serve as important sources

of knowledge but should be judged by their integrity,

the quality of the evidence they present and their

willingness to present an open and balanced case.


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The literary style of thinking- literary perspective is one

where a person, a movement, or a whole culture is

interpreted, but largely in terms of the specific purposes and

perspectives of the actors, rather than in terms of the abstractand general categories of the scientists own explanatory

scheme

Scientific method-the essential principals:1-direct observation

of phenomena,2-clearly defined variables, methods andprocedures,3-empiracally testable hypothesis,4-the ability to

rule out rival hypothesis,5-the statistical rather than linguistic

justification of conclusions and 6-self-correcting process.


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Postulational style-studies in operations research,

management science, mathematical modeling, and

simulation are postulational. One goal of the objective is to

reduce the object of study to mathematical, formal terms.

These terms (postulates), are used to devise theorems that

represent logical proofs. The objective is to deduce a

structure that may account for any phenomenon having

similar forms.


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Induction-to induce is to

draw a conclusion from

one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.

The conclusion explains

the facts, and the facts

support the conclusion.


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Combining induction and

deduction-induction occurswhen we observe a fact and

ask Why is this?. In answer

to this question, we advance a

tentative explanation(hypothesis).

The hypothesis is plausible if it

explains the event or condition

(fact) that prompted thequestion. Deduction is the

process by which we test

whether the hypothesis is

capable of explaining the fact.


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Reflective thinking and the Scientific method

Encounters a curiosity, doubt, barrier, suspicion or obstacle

Struggles to state the problem

Proposes hypothesis to explain the facts that are believed tobe logically related to the problem

Deduces outcomes or consequences of the hypothesis

Formulates several rival hypothesis

Feeds information back into the original problem Draws a conclusion, an inductive inference, based on

acceptance or rejection


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Understanding theory: components and

connections

Concept- a bundle of meanings

or characteristics associated with

certain events, objects,

conditions, situations, and the

like.

Sources of concept-borrow from

other languages or other fields.Adopt new meaning for words or

develop new labels for concepts.


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Problems in concept use

People differ in the meanings

they include under the

particular label.

Challenging concepts that are

familiar, but not well

understood, such as leadership,

motivation, personality, social

class and fiscal policy.


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Constructs An image or idea specifically

invented for a given research

and/or theory-building purpose.

We build constructs by

combining the simpler

concepts, especially when the

idea or image we intend to

convey is not directly subject toobservation.


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Variables

A symbol to which numbers or values are assigned. Inpractice, the term variable is used as a synonym forconstruct or the property being studied.

Dichotomous Male/Female

Employed/Unemployed

DiscreteEthnic background

Educational level

Religious affiliation

Continuous

Income

Temperature

Age


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Independent and Dependent Variable

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Presumed cause Presumed effect

Stimulus Response

Predicted from Predicted to

Antecedent Consequence

Manipulated Measured outcome


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Moderating variables-is a second independent variable that isincluded because it is believe to have a significant

contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IV-

DV relationship.

Extraneous variables-are variables other than the independentvariable that may bear any effect on the behavior of the subject

being studied

Intervening variables-that factor which theoretically affects the

observed phenomenon, but cannot be seen, measured or

manipulated; its effect must be inferred from the effects of theindependent and moderator variables on the observed

phenomenon


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Propositions and Hypothesis

Preposition- a statement about

concepts that may be judged as true or

false if it refers to observe

phenomena. When proposition is

formulated for empirical testing, we

call it hypothesis.

Hypothesis have also been describedas statements in which we assign

variables of cases. A case is defined in

this sense as the entity or thing the

hypothesis talks about.


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Descriptive hypothesis-propositions that typically statethe existence, size, form, or distribution of some

variables

Relational hypothesis- statements that describe a

relationship between two variables with respect to somecase. Correlational and explanatory relationship.


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The role of the hypothesis

Several important functions:

it guides the direction of the study

it identifies facts that are relevant and those that are

not; in so doing, it suggest which form of research

design is likely to be most appropriate provide a framework for organizing the conclusions

that result


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What is a good hypothesis?

Should fulfill three conditions:

To be adequate for its purpose

Must be testable

Must be better than its rivals


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Theory A set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions

and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict

phenomena (facts).

Roles:

Orientation; it narrows the range of facts we need to study

Suggest a system for the researcher to impose on data in

order to classify them in the most meaningful way Summarize what is known about the object of study

Predict further facts


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Models

Representation of system that is constructed to study

some aspect of that system or the system as a whole.

Major functions- description, explication and

simulation


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Thank you for yourattention !


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References Business Research Methods-Donald R. Cooper, Pamela S.

Schindler; McGraw Hill Higher Education; 9th edition;

A miniature guide to Scientific thinking : For Students and

Faculty By Dr . Richard Paul and Dr. Linda Elder

http://www.readyatfive.org/images/pdfs/scientific_thinking.pdf

http://www.ejmste.com/v4n3/EURASIA_v4n3_Coll.pdf

Scientists and Scientific Thinking: Understanding Scientific

Thinking Through an Investigation of Scientists Views AboutSuperstitions and Religious Beliefs; Richard K. Coll and Mark

C. Lay, Neil Taylor; April 2008

ch 2 scientific thinking

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