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Central PowersMittelmächte
Központi hatalmakİttifak Devletleri
Централни сили
Military alliance
1914–1918
Participants in World War IOrange: Central Powers and their colonies.
Green: Allies and their colonies.Gray: Neutral countries.
Capital none (de jure)
Berlin (de facto)
Political structure Military alliance
Historical era World War I - Established 28 June 1914 - Dual Alliance
(Germany / Austria-Hungary) - Ottoman–German Alliance 2 August 1914 - Bulgaria–Germany treaty 6 September 1915 (secret)
14 October 1915 (public) - Joined by Finland,
Lithuania and Azerbaijan 1917 - Dissolved 11 November 1918
Central PowersFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Central Powers (German:Mittelmächte; Hungarian: Központihatalmak; Turkish: İttifak Devletleri orBağlaşma Devletleri; Bulgarian:Централни сили Tsentralni sili),consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary,the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria – hencealso known as the Quadruple Alliance[1]
(German: Vierbund) – was one of the twomain factions during World War I (1914–18). It faced and was defeated by theAllied Powers that had formed around theTriple Entente, after which it wasdissolved.
The Powers' origin was the alliance ofGermany and Austria-Hungary in 1879.The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did notjoin until after World War I had begun.
Contents
1 Member states2 Combatants
2.1 Germany2.1.1 Warjustifications2.1.2 Colonies anddependencies
2.2 Austria-Hungary2.2.1 Warjustifications
2.3 Ottoman Empire2.3.1 Warjustifications
2.4 Bulgaria2.4.1 Warjustifications
3 Declarations of war4 Co-belligerents
7 October 1879
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Leaders of the Central Powers (left to right):Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany;Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary;Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire;Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria.
4.1 Dervish State4.2 Sultanate of Darfur
5 Client states5.1 German client states5.2 Ottoman client states
6 Non-state combatants7 Armistice and treaties8 Leaders
8.1 Austria-Hungary8.2 German Empire8.3 Ottoman Empire8.4 Bulgaria8.5 Jabal Shammar8.6 Dervish State8.7 Sultanate of Darfur8.8 Azerbaijan
9 See also10 References
Member states
The Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginningof the war. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in 1914. In 1915, the Kingdom ofBulgaria joined the alliance. The name "Central Powers" is derived from the location of these countries;all four (including the other groups that supported them except for Finland and Lithuania) were locatedbetween the Russian Empire in the east and France and the United Kingdom in the west. Finland,Azerbaijan, and Lithuania joined them in 1918 before the war ended and after the Russian Empirecollapsed.
The Central Powers were composed of the following nations:[2]
Nation Entered WWI Austria-Hungary 28 July 1914 German Empire 1 August 1914
Ottoman Empire 2 August 1914 (secret)29 October 1914 (public)
Kingdom of Bulgaria 14 October 1915
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Allied and Central Powers during World War I
Allied Powers
Allied colonies, dominions, territories or occupations
Central Powers
Central Powers' colonies or occupations
Neutral countries
Europe in 1914.
Economic statistics of the Central Powers [3]
Population(millions)
Land area(million km2)
GDP(billion $)
German Empire / plus colonies (1914) 67.0 / 77.7 0.5 / 3.5 244.3 / 250.7 Austria–Hungary (1914) 50.6 0.6 100.5 Ottoman Empire (1914) 23.0 1.8 25.3 Kingdom of Bulgaria (1915) 4.8 0.1 7.4
Total (1914) 151.3 6.0 376.6
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German soldiers in the battlefield inAugust 1914 on the Western Frontshortly after the outbreak of war.
German cavalry entering Warsaw in1915.
