case study: mozambique and eduardo mondlane university study - mozambiq… · universities and...

Universities and Economic Development in Africa

CASE STUDY: Mozambique and Eduardo Mondlane University Tracy Bailey, Nico Cloete and Pundy Pillay

UNIVERSITIES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA | MOZAMBIQUE CASE STUDY

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Contents

List of tables and figures ......................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. viii

Project group ......................................................................................................................... ix

Acronyms and abbreviations .................................................................................................. x

Glossary of terms ................................................................................................................... xi

Higher Education and Economic Development Publications ............................................. xiv

PART 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction to the Higher Education and Economic Development project ........... 1

1.1.1 Overview of HERANA ................................................................................... 1

1.1.2 Project focus and process ............................................................................ 2

1.1.3 The analytical framework for the study ...................................................... 3

1.1.4 What the project is not doing ...................................................................... 5

1.2 Data collection for the Mozambique case study ................................................... 6

1.3 The focus and structure of this report ................................................................... 6

PART 2: THE MOZAMBIQUE CASE STUDY: BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT ....................... 8

2.1 The Mozambican economy and approach to economic development ................... 8

2.1.1 Economic development, competitiveness and innovation ......................... 8

2.1.2 Economic development policy and planning ............................................. 15

2.2 The Mozambique higher education system ........................................................ 20

2.2.1 The size and shape of the higher education system ................................. 20

2.2.2 Higher education expenditure and financing ............................................ 22

2.2.3 Higher education governance and policy .................................................. 23


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2.3 The Eduardo Mondlane University ..................................................................... 24

2.3.1 Governance and strategic objectives ........................................................ 25

2.3.2 Academic structure .................................................................................... 25

2.3.3 Institutional finances ................................................................................. 26

PART 3: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE ....................................... 27

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 27

3.2 The national perspective .................................................................................... 28

3.2.1 Key national stakeholders in relation to the pact ..................................... 28

3.2.2 The role of higher education in national policies ...................................... 28

3.2.3 Governance and policy coordination ......................................................... 32

3.3 The Eduardo Mondlane University perspective .................................................. 32

3.3.1 Institutional narrative(s) on the role of the university .............................. 32

3.3.2 Initiatives around research and innovation ............................................... 37

3.3.3 Initiatives around teaching and learning ................................................... 39

PART 4: THE NATURE AND STRENGTH OF THE EDUARDO MONDLANE UNIVERSITY ACADEMIC CORE .............................................................................................. 41

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 41

4.2 SET enrolments and graduations ........................................................................ 43

4.3 Postgraduate enrolments and graduations ......................................................... 47

4.4 Student‐staff ratios ............................................................................................. 51

4.5 Academic staff qualifications .............................................................................. 55

4.6 Research funding ................................................................................................ 56

4.7 Research outputs ................................................................................................ 58

PART 5: THE ENGAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT‐RELATED ACTIVITIES OF THE EDUARDO MONDLANE UNIVERSITY .................................................................. 61

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 61


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5.2 Engagement and linkages with external stakeholders ........................................ 62

5.2.1 University‐government‐industry linkages ................................................. 62

5.2.2 Incentives and rewards .............................................................................. 63

5.2.3 Coordination .............................................................................................. 64

5.2.4 Summary .................................................................................................... 66

5.3 The connectedness of development activities to the academic core ................... 66

5.3.1 A brief overview of the projects ................................................................ 68

5.3.2 Articulation ................................................................................................ 75

5.3.3 Contribution to strengthening the academic core .................................... 80

5.3.4 Analysis of the connectedness of development projects/centres ............ 83

PART 6: KEY FINDINGS ................................................................................................... 86

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 86

6.2 Some macro‐observations about higher education and economic development in Mozambique................................................................................................... 87

6.3 Evidence of a pact around the role of higher education in Mozambique? ........... 88

6.3.1 Notions of the role of knowledge and universities in development ......... 90

6.4 The academic core of the Eduardo Mondlane University .................................... 93

6.5 Coordination and connectedness ........................................................................ 97

6.5.1 Knowledge policy coordination and implementation ............................... 98

6.5.2 Connectedness to external stakeholders and the academic core ........... 100

6.6 Concluding comments ...................................................................................... 103

6.6.1 Factors impacting on the university’s capacity to contribute to development .......................................................................................................... 105

List of sources .................................................................................................................... 107

Appendix 1: List of interviewees ....................................................................................... 110

Appendix 2: Cluster analysis methodology and data ........................................................ 111

Appendix 3: Academic core rating descriptions ................................................................ 115


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List of tables and figures

Tables

Table 2.1: GDP per capita vs. Human Development Index in sub‐Saharan Africa (2007) ... 10

Table 2.2: Selected higher education and economic development indicators ................... 13

Table 2.3: Global competitiveness and global innovation .................................................. 15

Table 2.4: Eduardo Mondlane University government income (2001‐2007) ..................... 26

Table 4.1: Eduardo Mondlane: Total enrolments by field of study (thousands) ................ 44

Table 4.2: Comparison of total science and technology enrolments (thousands) ............. 45

Table 4.3: Eduardo Mondlane: Total SET graduates ........................................................... 46

Table 4.4: Comparison of total science and technology graduates .................................... 47

Table 4.5: Comparison of total postgraduate enrolments in all fields of study.................. 48

Table 4.6: Eduardo Mondlane: Masters and doctoral enrolments and graduates ............. 49

Table 4.7: Comparison of masters and doctoral enrolments .............................................. 50

Table 4.8: Comparison of doctoral graduates ..................................................................... 51

Table 4.9: Eduardo Mondlane: FTE students and academic staff ....................................... 52

Table 4.10: Comparison of permanent academics with masters and doctoral degrees (2007) ................................................................................................................ 55

Table 4.11: Eduardo Mondlane: Research outputs ............................................................. 58

Table 5.1: Overview of the development‐related projects ................................................. 74

Table 5.2: Articulation with institutional objectives and national priorities ...................... 76

Table 5.3: Initiation/agenda‐setting, funding sources and implementation agencies ....... 77

Table 5.4: Financial sustainability of the projects/centres ................................................. 78

Table 5.5: Articulation rating (maximum score = 13) .......................................................... 79

Table 5.6: Contribution to strengthening the academic core ............................................. 81


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Table 5.7: Strengthening academic core rating .................................................................. 81

Table 5.8: Summary of ratings ............................................................................................. 83

Table 6.1: Role for knowledge and universities in development in Mozambique .............. 89

Table 6.2: Comparing national and institutional notions of the role of higher education in Mozambique ................................................................................................... 93

Table 6.3: Eduardo Mondlane University: Rating of the academic core ............................ 95

Table 6.4: National coordination of knowledge policies ..................................................... 99

Table 6.5: Implementation of knowledge policies and activities ........................................ 99

Table A2.1: Cluster analysis data table .............................................................................. 112

Figures

Figure 2.1: Income by source as a percentage of total income, Eduardo Mondlane University (2001‐2006) ...................................................................................... 26

Figure 4.1: Eduardo Mondlane: Enrolments by field of study ............................................ 44

Figure 4.2: Comparison of science and technology majors as % of total enrolment ......... 45

Figure 4.3: Eduardo Mondlane: Graduation rates by field of study ................................... 46

Figure 4.4: Comparison of science and technology graduation rates ................................. 47

Figure 4.5: Comparison of % postgraduates in enrolment total ......................................... 48

Figure 4.6: Comparison of doctoral enrolments as % of masters and doctoral enrolments ........................................................................................................ 50

Figure 4.7: Comparison of total doctoral graduates ........................................................... 51

Figure 4.8: Comparison of 2007 FTE student‐staff ratios .................................................... 53

Figure 4.9: Comparison of totals of permanent and FTE academic staff (2007) ................ 54

Figure 4.10: Comparison of ratios of FTE to permanent academic staff (2007) ................. 54

Figure 4.11: Comparison of highest formal qualifications of permanent academics (2007) ............................................................................................................... 55

Figure 4.12: Comparison of research income in market rate USD and PPP$ (millions) ..... 57


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Figure 4.13: Comparison of total research income per permanent academic in market rate USD and PPP$ (thousands) ....................................................................... 58

Figure 4.14: Comparison of research publication units per permanent academic ............. 59

Figure 4.15: Comparison of doctoral graduates in given year as % of permanent academics employed ....................................................................................... 60

Figure 5.1: Plotting the development‐related projects ....................................................... 84

Figure 6.1: The four notions of the role of knowledge and universities in development .. 91

Figure 6.2: Plotting the development‐related projects at the Eduardo Mondlane University ......................................................................................................... 102

Figure A2.1: Plot of means for each cluster ...................................................................... 114


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Acknowledgements

This study would not have been possible without the support and participation of the following organisations and individuals:

Funding The Ford Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Kresge Foundation.