Military statistics of the Central Powers [4]
Mobilized Killed inaction Wounded Missing
in actionTotal
casualties Percentage
GermanEmpire 13,250,000 1,808,546 4,247,143 1,152,800 7,208,489 66%
Austria–Hungary 7,800,000 922,500 3,620,000 2,200,000 6,742,500 86%
OttomanEmpire 2,998,321 325,000 400,000 250,000 975,000 34%
Kingdom ofBulgaria 1,200,000 75,844 153,390 27,029 255,263 21%
Total 25,257,321 3,131,890 8,419,533 3,629,829 15,181,252 66%
Combatants
Germany
War justifications
In early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination ofAustro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the immediatelikelihood of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, KaiserWilhelm II and the German government informed the Austro-Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliancewith Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russiaintervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia tookplace.[5] When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germanyviewed the act as provocative.[6] The Russian governmentpromised Germany that its general mobilization did not meanpreparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to theevents between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.[6] The Germangovernment regarded the Russian promise of no war withGermany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, andGermany in turn mobilized for war.[6] On August 1, Germanysent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany andRussia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective stateof war existed between the two countries.[7] Later that day,France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of generalmobilization,[7]
In August 1914, Germany waged war on Russia, the German government justified military actionagainst Russia as necessary because of Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of theRussian army that had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.[8]
After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a generalmobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaringwar on France.[9] Germany facing a two-front war enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, that
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German cruiser SMS Seydlitz heavilydamaged after the Battle of Jutland.
German Fokker Dr.I fighter aircraftof Jasta 26 at Erchin in German-occupied territory of France.
involved German armed forces needing to move through Belgium and swing south into France andtowards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French andallow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would notaccept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded thecountry to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against theGerman Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839guaranteeing Belgian neutrality and defense of the kingdom if a nation reneged.
Subsequently several states declared war on Germany, including:Japan declaring war on Germany in late August 1914; Italydeclaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 and Germany onAugust 27, 1916; the United States declaring war on Germany onApril 6, 1917 and Greece declaring war on Germany in July1917.
Colonies and dependencies
Europe
Upon its founding in 1871, the German Empire controlledAlsace-Lorraine as an "imperial territory" incorporated fromFrance after the Franco-Prussian War. It was held as part ofGermany's sovereign territory.
Africa
Germany held multiple African colonies at the time of WorldWar I. All of Germany's African colonies were invaded andoccupied by Allied forces during the war.
Cameroon, German East Africa, and German Southwest Africawere German colonies in Africa. Togoland was a Germanprotectorate in Africa.
Asia
German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in1914.
The Kiautschou Bay concession was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898. Itwas occupied by Japanese forces following the Siege of Tsingtao.
Austria-Hungary
War justifications
Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand as being orchestrated withthe assistance of Serbia.[5] The country viewed the assassination as setting a dangerous precedent ofencouraging the country's South Slav population to rebel and threaten to tear apart the multinationalcountry.[6] Austria-Hungary formally sent an ultimatum to Serbia demanding a full-scale investigation ofSerbian government complicity in the assassination, and complete compliance by Serbia in agreeing to
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Austro-Hungarian soldiers in trenchon the Italian front during World WarI.
Austro-Hungarian soldiers marchingup Mount Zion in Jerusalem in theOttoman Empire, during the MiddleEastern campaign.
Ottoman soldiers in militarypreparations for an assault on theSuez Canal in 1914.
the terms demanded by Austria-Hungary.[5] Serbia submitted toaccept most of the demands, however Austria-Hungary viewedthis as insufficient and used this lack of full compliance to justifymilitary intervention.[10] These demands have been viewed as adiplomatic cover for what was going to be an inevitable Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia.[10]
Austria-Hungary had been warned by Russia that the Russiangovernment would not tolerate Austria-Hungary crushingSerbia.[10] However with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary'sactions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russiawould not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would be aregional conflict.[5]
Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia resulted in Russia declaringwar on the country and Germany in turn declared war on Russia,setting off the beginning of the clash of alliances that resulted inthe World War.
Territory
Austria-Hungary was internally divided into two states with theirown governments, joined in communion through the Habsburgthrone. Austrian Cisleithania contained various duchies andprincipalities but also the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom ofDalmatia, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. HungarianTransleithania comprised the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In Bosnia andHerzegovina sovereign authority was shared by both Austria and Hungary.
Ottoman Empire
War justifications
The Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the CentralPowers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gainedstrong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at thetime.[11] The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance withGermany signed on 2 August 1914.[12] The alliance treatyexpected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in theconflict in a short amount of time.[12] However, for the firstseveral months of the war the Ottoman Empire maintainedneutrality though it allowed a German naval squadron to enterand stay near the strait of Bosphorus.[13] Ottoman officials informed the German government that thecountry needed time to prepare for conflict.[13] Germany provided financial aid and weapons shipmentsto the Ottoman Empire.[12]
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Kaiser Wilhelm II visiting theTurkish cruiser Yavuz Sultan Selimduring his stay in Istanbul in October1917 as a guest of Sultan Mehmed V.