Eduardo Mondlane University contacts

Mr Patricio Langa and Dr MV Mangue for their assistance in providing background information on the UEM and scheduling interviews.

Mr Langa and Dr Arlindo Chilundo (Ministry of Education) for providing the academic core data for the university.

Interview respondents at Eduardo Mondlane University: Prof. Angêlo Macuacua (Deputy Vice‐Chancellor: Management Affairs), Prof. Orlando Quilambo (Deputy Dean for Academic Affairs), Dr Maria da Conceição (UEM Coordinator for SIDA/SAREC Co‐operation), Dr Lidia Brito (Department of Wood Science and Technology), Dr Domingos Buque (Deputy Dean for Research and Postgraduation, Faculty of Education), Prof. António Cumbane (Head: Dept of Chemical Engineering), Prof. Amália Uamasse (Dean: Faculty of Science), Prof. Daniel Baloi (Dean: Faculty of Economics), Prof. Mário Falcão (Dean: Faculty of Agronomy), Prof. Armindo Ngunga (Director: Centre for African Studies), Prof. Manoela M Sylvestre (Director: School of Management and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto), Dr Álvaro Carmo Vaz (retired, Faculty of Engineering), Dr Afonso Lobo (Deputy Dean for Management, Faculty of Engineering), Prof. Boaventura Cuamba (Dept of Physics), Prof. Serafina Vilanculos (Faculty of Engineering), Prof. Brazao Mazula (Faculty of Education). National stakeholders: Dr Venâncio Simão Massingue (Minister of Science and Technology), Constantino Gode (Advisor to the Minister of Finance), Augusto Sumburane (National Director: Ministry of Finance Research Unit), Dr Vitória Afonso de Jesus (National Programme Coordinator: Programa Vilas de Milenio), Dr Arlindo Chilundo (Advisor to the Minister of Education and Culture).


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Project group

Academic advisers Higher Education Studies: Prof. Peter Maassen (University of Oslo) and Dr Nico Cloete (Director: CHET, and University of the Western Cape)

Development Economics: Dr Pundy Pillay (CHET Consultant)

Sociology of Knowledge: Prof Johan Muller (University of Cape Town) and Prof Johann Mouton (University of Stellenbosch)

Researchers Dr Nico Cloete (Director: CHET) Dr Pundy Pillay (CHET Consultant) Prof. Peter Maassen (University of Oslo) Ms Tracy Bailey (CHET Consultant) Dr Gerald Ouma (Kenya and University of the Western Cape) Mr Romulo Pinheiro (University of Oslo) Mr Patricio Langa (Mozambique and University of Cape Town) Mr Samuel Fongwa (Cameroon and University of the Western Cape) Mr Biko Gwendo (Kenya and University of the Western Cape)

Contributors to reports Dr Ian Bunting (CHET Consultant) and Dr Charles Sheppard (Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University) for analysis of the academic core data Mr Nelius Boshoff (University of Stellenbosch) for data on research output

Project assistance Ms Tracy Bailey (Project Manager) Ms Angela Mias (CHET Administrator) Ms Monique Ritter (Research Assistant) Ms Carin Favis (Transcriber)

External Commentator Prof. Manuel Castells (University of Southern California and Open University, Barcelona)

Network Higher Education Research and Advocacy Network in Africa (HERANA)


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Acronyms and abbreviations

BWP Botswana Pula

CHET Centre for Higher Education Transformation

CNESCT National Council on Higher Education, Science and Technology

FTE Full‐time equivalent

GCI Global Competitiveness Index

GDP Gross domestic product

GER Gross enrolment ratio

GII Global Innovation Index / Indices

HDI Human Development Index

HERANA Higher Education Research and Advocacy Network in Africa

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MHEST Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology

MZN Mozambique Metical

NGO Non‐governmental organisation

PARPA Plan of Action for the Reduction of Absolute Poverty

PPP Purchasing power parity

R South African Rand

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

R&D Research and development

S&T Science and technology

SET Science, engineering and technology

SIDA Swedish International Development Agency

SME Small and medium enterprises

UEM Eduardo Mondlane University

USD United States Dollar

WEF World Economic Forum


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Glossary of terms

Academic core

The academic core refers to a university’s academic degree programmes and research activities.

Gini co‐efficient

The Gini co‐efficient is a standard economic measure of income inequality, based on the Lorenz Curve. It ranges from zero (which indicates perfect equality, with every household earning exactly the same), to one (which implies absolute inequality, with a single household earning a country's entire income).

Global Competitiveness Index (GCI)

The World Economic Forum (WEF) defines competitiveness as the set of institutions, policies, and factors that determine the level of productivity of a country. The GCI uses this definition to establish a quantitative tool to help policy‐makers benchmark and measure the competitiveness of a given country. The GCI is based on 12 pillars of competitiveness further divided into three pillar groups, which are:

Basic requirements (institutions, infrastructure, macro‐economic stability, health and primary education);

Efficiency enhancers (higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market efficiency, financial market sophistication, technological readiness, market size); and

Innovation and sophistication factors (business sophistication, innovation).

Global Innovation Index (GII)

The GII assesses in detail the extent to which different economies benefit from the latest innovation advances, based on three main principles:

There is a distinction between enablers (inputs) and outputs while measuring innovation in an economy. Enablers are aspects that help an economy to stimulate innovation and outputs are the results of innovative activities within the economy.

There are five enabler pillars that are included in the GII: institutions, human capacity, general and information and communications technology


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infrastructure, market sophistication, and business sophistication. The enabler pillars define aspects of the conducive environment required to stimulate innovation within an economy.

The two output pillars which provide evidence of the results of innovation within the economy are scientific outputs and well‐being.

Gross domestic product (GDP)

The GDP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given year, which equals total consumers, investment and government spending, plus the value of exports, minus the value of imports. Changes in the GDP on an annual basis provide a measure of economic growth.

Gross enrolment ratio (GER)

The GER indicates the total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the official school‐age population, corresponding to the same level of education in a given school year. The GER is calculated by dividing the number of pupils (or students) enrolled in a given level of education, regardless of age, by the population of the age group which officially corresponds to the given level of education, and multiplying the result by 100. The GER is widely used to show the general level of participation in a given level of education. It indicates the capacity of the education system for enrolling students of a particular age group. It is used as a substitute indicator to Net Enrolment Ratio (NER, outlined below) when data on enrolment by single years of age are not available. The GER can also be a complementary indicator to the NER by indicating the extent of over‐aged and under‐aged enrolment.

Human Development Index (HDI)

The HDI is a summary composite index that measures a country's average achievements in three basic aspects of human development. These include the following:

Health (measured by life expectancy at birth); Knowledge (measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and the

combined primary, secondary, and tertiary GER); and A decent standard of living (measured by GDP (income) per capita).

The HDI was created to emphasise that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth.


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Pact

A ‘pact’ is defined by Gornitzka et al. (2007: 184) as “a fairly long‐term cultural commitment to and from the University, as an institution with its own foundational rules of appropriate practices, causal and normative beliefs, and resources, yet validated by the political and social system in which the University is embedded. A pact, then, is different from a contract based on continuous strategic calculation of expected value by public authorities, organised external groups, university employees, and students – all regularly monitoring and assessing the University on the basis of its usefulness for their self‐interest, and acting accordingly.”

Purchasing power parity (PPP)

The PPP is a rate of exchange that accounts for price differences across countries, allowing international comparisons of real output and incomes. At the PPP$ rate used in this report, PPP$ has the same purchasing power in the domestic economy as USD 1 has in the US.


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Higher Education and Economic Development Publications

The eight case study reports in this series contain the detailed data and analysis for each country and university in the sample. Together, they form the empirical basis for the analysis and discussion of findings contained in the CHET book, Universities and Economic Development in Africa, which was published in August 2011. While every effort has been made to check the data and edit the text in the time available, it should be noted that these case study reports have not been subjected to the publishing rigours of formally published publications. They are therefore made available ‘as is’.

Higher education and economic development: A literature review Pundy Pillay (2010)

This report reviews the international literature on the relationship between higher education and economic development. The review focuses on previous research and theory on the link between higher education and economic growth, the knowledge economy, innovation, and local and regional development. The review would be of interest to academics and students who work in the field of higher education studies. Click here to download a copy of this report.

Linking higher education and economic development: Implications for Africa from three successful systems Pundy Pillay (2010)

This book synthesises the findings of case studies of three systems – Finland, South Korea and North Carolina in the US – that have successfully linked higher education to their economic development initiatives. This publication would be of particular interest to policy‐makers and funders. Click here to download a copy of this report.

Universities and economic development in Africa Nico Cloete, Tracy Bailey, Pundy Pillay, Ian Bunting and Peter Maassen (2011)

This report presents the key findings from each of the eight African case study reports and synthesises these within the analytical framework of the larger study. This publication would be of interest to national policy‐makers, international agencies, funders and university leadership. Click here to download a copy of this report.