Bulgarian soldiers firing at anincoming aircraft.
After pressure escalated from the German government demanding that the Ottoman Empire fulfill itstreaty obligations, or else Germany would expel the country from the alliance and terminate economicand military assistance, the Ottoman government entered the war with the recently acquired cruisersfrom Germany, the Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly SMS Goeben) and the Midilli (formerly SMS Breslau)launching a naval raid on the Russian port of Odessa, thus engaging in a military action in accordancewith its alliance obligations with Germany. Russia and the Triple Entente declared war on the OttomanEmpire.[14]
Bulgaria
War justifications
Bulgaria was still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at thehands of Serbia, Greece and Romania. It signed a treaty ofdefensive alliance with the Ottoman Empire on 19 August 1914.It was the last country to join the Central Powers, which Bulgariadid in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia. It invadedSerbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces.Bulgaria held irredentist aims on the region of Vardar Macedoniaheld by Serbia.
Declarations of war
Date Declared by Declared against1915
October 14 Bulgaria Serbia
October 15 United Kingdom Montenegro Bulgaria
October 16 France Bulgaria
October 19 Italy Russia Bulgaria
1916September 1 Bulgaria Romania
1917July 2 Greece Bulgaria
Co-belligerents
Dervish State
The Dervish State was a rebel Somali state seeking independence of Somali territories. Dervish forcesfought against Italian and British forces in Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland during World WarI in the Somaliland Campaign. The Dervish State received support from Germany and the OttomanEmpire.
Sultanate of Darfur
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The Sultanate of Darfur forces fought against British forces in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan during World WarI in the Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition.
Client states
During 1917 and 1918, the Finns under Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and Lithuanian nationalistsfought Russia for a common cause. With the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics's aggression of late1917, the government of Ukraine sought military protection first from the Central Powers and later fromthe armed forces of the Entente.
The Ottoman Empire also had its own allies in Azerbaijan and the Northern Caucasus. The three nationsfought alongside each other under the Army of Islam in the Battle of Baku.
German client states
Belarus (Belarusian People's Republic)The Belarusian People's Republic was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
Courland and SemigalliaThe Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
Don (Don Republic)The Don Republic was closely associated with the German Empire and fought against theBolsheviks.
Finland (Kingdom of Finland)The Kingdom of Finland was a client state of Germany created in 1918
Georgia (Democratic Republic of Georgia)In 1918, the Democratic Republic of Georgia, facing Bolshevik revolution and opposition fromthe Georgian Mensheviks and nationalists, was occupied by the German Empire, which expelledthe Bolsheviks and supported the Mensheviks.
Lithuania (Kingdom of Lithuania)The Kingdom of Lithuania was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
Northern Caucasus (Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus)The Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus was associated with the Central Powers.
Poland (Kingdom of Poland)The Kingdom of Poland was a client state of Germany created in 1916.[15] This government wasrecognized by the emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary in November 1916, and it adopted a
constitution in 1917.[16] The decision to create a state of Poland was taken by Germany in order toattempt to legitimize its military occupation amongst the Polish inhabitants, following uponGerman propaganda sent to Polish inhabitants in 1915 that German soldiers were arriving as
liberators to free Poland from subjugation by Russia.[17]
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The state was utilized by the German government alongside punitive threats to induce Polishlandowners living in the German-occupied Baltic territories to move to the state and sell theirBaltic property to Germans in exchange for moving to Poland, and efforts were made to induce
similar emigration of Poles from Prussia to the state.[18]
South Africa (South African Republic)In opposition to the Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, Boer rebels founded theSouth African Republic in 1914 and engaged in the Maritz Rebellion. Germany assisted the rebels,and the rebels operated in and out of the German colony of German South-West Africa. The rebelswere defeated by British imperial forces.
Ukraine (Ukrainian State)The Ukrainian State was a client state of Germany led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, who overthrew the
government of the Ukrainian People's Republic.[19]
United Baltic DuchyThe United Baltic Duchy was a proposed client state of Germany created in 1918
Ottoman client states
Azerbaijan (Azerbaijan Democratic Republic)In 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, facing Bolshevik revolution and opposition fromthe Muslim Musavat Party, was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire, which expelled the
Bolsheviks while supporting the Musavat Party.[20] The Ottoman Empire maintained a presence in
Azerbaijan until the end of the war in November 1918.[20]
Jabal ShammarJabal Shammar was an Arab state in the Middle East that was closely associated with the Ottoman
Empire.[21]
Non-state combatants
Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the IrishNationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant alliesin Europe". In 1914, Józef Piłsudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to formindependent Polish legions. Piłsudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia andthen side with France and the UK and win the war with them.