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1.1 Introduction to the Higher Education and Economic Development project

1.1.1 Overview of HERANA The Higher Education and Economic Development project forms part of the work of the Higher Education Research and Advocacy Network in Africa (HERANA). HERANA was established in 2007 and is coordinated by the Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET) in Cape Town, South Africa. Key partners include the University of the Western Cape (South Africa), Makerere University (Uganda) and the University of Oslo (Norway). The research component of HERANA investigates the complex relationship between higher education and development in Africa, with a specific focus on economic and democratic development. A second research area explores the use of research in policy‐making. Alongside the research component is an advocacy strategy that aims to:

Disseminate the findings of the research projects; Coordinate existing sources of information on higher education in Africa, Develop a media strategy; and Put in place a policy dialogue (through seminars and information technology)

facilitating interactions between researchers, institutional leaders and decision‐makers. The capacity‐building component of HERANA is the Higher Education Masters in Africa Programme, run jointly between the key partners. The main objective of the project is to contribute to the strengthening of higher education in Africa through building capacity and expertise in African higher education. The students contribute to higher education and development research through the research components of the programme.

Part 1

Introduction

AT A GLANCE

Overview of HERANA Project focus and process Analytical framework Data collection Focus and structure of the report


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The research and advocacy components of HERANA are funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Ford Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Kresge Foundation. The Higher Education Masters in Africa Programme is funded by NORAD.

1.1.2 Project focus and process As a point of departure, the overall aim of the project was to investigate the complex relationships between higher education (specifically universities) and economic development in selected African countries with a focus on the context in which universities operate (political and socio‐economic), the internal structure and dynamics of the universities themselves, and the interaction between the national and institutional contexts. In addition, the project aimed to identify those factors (practices, strategies) and conditions (context) – at both national and institutional levels – that facilitate or inhibit universities’ ability to make a sustained contribution to economic development. The project began with a review of the international literature on the relationship between higher education and economic development (Pillay 2010a). This was followed by case studies of three systems which have successfully linked their economic development and higher education policy and planning – Finland, South Korea and the North Carolina state in the US (Pillay 2010b). The next phase of the project involved the collection of data at both the national and institutional levels in the eight African countries and universities included in the study:

Botswana – University of Botswana Ghana – University of Ghana Kenya – University of Nairobi Mauritius – University of Mauritius Mozambique – Eduardo Mondlane University South Africa – Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Tanzania – University of Dar es Salaam Uganda – Makerere University

The countries included in the study were selected for three main reasons: on the basis of previous collaboration; being located in sub‐Saharan Africa; and, on the basis of World Economic Forum (WEF) ratings regarding participation in the knowledge economy in the African context. In each of the collaborating countries the national university was selected, except in South Africa where the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University was regarded as a more ‘comparable’ institution.


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Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with a wide range of individuals in each country, including selected ministries, commissions/councils for higher education and other stakeholders at the national level; and, institutional leadership, heads of development‐related projects and centres, and academic and administrative staff. The analysis also draws on various policy and strategy documents (national and institutional levels), as well as quantitative data including national development indicators and statistics relating to the higher education systems and universities in the sample. Throughout the project process, dissemination and advocacy activities have taken place. These have included seminars in many of the African countries in the sample and in Norway, as well as dissemination via the HERANA web site1.

1.1.3 The analytical framework for the study In the knowledge economy, universities are considered to be key institutions for the production of high‐level skills and knowledge innovation, based on the traditional core business of universities – the production, application and dissemination of knowledge. In many countries, higher education has become one of the central areas in the government’s knowledge policies. This means that more policy/political actors than the Ministry of Education, as well as socio‐economic stakeholders (employers’ organisations, funders and research councils), have become interested in higher education and involved in higher education policy. This raises the issue of system‐ and institutional‐level coordination of knowledge policies with adequate structures and processes within the political system, most notably the capacity to coordinate different political activities of the governing of knowledge production, reproduction and coordination. As mentioned earlier, to get a better understanding of the relationship between higher education and development, the research group undertook three case studies (Finland, South Korea and North Carolina state) where there is a well‐established integration of higher education in national development strategies. Of particular interest to our study was to answer the question: What is it about these three systems that enable them to successfully link higher education to economic development? Put another way: What are the core conditions that are present in each of the three systems that enable their higher education sectors to successfully and sustainably contribute to development? Common to all three systems was a strong, agreed upon framework for economic development aimed at realising an advanced, competitive knowledge economy, and the important role for higher education in this regard. Despite

1HERANA web site: http://www.chet.org.za/programmes/herana/.


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major contextual differences, the three systems exhibited the following conditions for harnessing higher education for economic development:

Their higher education systems had been built on a foundation of equitable and quality schooling. There was also an emphasis on achieving high quality higher education.

They had achieved very high higher education participation rates. Their higher education systems were differentiated (institutional and

public/private) as part of achieving their human capital, research and innovation objectives for economic development.

Their governments ensured a close link between economic and (higher) education planning.

There were effective partnerships and networks between the state, higher education institutions and the private sector to ensure effective education and training, and to stimulate appropriate research and innovation.

There was strong state involvement in a number of other respects including, for example, adequate state funding for higher education; using funding to steer the higher education sector to respond to labour market requirements; and, incentivising research and innovation in the higher education sector. Drawing on the review of literature (Pillay 2010a), the implications from the case studies of three successful systems (Pillay 2010b), and preliminary observations from the eight African case studies, we formulated the following analytical propositions:

1. A condition for universities’ contributions to development is the existence of a broad pact between government, universities and core socio‐economic actors about the nature of the universities’ role in development.

2. As a core knowledge institution, the university can only participate in the global knowledge economy and make a sustainable contribution to development if its academic core is quantitatively and qualitatively strong.

3. For linking universities effectively to development a country needs various forms and methods of knowledge policy coordination. In addition, the connections between the larger policy context, universities and development are crucial.

The analytical point of departure for our model is, therefore, that the conditions under which each university in Africa, as elsewhere, is contributing to economic development are influenced by the following three inter‐related factors:

The nature of the pact between the universities, political authorities and society at large;

The nature, size and continuity of the university’s academic core; and


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The level of coordination, the effectiveness of implementation, and connectedness in the larger policy context of universities. These, in turn, are influenced by local circumstances, for example, the nature of the economy of a country, and its political and governance traditions and culture; institutional characteristics, including the ‘loosely‐coupled’ nature of higher education institutions; and the external relations of universities, especially with national authorities, foreign agencies and industry. These analytical propositions give rise to the following sets of research questions:

To what extent is there agreement (a pact) between key stakeholders about the role of higher education, and to what extent does this include a specific role for higher education in economic development? Is there a role for knowledge production and for universities in the national development plan?

What policies, funding, structures and incentives are in place at the national and institutional levels which give expression to the role of higher education in economic development? To what extent is there coordination of these activities between the different national authorities, and between the national authorities, institutional stakeholders and external agencies?

What is the strength of the academic cores of the national (‘flagship’) universities?

Are development activities in the universities connected to external groupings and do these activities strengthen or weaken the academic core? This report presents the data that address these questions in the Mozambican context generally, and with specific reference to the University Eduardo Mondlane (UEM). The analytical framework of the study is elaborated further in Part 6 which discusses the key findings for this case study.

1.1.4 What the project is not doing As can been seen from the analytical framework of the project, this study has a considerable scope. However, the project is not attempting to do the following:

Measure or evaluate the extent to which universities are contributing to development, or the impact that their activities have on development in their respective countries;

Include an assessment of the impact or effectiveness of specific institutional policies, units or development projects;

Review the number or nature of donor projects, or an examination of the overall contribution of particular external donors to university development; or

Assume or assert that the primary role for higher education is development, but rather seeks to investigate the factors that either facilitate or inhibit the possible contributions that universities can make to development.


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1.2 Data collection for the Mozambique case study A wide range of data sources have been consulted for the purposes of developing this case study. In order to prepare for the research team’s visit to Mozambique, CHET obtained a letter of cooperation from the vice‐chancellor of the UEM, who also approved the selection of Mr Patricio Langa (Faculty of Education) as our Institutional Contact and Facilitator. The next step was to request background information on the Mozambique higher education system and the university from Mr Langa. In addition to the background information, Mr Langa was asked to assist in the scheduling of interviews for the research team and, together with the relevant institutional leadership, to identify five to ten projects that related to either economic development or poverty reduction. The research team visited Mozambique in June 2009 to conduct interviews with national and institutional stakeholders. The national stakeholders included representatives from the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Education and Culture. The institutional stakeholders at the UEM included various institutional leaders, senior academics and project leaders. The full list of interviewees is provided in Appendix 1. In addition to the site visit and interviews, a range of national and institutional documents has been consulted. These are listed in the list of sources. In developing the case study report, additional information was gleaned from the internet as well as further correspondence with interviewees to verify information and fill in gaps. Finally, during July and August of 2010, the first draft of this report was emailed to the vice‐chancellor, the project leaders and other key institutional stakeholders at UEM with a request to provide written feedback on the accuracy of the information and interpretation of data contained in the report. In addition to the written feedback received from a number of individuals, formal feedback was obtained from two university representatives during a seminar in Franschhoek, Cape Town, in August 2010.