Kaocen RevoltZaian WarIrish Republican BrotherhoodHindu–German Conspiracy
Niedermayer-Hentig ExpeditionSenussi CampaignPolish Legions
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Central Powers' military deaths.
The collapse of the Central Powers in1918.
Armistice and treaties
Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia. TheOttoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face ofBritish and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria. Austria andHungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week ofNovember following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empireand the Italian offensive at Vittorio Veneto; Germany signed thearmistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918after the Hundred Days Offensive, and a succession of advancesby New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, Frenchand US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. There wasno unified treaty ending the war; the Central Powers were dealtwith in separate treaties.[22]
Central Powers by date of armisticeFlag Name Date
Bulgaria 29 September 1918Ottoman Empire 30 October 1918Austria-Hungary 4 November 1918German Empire 11 November 1918
Central Powers treatiesFlag Name Treaty of
Austria Saint-GermainBulgaria NeuillyGermany VersaillesHungary TrianonOttoman EmpireTurkey
SèvresLausanne
Leaders
Austria-Hungary
Franz Josef I: Emperor of Austria-HungaryKarl I: Emperor of Austria-HungaryCount Leopold Berchtold: Austrian Foreign Minister
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The three emperors: Kaiser WilhelmII, Mehmed V, Franz Joseph.
A postcard depicting the leaders ofthe Central Powers.
István Tisza: Prime Minister of HungaryArchduke Friedrich: Supreme Commander of the Austro-Hungarian ArmyConrad von Hötzendorf: Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General StaffArthur Arz von Straußenburg: Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General StaffSvetozar Boroević: Austro-Hungarian field marshalregarded as one of the finest defensive strategists of thewar.Anton Haus: Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian NavyMaximilian Njegovan: Commander-in-Chief of theAustro-Hungarian NavyMiklós Horthy: Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy
German Empire
Wilhelm II: German EmperorTheobald von Bethmann-Hollweg: Chancellor of theGerman EmpireArthur Zimmermann: German foreign ministerHelmuth von Moltke: Chief of the German General StaffErich von Falkenhayn: Chief of the German General StaffPaul von Hindenburg: Chief of the German General StaffAlfred von Tirpitz: Admiral in the German NavyReinhard Scheer: Commander of the Imperial High SeasFleetErich Ludendorff: Quartermaster general of the GermanArmyLeopold of Bavaria: Supreme Commander EastMax Hoffmann: Chief of Staff in the EastWilhelm Souchon: German Naval Advisor to the Ottoman EmpireOtto Liman von Sanders: German Army Advisor to the Ottoman EmpirePaul von Lettow-Vorbeck: German Army Commander of East Africa CampaignHermann von François: Germany Army GeneralGeorg von der Marwitz: Prussian cavalry general in the German armies
Ottoman Empire
Mehmed V: Sultan of the Ottoman EmpireMehmed VI: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
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A postcard depicting the flags of theCentral Powers' countries.
Said Halim Pasha: Ottoman Grand VizierEnver Pasha: Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman ArmyFritz Bronsart von Schellendorf: Chief of the Ottoman General StaffMustafa Kemal Atatürk: Commander of the Second ArmyDjemal Pasha: Commander of the 4th Army in Syria, Minister of the NavyFevzi Çakmak: Commander of 7th Army in Palestine, II. Caucasian Corps
Bulgaria
Ferdinand I: Tsar of BulgariaVasil Radoslavov: Prime Minister of BulgariaNikola Zhekov: Commander-in-Chief of the BulgarianArmyGeorgi Todorov: commander of the 2nd Army, deputyCommander-in-ChiefKonstantin Zhostov: Chief of the Bulgarian General StaffVladimir Vazov: Bulgarian Lieutenant General
Jabal Shammar
Saʿūd I bin ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz: Amir of Jabal Shammar
Dervish State
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan: Sayyid of the Dervish
Sultanate of Darfur
Ali Dinar: Sultan of Darfur
Azerbaijan
Fatali Khan Khoyski: Prime Minister of Azerbaijan from May 28, 1918 to April 14, 1919Nasib Yusifbeyli: Prime Minister of Azerbaijan from April 14, 1919 to April 1, 1920Samad bey Mehmandarov: Azerbaijani General of the Artillery in the Azerbaijani and Russianarmies, as well as Minister of France of the Azerbaijan Democratic RepublicAli-Agha Shikhlinski: Artillery general of Azerbaijan
See also
Triple EntenteParticipants in World War I
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Axis powers, Germany's allies during World War IITreaty of Versailles
References
1. ^ Hindenburg, Paul von: Out of my life. P. 113. (https://archive.org/details/outofmylife00hinduoft)2. ^ Meyer, G.J. (2007). A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Trade Paperback.