1.3 The focus and structure of this report This report pulls together a wide range of data on the national development context and the higher education system in Mozambique, as well as the UEM, in order to address the key research questions. The structure of the remainder of the report is as follows: In Part 2, we provide background and contextual information about Mozambique – its economic development and global competitiveness ratings, its approach to economic development policy and planning, as well as the size


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and shape, governance, policy and financing of the higher education system. A brief profile of UEM is also provided including key moments in the development of the institution, its governance structure and strategic objectives, and the institutional finances. In Part 3 of the report, we turn to the role(s) of higher education in Mozambique – in general, and in relation to economic development – through an investigation of the ways in which both national and institutional stakeholders talk about and conceptualise the role of higher education, the policies which give expression to these notions, as well as the structures and mechanisms for coordination which relate to higher education. In Part 4 we examine the nature of the academic core at the UEM. In Part 5, we investigate the UEM’s engagement with its key external stakeholders and the incentives for development‐related activities. We also undertake an analysis of the selected development projects at the university, with a specific focus on the connectedness between these activities and the academic core. In particular, we explore the articulation of development activities with national priorities and institutional objectives, as well as with external stakeholders, and the extent to which these activities either strengthen or weaken the academic core of the institution. In Part 6, we provide a summary of the key findings of the report and relate these to the analytical framework and key questions of the study presented in Part 1. This includes a discussion of the nature and extent of the pact around the role of higher education in Mozambique; the nature and strength of the academic core of the UEM; the coordination and implementation of knowledge policies at the national level; and the connectedness of development‐related activities in the university to external stakeholders and to the academic core.


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2.1 The Mozambican economy and approach to economic development

2.1.1 Economic development, competitiveness and innovation Mozambique is situated on the east coast of southern Africa and shares a land border of about 4 330km with Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and South Africa (Committee of Counsellors 2003: 7). The total population exceeded 20 million in 2005 (UNDP 2007) and is distributed through 10 provinces and the city of Maputo. Approximately 69% of the population lives in rural areas (Committee of Counsellors 2003). Mozambique has experienced several consecutive years of economic growth during the past decade, has substantial natural resources, and peace and stability are consolidating (ibid.:44). Despite these encouraging features, the Mozambican economy is highly vulnerable, and the country remains one of the poorest in the world. The country is blessed with an abundance of natural resources and the potential to achieve even higher rates of growth. In this regard, mention can be made of the following:

Agricultural potential namely in maize, sorghum, millet, beans, sesame, sunflower, coconut, cashew, cotton, rice, tea, bananas and citrus fruit;

Rapidly expanding re‐stocking of livestock; Mineral resources such as gold, precious and semi‐precious stones, copper,

marble, graphite, heavy sands, natural gas and mineral water; Forests with abundant and diverse timber species, endemic wildlife; and Parks and natural reserves and beautiful beaches and coastline, with great

tourism potential.

Part 2

The Mozambique case study: Background and context

AT A GLANCE

The Mozambique economy and approach to development Higher education in Mozambique A profile of the UEM


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Since the signing of the 1992 Peace Agreement, Mozambique has been viewed as one of Africa’s most successful stories of post‐war reconstruction and economic recovery. The country held its fourth peaceful and democratic legislative and presidential elections in 2009, reaffirming its commitment to political stability, democratic governance and national reconciliation. With the end of the civil war, and the introduction of broad economic reforms in 1987, some important constraints have persisted, noticeably the high dependency on external aid and the poor development of human capital. The years following peace showed important signs of growth and donor optimism, chiefly as a result of the output of some mega‐projects such as the hydropower dams, and the reconstruction of infrastructure destroyed by war and floods. Between 1996 and 2006, GDP increased on average at 8% per annum and, for some years, it grew at double‐digit rates (AEO 2008). Most of this growth resulted from reactivating agricultural production, population resettlement and growth in the industry, construction, energy and tourism sectors. Growth has resulted in the reduction of absolute poverty to some extent. However, the outputs of growth have not been equitably distributed; neither have there been significant social effects regionally – for example, the per capita income in Maputo is about four times the average for the rest of the country. The economy is dominated by the agricultural and trade sectors, each accounting for one‐fifth to one quarter of GDP. Mozambican agriculture is mostly small‐scale. The absence of a regular market contributes to focusing family agriculture too much on meeting subsistence needs. Agriculture is characterised by little use of improved technologies, intensive use of labour, and a lack of financial capital (ibid.).

In spite of achieving high economic growth, many development challenges remain. Mozambique remains one of the poorest countries in the world and was ranked 172nd out of 177 in the 2007/08 Human Development Index (UNDP 2007). The national Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) progress report produced in 2005 indicated that of 11 MDG targets for which data were available, only five have had the potential of being met without a considerable acceleration of efforts – those relating to poverty, under‐five mortality, maternal mortality, malaria and the establishment of an open‐trading and financial system (ibid.).

Mozambique’s GDP per capita at USD 335 (2005) remains one of the lowest in the world and is 15 times lower than its neighbour South Africa. Life expectancy and adult literacy rates are extremely low by developing country standards, at 42.8 years (2005) and 38.7% (1995‐2005), respectively. The combined GER for


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primary, secondary, and tertiary education is also low at 53% (2005). Poverty levels between 1990 and 2005 were high respectively at 36% (below USD 1 a day), 74% (USD 2 per day), and 69% (below the national poverty line) (UNDP 2007). Table 2.1 compares GDP (or income) per capita and the HDI for the HERANA sample of countries and the three international case studies. The difference between the GDP per capita ranking and its HDI ranking reflects divergence between economic and broader social development, and is often a consequence of inequality in access to income, education, health, etc. For example, South Africa’s HDI ranking is 51 places lower than its GDP per capita ranking, and Botswana’s is 65 – these figures are amongst the highest for the countries ranked in this report.

Table 2.1: GDP per capita vs. Human Development Index in sub‐Saharan Africa (2007)

Country GDP per capita (PPP, USD)*

GDP ranking HDI ranking** GDP ranking minus HDI ranking

Botswana 13 604 60 125 ‐65

Ghana 1 334 153 152 1

Kenya 1 542 149 147 2

Mauritius 11 296 68 81 ‐13

Mozambique 802 169 172 ‐3

South Africa 9 757 78 129 ‐51

Uganda 1 059 163 157 6

Tanzania 1 208 157 151 6

Finland 34 526 23 12 11

South Korea 24 801 35 26 9

United States 45 592 9 13 ‐4

Source: UNDP (2009) Notes: *PPP shows a rate of exchange that accounts for price differences across countries, allowing international comparisons of output and incomes. At the PPP$ rate shown in Table 2.1 for the eight HERANA countries, PPP$ 1 has the same purchasing power in the domestic economy as USD 1 has in the US. **177 countries were ranked. The HDI is a composite index measuring deprivations in the three basic dimensions – a long and healthy life (as measured by life expectancy), access to knowledge (adult literacy, and combined primary, secondary and tertiary education enrolment), and a decent standard of living (GDP or income per capita).

Underlying and compounding all of these challenges is the vulnerability of the country to the combined effects of the ‘triple threat’ of protracted natural


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disasters, HIV/Aids, and weak national capacities to provide basic social services. Mozambique suffers from recurrent drought, particularly in semi‐arid areas, which has led to pockets of food and nutrition insecurity and reduced access to safe water and sanitation in affected areas. The country is also prone to sudden cyclones and floods resulting in, amongst others, the loss of crops and livelihoods, and outbreaks of cholera and high levels of diarrhoea among children, particularly in the rural areas (AEO 2008). The single greatest threat to development in Mozambique, however, is HIV/Aids and the epidemic is threatening to undermine all of the results achieved by the government over the last decade. Based on the prevalence of HIV among pregnant women attending antenatal care, the national HIV prevalence rate for 15‐49‐year‐olds increased from 14% in 2001 to 16% in 2007 (ibid.). There is great variation by region and province: HIV prevalence in southern Mozambique is showing a rising trend (from 15% in 2001 to 19% in 2004 and 21% in 2007), whereas in the central and northern regions, HIV prevalence is levelling out at 18% and 9%, respectively (ibid.). Provinces in the south have shown a dramatic increase in prevalence rate since 2001, with the sharpest growth noted in Gaza and Maputo provinces (prevalence currently estimated at 27% and 26%, respectively). The HIV/Aids epidemic in Mozambique has ‘a woman’s face’: the prevalence among women in the 15‐24 age group is 2.5 times higher than that among men. Furthermore, HIV prevalence rates among young women (15‐24 years) attending antenatal clinics continue to rise from an estimated 15.6% in 2004 to 16.2% in 2007 (ibid.). In addition to the human cost of HIV/Aids, the epidemic is also threatening to seriously weaken institutional capacity and decrease economic productivity through the loss of human resources. Estimates indicate that AIDS may reduce the economic growth per capita by between 0.3 and 1.0 per cent each year (ibid.). The reduction of poverty rates will be slower on account of weaker economic growth, a reduction in the accumulation of human capital, and an increase in household dependency rates. The government has invested heavily in public sector reform, capacity development and a decentralisation programme, with the objective of improving efficiency, enhancing transparency and devolving responsibility from the heavily centralised state ministries to the provinces and districts. The limited operational and managerial capacity of some sectors remains a concern, however, particularly at the sub‐national levels and in relation to the recruitment and retention of qualified human resources, a problem that is being exacerbated by the AIDS pandemic. If Mozambique is to attain the MDGs, it requires an urgent halt and reversal of the incidence of HIV/Aids, improvements in the efficiency of service delivery to the poor, employment creation, increases in the state revenue, reductions in


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foreign aid dependency, and effective preparedness for recurrent natural disasters. Particular focus will need to be placed on reaching the most disadvantaged communities in order to reduce the prevailing disparities, increase participation in development processes, and ensure that the development gains are experienced by all Mozambicans. It is evident from the above statistics that Mozambique is one of the poorest and most under‐developed countries in the world. On virtually all socio‐economic indicators it ranks in the lowest group. In education, access at all levels is unacceptably low. Access to higher education is appallingly low at less than 1% for the relevant age group. In addition, there are serious questions relating to equity, efficiency and quality. In terms of the WEF’s (2010) Global Competitiveness Index (GCI, 2010‐11), Mozambique is ranked at 131out of 139countries. According to the WEF, Mozambique is a Stage 1 (factor‐driven) economy. Table 2.2 provides data on quality of the education system, gross tertiary education enrolment rates and global competitiveness, as well as the stage of development of each country’s economy. It shows this data both for the HERANA countries as well as the three international case studies. The latter group has tertiary education participation rates and are all ‘innovation‐driven’ economies. Amongst the HERANA countries, there is a strong correlation between tertiary education participation and global competitiveness, on the one hand, and the stage of economic development on the other. The countries fall into two groups. One group (Botswana, Mauritius and South Africa) has relatively high GDP per capita (Table 2.1) and tertiary education participation with Mauritius and South Africa being classified as ‘efficiency‐driven’ and Botswana in transition to this group. The other group, comprising the five other sample countries, has relatively low GDP per capita and tertiary education participation, and is classified as ‘factor driven’. The countries in this latter group are also ranked relatively low in terms of global competitiveness.


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Table 2.2: Selected higher education and economic development indicators

Country Stage of development (2009‐2010)1

Quality of education

system ranking (2009‐2010)2

Gross tertiary education

enrolment rate (2008)

Overall global competitiveness

ranking (2010‐2011)2

Ghana

Stage 1: Factor‐driven

71 6.25 114

Kenya 32 4.16 106

Mozambique 81 1.53 131

Tanzania 99 1.55 113

Uganda 72 3.7 118

Botswana Transition from

1 to 2 48 7.64 76

Mauritius Stage 2: Efficiency‐driven

50 25.9 55

South Africa 130 15.44 54

Finland Stage 3:

Innovation‐driven

6 94.4 7

South Korea 57 98.1 22

United States

26 82.9 4

Sources: WEF (2010)

Notes: 1 Income thresholds (GDP per capita in USD) for establishing stages of development (WEF 2010: 10): Stage 1 Factor‐driven: <2 000; Transition from stage 1 to stage 2: 2 000‐3 000; Stage 2 Efficiency‐driven: 3 000‐9 000; Transition from stage 2 to stage 3: 9 000‐17 000; Stage 3 Innovation‐driven: >17 000. 2 Ranked out of 139 countries. 3 2005 figure. 4 2006 figure. The 2010 figure by the Botswana Tertiary Education Council is over 20% while in South Africa the figure remained around 16%. 5 2007 figure. 6 2009 figure.

Of the 12 pillars of competitiveness that the WEF uses in the derivation of the GCI, two are particularly relevant for the purposes of this study: a) the ‘efficiency‐enhancing’ 5th pillar, higher education and training; and one of the ‘innovation and sophistication’ factors, namely innovation. With regard to higher education and training, its ranking is 130 out of 133 countries. On ‘innovation’ it is ranked higher at 105. In fact Mozambique fares poorly on all the competitiveness indicators but particularly so on health and primary education, higher education and training, goods market efficiency, financial market sophistication, and business sophistication. The Global Innovation Index (GII) assesses in detail the extent to which different economies benefit from the latest innovation advances, based on three main principles:


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There is a distinction between enablers (inputs) and outputs while measuring innovation in an economy. Enablers are aspects that help an economy to stimulate innovation and outputs are the results of innovative activities within the economy.

There are five enabler pillars that are included in the GII: Institutions, Human Capacity, General and ICT Infrastructure, Market Sophistication and Business Sophistication. The enabler pillars define aspects of the conducive environment required to stimulate innovation within an economy.

There are two output pillars which provide evidence of the results of innovation within the economy: Scientific Outputs and Well‐Being. The scientific outputs include knowledge creation (e.g. patents, publications) and knowledge application (e.g. industry value‐added, production process sophistication, employment in knowledge‐intensive services). Amongst the innovation inputs or enablers, ‘human capacity’ is measured by investment in education and the quality of educational institutions. Table 2.3 compares the GCI and GII for the eight HERANA countries.


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Table 2.3: Global competitiveness and global innovation

Country

Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) Ranking*

Global Innovation Index (GII) Ranking**

Botswana 66 (4.08) 86 (2.80)

Ghana 114 (3.45) 105 (2.66)

Kenya 98 (3.67) 83 (2.84)

Mauritius 57 (4.22) 73 (2.93)

Mozambique 129 (3.22) 100 (2.69)

South Africa 45 (4.34) 51 (3.24)

Uganda 108 (3.53) 108 (2.65)

Tanzania 100 (3.59) 98 (2.69)

Sources: *WEF (2009); **INSEAD (2010) Notes: 1. GCI

a) The GCI ranks 132 countries, with the top three countries being Switzerland (with a GCI score of 5.60), US, and Singapore.

b) The GCI is derived from three sub‐indices and 12 pillars of competitiveness. The three sub‐indices are “basic requirements” (with four pillars – institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic stability, and health and primary education); “efficiency enhancers” (with six pillars – higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market efficiency, financial market sophistication, technological readiness, and market size); and “innovation and sophistication factors” (with two pillars – business sophistication and innovation). The basic requirements sub‐index is considered key for factor‐driven economies, the efficiency enhancers are key for efficiency‐driven economies, and the innovation and sophistication factors are key for innovation‐driven economies.

2. GII a) The GII combines innovation inputs (such as institutions, human capacity, information

and communication technology and uptake of infrastructure, market and business sophistication) with innovation outputs (such as science and creative outputs).

b) The top four countries in the GII are Iceland (with a score of 4.86), Sweden, Hong Kong and China.

2.1.2 Economic development policy and planning The national vision for development The Mozambican government has been putting in place policies and strategies to promote economic growth, reduce poverty and reach the MDG targets. Since 1991, the country has embarked on structural adjustment programmes to reinvigorate the economy and reduce poverty. Development partners have been instrumental in providing resources to finance government development efforts, given that domestic resources are insufficient to respond to growing needs. Thus, Mozambique has been aid‐dependent for a long time. In 2000, overseas development assistance constituted 29% of GDP and in 2005, 16%. In


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2007, aid covered more than 50% of the state budget (Committee of Counsellors 2003:1). Despite this level of development assistance flow, and impressive economic growth averaging 8% between 2002 and 2007, Mozambique continues to be highly dependent on foreign aid. Moreover, as shown earlier, a large proportion of the population still lives in absolute poverty, meaning that the government will continue to seek external assistance to pursue its development agenda in line with its five‐year development plan, and its poverty reduction programme/plan of action for the reduction of absolute poverty (PRSP/PARPA) and MDGs. In Mozambique, the development agenda has been spelled out through different instruments, including the following (ibid.: 2):

Agenda 2025 is a long‐term vision that sets development objectives for a 25‐year horizon. It was formulated by a group of ‘counselors’ composed of reputable citizens from different political parties, private sector, academia and civil society.

The government’s five‐year plan, which is inspired by Agenda 2025, sets development objectives and strategies for five years. This plan is formulated by the government.

PRSP/PARPA constitutes a medium‐term plan that sets objectives and strategies for poverty reduction over a five‐year period.