ISBN 0-553-38240-3.3. ^ S.N. Broadberry, Mark Harrison. The Economics of World War I (http://books.google.com/books?
id=Y9GP9gtGlkgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0). illustrated ed. CambridgeUniversity Press, 2005, pp. 9-10.
4. ^ Spencer Tucker. The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis, 1996,pg. 173. (http://books.google.com/books?id=EHI3PCjDtsUC&pg=PA172&dq=Direct+and+Indirect+Costs+of+the+Great+World+War&hl=bg&cd=5#v=onepage&q=Direct%20and%20Indirect%20Costs%20of%20the%20Great%20World%20War&f=false)
5. ^ a b c d Cashman, Greg; Robinson, Leonard C. An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of InterstateConflict from World War I to Iraq. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. P57
6. ^ a b c d Meyer, G.J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Book. 2006. P39.
7. ^ a b Meyer, G.J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Book. 2006. P95.8. ^ Hagen, William W. German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation. P228.9. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East:
From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. 2009. P1556.
10. ^ a b c Cashman, Greg; Robinson, Leonard C. An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of InterstateConflict from World War I to Iraq. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. P61
11. ^ Hickey, Michael. The First World War: Volume 4 The Mediterranean Front 1914-1923. P31.
12. ^ a b c Afflerbach, Holger; David Stevenson, David. An Improbable War: The Outbreak of World War 1 andEuropean Political Culture. Berghan Books. 2012. P. 292.
13. ^ a b Kent, Mary. The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire. end ed. Frank Cass. 1998. P11914. ^ Afflerbach, Holger; David Stevenson, David. An Improbable War: The Outbreak of World War I and
European Political Culture. Berghan Books. 2012. P. 293.15. ^ The Regency Kingdom has been referred to as a puppet state by Norman Davies in Europe: A history
(Google Print, p. 910 (http://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA910&dq=%22Kingdom+of+Poland%22+1916+puppet&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U36q9omC0a0E-_kH_82ad24_4tZzQ)); by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki in A Concise History ofPoland (Google Print, p. 218 (http://books.google.com/books?id=HMylRh-wHWEC&pg=PA218)); by PiotrJ. Wroblel in Chronology of Polish History and Nation and History (Google Print, p. 454(http://books.google.com/books?id=lzWHDEE6OqkC&pg=PA454)); and by Raymond Leslie Buell inPoland: Key to Europe (Google Print, p. 68 (http://books.google.com/books?id=-KcfGbrKptoC&dq=Poland+Key+to+Europe&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=FD__x2FPA9&sig=q5DV-zsbYtatQg6k-2pBp5Z4ddA&hl=en&ei=dIraSa2kIqrrlQfOq4H6Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#PPA68,M1): "The Polish Kingdom... was merely a pawn [of Germany]").
16. ^ J. M. Roberts. Europe 1880-1945. P. 232.
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17. ^ Aviel Roshwald. Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia,1914-23. Routledge, 2002. P. 117.
18. ^ Annemarie Sammartino. The Impossible Border: Germany and the East, 1914-1922. Cornell University,2010. P. 36-37.
19. ^ Kataryna Wolczuk. The Moulding of Ukraine: The Constitutional Politics of State Formation. P37.
20. ^ a b Zvi Lerman, David Sedik. Rural Transition in Azerbaijan. P12.21. ^ Hala Mundhir Fattah. The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf, 1745-1900. P121.22. ^ Davis, Robert T., ed. (2010). U.S. Foreign Policy and National Security: Chronology and Index for the
20th Century 1. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger Security International. p. 49(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gsM1JiXAMJEC&pg=PA49). ISBN 978-0-313-38385-4.
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