A medium‐term expenditure framework. This is a tool for the construction of plans and macro‐economic frameworks for short and longterms. It aims to indicate the amount of financial resources needed to implement activities over a three‐year horizon, to respond to policies defined within the five‐year plan and PARPA. The implementation of the five year plan and PRSP is done through annual plans. The national vision for development is encapsulated in the government’s Agenda 2025.Agenda 2025 is seen as an effort “for endowing the country with a long‐term development programme” (ibid.:16). It is seen as a strategic exercise of reflection over the future of Mozambique, with the following objectives (ibid.):

To create a long‐term national vision through a participatory process, and To prepare a national development strategy through a participatory process,

defining the necessary policies and programmes for responding to the objectives identified in the national development strategy. The achievements of these objectives will make the following possible (ibid.: 16‐17):


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Increased capacity in government, institutions and civil society for defining and implementing national economic policies, programmes and projects;

Ensuring consistency among short‐, medium‐ and long‐term economic and social policies; and

Increasing the government’s capacity to play a key role in the coordination and management of development cooperation. The main function of the shared national vision was to provide a set of guidelines for medium‐ and long‐term action for leaders and decision‐makers, in the public and private sectors and in civil society. Agenda 2025 was seen as contributing “to creating a national consensus on what Mozambique should be by 2025 and to formulating a comprehensive National Strategy for materialising the Vision” (ibid.:17). The education challenges identified in Agenda 2025 include adult and youth illiteracy; improving access at all levels; low levels of efficiency in schooling; and poor quality of educational provision (ibid.: 29). In relation to education, the focus will be placed on the massive expansion of basic education, strengthening secondary education, community participation in the educational processes, expansion of adult literacy and education, technical and vocational training related to science and technology (S&T), and scientific research and innovation. The challenges in achieving the education component of the Agenda 2025 vision have been identified as follows (ibid.: 123,128‐133):

1. Ensuring comprehensive education:

Massive expansion of basic education Strengthening secondary education Community education and training Improving the quality of teacher training Adult literacy and education Technical and vocational training Education for S&T Patriotic, moral and civic education Improving school administrative policies

2. Ensuring the development of S&T as one of the determining factors for

improving the quality of human capital and for increasing its use as a production factor. Science and technology are recognised as constituting a potential input for economic growth, for the eradication of poverty, and for improving living conditions. The S&T system (which comprises education, scientific research, technology, dissemination and communication) faces many challenges, including the following:


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Overcoming the quality and absorption capacity problems in secondary, technical and higher education, leading to a critical mass increase in the sectors of education and scientific research;

Expansion and de‐concentration of the research institutes existing in the capital, and the revival of local research centres;

Modernisation of the productive sector, which is currently characterised by the export of unprocessed raw materials, associated with the import of semi‐finished and finished products, introducing modern technologies able to compete with their foreign counterparts in terms of quality and cost;

Elimination of economic, linguistic, educational and geographic barriers, so that the means of communication can reach a greater proportion of the population, thus expanding scientific and technological knowledge; and

Mobilisation of the necessary resources for the maintenance and development of human and institutional capital.

3. Ensuring implementation of access to basic education for all young people of schooling age by 2015.

4. Improving economic, social, environmental and educational conditions, so as to

provide populations with an acceptable and healthy life standard. 5. Supporting populations in rural areas to increase production and productivity,

thus creating the conditions to dispose of production, to develop the social and cultural basis and to expand essential infrastructure. National development goals and priorities In May 2005, the Government of Mozambique adopted a new Five‐Year Development Plan for the period 2005‐2009. The main objectives of the plan include the following: (a) to reduce the levels of absolute poverty, which will be pursued through activities in the areas of education, health and rural development; (b) rapid and sustainable economic growth, focusing attention on the creation of an economic environment that favours private sector activity; (c) economic development of the country, with an initial focus on rural areas, and the reduction of regional imbalances; (d) consolidation of peace, national unity, justice, democracy and national awareness, as indispensable conditions for the harmonious development of the country; (e) to combat corruption, crime and red tape; and (f) to strengthen sovereignty and international cooperation (Council of Ministers 2006a: 2). The National Action Plan for the Reduction of Absolute Poverty (PRSP II/PARPA II), 2006‐2009, is intended to operationalise the objectives of the Five‐Year Plan. PARPA II sets out the country’s medium‐term strategy to promote growth and reduce poverty, as defined through the three pillars of governance, human capital and economic development (Council of Ministers 2006a). PARPA


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II was prepared by the Government of Mozambique involving civil society and development partners, including the United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The aid environment in Mozambique Mozambique is Africa’s single biggest recipient of international development assistance. About 50% of annual government spending is financed from external assistance (Cumbi 2008). The way this assistance is delivered has changed considerably, with a clear and concerted move towards increased harmonisation and alignment of donor activity centred on the PARPA process, together with an interrelated move towards more flexible aid modalities such as sector Common Funds and General Budget Support. Flexible modalities such as General Budget Support and Common Funds now comprise around 40% of gross aid commitments (ibid.). The move towards harmonisation, alignment and more flexible aid modalities to support the PARPA implementation has been led in Mozambique by the Programme Aid Partnership – a group of 19 bilateral and multilateral donors providing General Budget Support to the state budget. The government and its partners signed a memorandum of understanding in 2004, which sets out the principles, terms and operations for the partnership. This is one of the largest joint programmes in Africa, both in terms of volume and the number of donors involved. The partnership is organised around a structure of 24 thematic groups, in which government, donors, the United Nations and civil society participate to monitor progress against the PARPA II indicators, notably through a joint review process twice a year (ibid.). In conclusion, the policy documents described above suggest a strong, clearly thought‐out development policy framework based on international best practice that effectively links development plans to the budgeting process. In the national vision, five‐year plans, and the PRSP, the role of education in development broadly, and in the knowledge economy specifically, is widely acknowledged.


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2.2 The Mozambique higher education system

2.2.1 The size and shape of the higher education system System differentiation The first higher education institution was created in 1962 by the Portuguese as a branch of the Portuguese universities, with the aim of serving mainly the children of settlers. This institution, called Estudos Gerais Universitários, was upgraded to the University of Lourenço Marques in 1968. Initially, this university offered nine academic programmes, namely Pedagogical Sciences, Medicine and Surgery, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electro‐technical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Agronomy, Silviculture and Veterinary Sciences. New programmes were progressively offered as the institution grew, reaching 17 degree programmes by 1974 (Chilundo 2010). The University of Lourenço Marques maintained its discriminatory nature in relation to Mozambicans; in fact, until 1974, Mozambican students constituted less than 0.1% of the student population. With independence in 1975, Mozambique changed the nature and the goal of the University of Lourenço Marques, as it was transformed in to the Eduardo Mondlane University in 1976. The main mission of the new institution was to train the critical mass and highly trained staff that Mozambique needed to solidify the independence of the new Republic. Therefore, UEM became the first truly Mozambican university and it is still the major university in the country. The higher education system comprises 26 institutions, of which 13 are public and 13 are private. The number of private institutions has been growing rapidly since their introduction in 1995. The institutions are of three types: universities, polytechnics and tertiary schools. Among the higher education institutions, the UEM, the oldest and largest institution, is by far the leading institution, dominating access of students to higher education. UEM offers courses in many areas (ranging from pure science, through engineering, technology, economics and business, to arts). It is also located in different cities in the country. In 2006, UEM had 61% of student enrolments among the public higher education institutions in the country (41% of all student enrolments, public and private) (ibid.). With close to 12 000 enrolled students, the institution had more than double the students of the second largest institution in the country (Universidade Pedagogica), which in turn was much larger than the rest. Private institutions complement the effort of the state in terms of generating access to higher education, although with limited reach. All private higher


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education institutions together enrolled, in 2005, a third of all higher education students. Of these institutions, the Instituto Superior de Ciencias e Technolgias de Mozambique, the Instituto Superior Politechnico e Universitario, and the Universidade Catolica de Mocambique are the largest, all being university‐type institutions (ibid.). The geographic expansion of higher education has also been rapid, either through the establishment of satellite campuses or the opening of new universities in the provinces. Although most higher education institutions are concentrated in Maputo city, all provinces have some type of higher education institution, mainly in the form of a satellite campus. The number of full‐time academic staff is about 1200, of which 15% are PhD‐holders, 25% are masters degree‐holders, and 60% are holders of a first degree (bachelors or licentiate). These numbers indicate that there is still a need for high investment in staff training at the masters and PhD levels. Participation in higher education The higher education sub‐system has grown rapidly in terms of student numbers, from about 3 750 students in 1989 to almost 40 000 in 2006. Two thirds of these students are enrolled in public institutions and one third in private institutions(ibid.). Female students account for about one third of the current enrolments, and two thirds of all students enrolled are in the fields of social sciences, humanities and arts. The large enrolment in social sciences, arts and humanities is, on the one hand, a reflection of the availability of places in the higher education institutions and, on the other, the existence of employment opportunities in these areas. In spite of the growth in the number of university places, students in higher education institutions represent a very small segment in relation to the population as a whole. It is only 0.16% of the 20‐25‐year‐old age cohort that study at higher education institutions, or 40 in every 100 000 inhabitants (Chilundo 2004). With rapid expansion, quality assurance – already a central governance objective in the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology (MHEST) Strategic Plan (MHEST 2000) – has become an even more pressing issue. Also, the priority of the government is to safeguard and improve equity of access, aiming at a regional and gender balance across the country. At the same time, the government is committed to ensuring that quality standards are even across institutions and regions.


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2.2.2 Higher education expenditure and financing2 At the beginning of this decade, higher education expenditure comprised only a very small proportion of the total education budget. For example, in 2001, total education expenditure comprised 6.5% of GDP and higher education expenditure only 0.8%. However, since 2004, public spending on higher education increased dramatically growing at 23% between 2004 and 2005 and by 6% the following year, such that spending on higher education now takes up around 40% of the total education budget. Given that Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world this is a shocking statistic in terms of its implications for access to primary and secondary education.3 Most of the public funds for higher education have been spent on building new physical infrastructure; strengthening human capacity, particularly academic staff, at the higher education institutions; and creating the necessary information and communications technology infrastructure for the sector. There is minimal cost‐sharing in the public system. Students currently pay a low tuition fee, around USD 100 per year. The government finances higher education through two basic mechanisms. First, it makes funds available to:

The Ministry of Education and Culture for policy development, including quality assurance mechanisms;

Higher education institutions and staff, in both public and private institutions, through the Quality Enhancement and Innovative Facility – an initiative to reward institutions and individuals for the development of quality‐enhancing programmes; and

Students, through the provincial scholarship fund, in which students from the rural provinces can apply for funding to study at any of the accredited higher education institutions. Second, the government provides direct funding to the public higher education institutions, through a mix of instruments, including the following:

Direct budgetary allocations to the institutions, through submission of specific proposals to parliament;

Sourcing grant funds from development partners and directing them to the higher education sector; and

Sourcing and allocating credit funds, in preferential conditions, to fill gaps in public financing (e.g. from the World Bank).

2This section draws on Chilundo (2010). 3This data is from Chilundo (2010). However, according to UNDP’s Human Development Report

2008, higher education expenditure comprises only 13% of the country’s education budget.


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State funding at the institutional level is based on inputs (number of students) only. No account is currently taken of output factors such as graduates. However, a system was designed in 2003 by the then‐Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology and implemented at higher education institutions to capture, classify and produce adequate information for educational cost centre analysis. The system, designed with technical support from international partners, was based on international best practices, adapted to the local reality, and piloted at UEM. Later, the system was further developed to cover UEM and three other major public higher education institutions, and implemented in these institutions, establishing a system‐wide coordinated educational cost accounting and reporting system. Private higher education institutions are not entitled to any direct funding or subsidies from the government. As stated earlier, however, in 2002 the government introduced a provincial scholarship scheme which has immensely benefited students from poor, rural backgrounds who have accessed the Quality Enhancement and Innovative Facility. In addition, staff at private institutions can apply for grants from the Facility. In summary, it is evident that access to higher education is increasing rapidly from a low base in the late 1980s. This has been due to the expansion of both public and private sector provision. Moreover, if the government is spending about two thirds of its budget on higher education, this is highly inequitable in the light of the country’s failure to achieve universal primary education, as well as its low participation rate in secondary education. In addition, there is little evidence to suggest that the high level of expenditure is efficient both at the institutional level (as measured in terms of internal efficiency, e.g. drop‐out and repetition rates) and with regard to external efficiency measures (system responsiveness to the labour market). Finally, although there is little data available, it is likely that the high level of spending is concentrated on those households in the two top quintiles, with the poor again having to seek access in the private higher education sector. To some extent, equity is being promoted through the provincial scholarship fund but the amount of funding directed towards this scheme is relatively small and can make no more than a minimal impact.

2.2.3 Higher education governance and policy Up until 2000, the higher education system in Mozambique had been an integral part of the Ministry of Education. However, during the 2000‐2004 period of government, the government recognised the importance of developing the high‐end of its human capital and, with it, the national capacity to generate and apply scientific and technological innovation in the different economic sectors, as the key to pursuing a sustainable high‐growth policy. Thus, MHEST was established in January 2000.


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Through this legislation, two important councils were also established and have been crucial for MHEST in building support for the regulatory framework. The first is the Higher Education Council which brings together MHEST and all higher education institutions, at the highest level, in a collaborative effort to shape the mechanisms in support of policy implementation in the sector. The second is the National Council on Higher Education, Science and Technology (CNESCT). This is the consultative organ for the Council of Ministers and a broader forum with the mandate to oversee the articulation and the integration of planning processes between the higher education and S&T sectors. It was made up of representatives from various sections of government, the Higher Education Council, representatives from research and higher education institutions, business associations, and civil society. As a sounding board for evaluating progress of policy implementation, CNESCT functioned as a crucial body in scrutinising new MHEST policies and proposals before they were presented to the Council of Ministers for approval and legislation. Crucially, the CNESCT also made recommendations to the Council of Ministers with respect to the creation of new institutions (Chilundo 2010). Following the election of the new president in 2005, the restructuring of a number of ministerial portfolios took place. As a result, the approach of the bundling together of higher education and S&T into a separate ministry was reversed. The MHEST portfolio has been split into higher education, on the one hand, and S&T, on the other. Higher education has been reintegrated with education in the new Ministry of Education and Culture, while a new Ministry of Science and Technology governs the S&T sectors. While the previous policy of bundling higher education with S&T into one ministerial portfolio put MHEST in a strategic key position to support overall development policies in Mozambique, the new policy seems to take a more functional approach to higher education, and therefore brings it back into the overall education portfolio.

2.3 The Eduardo Mondlane University

UEM was established as a centre for higher education in 1962 in what was then Lourenço Marques, the capital of the metropolis Portugal as an overseas province of Mozambique. It was founded by the then overseas provinces minister Adriano Moreira under the designation of Estudos Gerais Universitários de Moçambique (Mozambique General University Studies). In 1968 it gained the status of a full university and was named the University of Lourenço Marques. When the country gained independence in 1975, Lourenço Marques, the then capital city, was renamed Maputo and, a year later, the university was renamed Eduardo Mondlane, honouring the first president of Frelimo, Eduardo Mondlane.


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2.3.1 Governance and strategic objectives The university is led by a vice‐chancellor and two deputy‐vice‐chancellors (for Academic Affairs and for Administration and Finances). Key governance structures and bodies include the University Council and Academic Council, the Office for Planning and Cooperation, the Advisory Office for Postgraduation and Research, the General Council for Administration, and the Board of Directors. Currently the mission of the institution is as follows: “The Eduardo Mondlane University is committed to be an institution of excellence in the context of education, science, culture and technology, educating for life that enables the professionals assume responsibilities in the process of innovation and knowledge transfer and in sustainable development. The Eduardo Mondlane University strives for their integration and affirmation in the scientific community worldwide and as agent and subject to change and transformation of society.”4 The strategic plan for the period 2008‐2014 (UEM 2010) includes the following strategic objectives:

1. Design, implement and monitor academic reform with a view to regional integration;

2. Promote equitable access; 3. Ensure quality and excellence in teaching; 4. Ensure quality and excellence in research and outreach activities and services; 5. Develop physical infrastructure; 6. Develop and enhance human resources; 7. Promote efficiency in administration and management, communication and

marketing; and 8. Develop and strengthen cooperation at national, regional and international

levels.

2.3.2 Academic structure UEM currently has fourteen faculties including Agronomy and Forestall Engineering, Sciences, Architecture, Law, Economy, Education, Engineering, Arts and Social Sciences, Medicine, Veterinary Sciences, Marine and Coastal Sciences, Art and Communication, Tourism and Hotel Industry, and Management and Entrepreneurship (Chibuto). There are also a number of centres including the Centre for Communication and Marketing, the Centre for Biotechnology, the Historical Archive of Mozambique, the University Foundation, the Natural History Museum, the Centre for Distance Teaching, the

4Translated from Portuguese into English in Langa (2009).


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Centre for Industrial, Security and Environmental Studies, the Information Centre and the Centre for African Studies.

2.3.3 Institutional finances Table 2.4 below shows that the total income received from government increased from USD 12 759 200 in 2001 to USD 27 167 900 in 2007. As can be seen from Figure 2.5, between 2001 and 2006, the proportion of state allocations remained more or less constant at just over half the income to the university. There was, however, a fairly significant decrease in the proportion of income from donations (28.4% in 2001 to 11.81% in 2006) and an increase in the proportion of loans (from 9.58% in 2001 to 17.58% in 2006).

Table 2.4: Eduardo Mondlane University government income (2001‐2007)

Academic year

Government allocations in local currency (MZN) (thousands)

Government allocations in USD

(thousands) Exchange rate

2001 264 175.0 12 759.2 20.7 MZN = 1 USD

2002 318 301.0 13 374.1 23.8 MZN = 1 USD

2003 350 411.8 14 734.2 23.8 MZN = 1 USD

2004 447 913.9 19 895.5 22.5 MZN = 1 USD

2005 501 411.0 21 619.5 23.2 MZN = 1 USD

2006 565 879.4 24 242.4 23.3 MZN = 1 USD

2007 707 451.5 27 167.9 26.0 MZN = 1 USD

Figure 2.1: Income by source as a percentage of total income, Eduardo Mondlane University (2001‐2006)

52%54%

52% 51%

57%55%

10%

15%13% 14% 14%

16%

28%27%

23%

18%

11% 12%10%

4%

11%

17% 18% 18%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

State allocations

Tuition fees

Donations

Loans


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3.1 Introduction As was highlighted in section 1.1.3, the existence of a ‘pact’ between national and institutional stakeholders, as well as external stakeholders such as industry and foreign donors, on the role of higher education is a key factor in the extent to which universities are able to make a sustained contribution to development. A pact was defined as a fairly long‐term cultural, socio‐economic and political understanding and commitment between universities, political authorities and society at large of the identity or vision of universities, what is expected of universities, and what the rules and values of the universities are. For the purposes of this study, our interest is in exploring the general nature of the pact, and then the extent to which there is a role for higher education in economic development in the pact. We begin our analysis of the nature and extent of a pact in Mozambique by considering the notion(s) of the role of higher education from the perspective of the national authorities and the institutional stakeholders at the UEM. This includes an investigation of the ways in which both national and institutional stakeholders talk about development and the role of higher education, whether and how these notions are articulated in relevant policy documents, and the extent to which specific structures have been established to give expression to the intent of the policies. It also includes a look into the extent to which matters pertaining to higher education are coordinated across national authorities, and between national authorities, higher education institutions (with a specific focus on UEM) and key external stakeholders.

Part 3

The role of higher education in Mozambique

AT A GLANCE

Key national higher education stakeholders Role of higher education in national policies Policy coordination in the higher education sector Institutional narratives on the role of the university Policies, structures and appointments Research funding Research priorities Linkages with the labour market


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3.2 The national perspective

3.2.1 Key national stakeholders in relation to the pact The key stakeholders in tertiary education are the following:

The Ministry of Education and Culture The Ministry of Science and Technology Foreign donors Public and private tertiary education institutions The private sector and civil society

The nature and level of coordination between the Ministries of Education and Culture, and Science and Technology, is unclear. Moreover, little is known about the private universities beyond their obvious ‘education and training’ functions. The private sector obviously plays a role in the ownership and management of the private higher education institutions but there is little information about the role of the business sector in partnerships either with government or the higher education institutions around research and innovation.

3.2.2 The role of higher education in national policies The national vision for tertiary education

The mission statement of the Strategic Plan of Higher Education in Mozambique, 2000‐2010 states that “Higher education in Mozambique shall guarantee equitable access and participation of all citizens; it shall respond to the needs of the Mozambican society to ensure its capacity of facing the great challenges of the country’s social, economic and cultural development” (MHEST 2000: 2). The vision for higher education is described as follows (ibid.):

Expanding opportunities of access to higher education in consonance with the

increasing needs of the labour market and society, so that an increasing proportion of citizens will be able to acquire and develop high‐level knowledge and skills needed for rapid economic and social development.

Improving quality and relevance of teaching and research. Responding to changes in social and cultural needs, arising from the country’s

rich diversity of linguistic and ethnic groups, and to economic and technological transformation arising from a rapidly developing market economy.

Increasing social, regional and gender equity by promoting higher levels of participation by disadvantaged or under‐represented groups in society.

Ensuring sustainability by promoting an appropriate balance between public and private finance and management of higher education institutions.


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In partnership with government, the private sector and other stakeholders, supporting the development of the competitiveness of Mozambique in the evolving regional economic block and ultimately at the global level. To achieve these objectives, the document states that higher education would be guided by the following principles (ibid.: 3):

Institutional autonomy combined with accountability to stakeholders

(government, employers, students and the local, national and international community);

Efficient use of resources, elimination of unnecessary duplication of facilities and reduction in rates of student dropout and repetition;

Diversity and flexibility of institutions, courses, curricula and methods of delivery, to ensure responsiveness to changing social, cultural and economic demands;

Equitable sharing of the costs and financing of tertiary education between all relevant partners (higher education institutions, government, students, families and employers);

Effective and transparent criteria and mechanisms of financial support to needy students, to ensure that access to tertiary education is not denied to talented, but financially disadvantaged, applicants;

Democracy, intellectual dependence and academic freedom; Cooperation with and support to other sectors of the national education

system; Regional and gender equity; and Strengthening of the linkages and cooperation with the productive sector, and

national, regional and international communities.

The strategy for higher education provides for the following (ibid.: 5‐7):

Higher education must have a national scope involving government at national and sub‐national levels, civil society and higher education institutions.

The state must have a fundamental role in the development and expansion of higher education.

The strategy for the development of higher education must be linked to policies for economic development.

Higher education institutions should be located in regions and zones where they can develop their local economies and promote regional development.

Higher education development should be linked to policies for the development of S&T.

There should be adequate provision of institutional differentiation between universities, polytechnics and other tertiary institutions.

The state must play a critical role in regulating the establishment of higher education institutions; regulating the labour market and demand and supply of higher education; in promoting equity and standardisation of teaching; in accreditation; in facilitating dialogue between higher education institutions,


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donors and investors; and, in promoting articulation between higher education institutions and research institutes, and other institutions.

Higher education institutions should promote the activities of teaching, research and extension in close link to the needs of the country.

The links between higher education institutions and the labour market should be promoted and concrete programmes of cooperative education designed. The strategic plan as a framework for policy implementation has driven change through a more system‐wide approach in the higher education sector (Government of Mozambique 2000). The strategic plan 2000‐2010 became the main reference document for guiding and implementing policy in the higher education sector. As described earlier, this plan offers a 10‐year vision for the development of higher education in Mozambique, focusing on increasing access, reducing regional and gender disparities, and rationalising resources through the improvement of the internal efficiency of the whole system. It was evident that implementing the plan required a national effort based on collaboration between government at all levels, the higher education institutions and the society at large. In summary, the plan, as described earlier, contained the following six major themes (MHEST 2000):

1. Improve access and equity by expanding the availability of higher education institutions physically and geographically, reforming access policies, and developing financial assistance policies and mechanisms for students in order to boost student numbers.

2. Increase flexibility and responsiveness of the system in order to meet market demand and the priorities of the national development agenda. This would be achieved by creating training opportunities and opportunities for collaboration between the academic and private sectors, developing top‐level public service curricula, and increasing student access to labour market information. With these measures the intent is to make the system more relevant to its socio‐economic environment.

3. Increase efficiency of higher education institutions by rationalising existing resources, improving management systems, and diversifying sources of finance.

4. Increase diversity in higher education institution training programmes and forms of delivery.

5. Improve quality assurance by improving teaching and learning conditions, establishing accreditation and quality evaluation mechanisms, and boosting innovation and research infrastructure within and between higher education institutions.

6. Governance: Redefine the role of government in higher education by developing a sector‐wide higher education policy embedded within the national policy framework, by developing and establishing the regulatory mechanisms for policy implementation, and by facilitating regional integration


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of the higher education sector and international cooperation with regard to the higher education sector. This strategic plan is also the framework within which donor aid has so far been organised. The development of the strategic plan attracted strong interest from the World Bank, Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and the Dutch‐funded (Netherlands Organisation for International Cooperation in Higher Education) NUFFIC. Following the release of the strategic plan and the creation of MHEST, the trend in external funding has moved in favour of system‐wide projects that now complement direct funding to the higher education institutions. The Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy Although science and technology was separated from the Ministry of Higher Education, the government’s Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy (Council of Ministers 2006b) recognises the important role of higher education institutions in developing the strategy to ensure that Mozambique is ready to participate in the knowledge economy. Specifically, the government has allocated responsibility for the strategy to the universities and the 16 public scientific and technological research institutes (ibid.: 18). The strategy has a specific link to development. It states that its goal is to “establish an enabling framework, including strategic and programmes, that enables science, technology and innovation to be harnessed, thereby enhancing their contribution to poverty reduction, economic growth and to the social wellbeing of Mozambique’s citizens” (ibid.: viii). In this regard, the strategic objectives of the Strategy include the following (ibid.: ix‐xii):

Foster a culture of innovation throughout Mozambican society; Promote grassroots innovation and the use of S&T‐based approaches by poor

and disadvantaged communities; Promote R&D and innovation within the public and private sectors; Promote the transfer of technology; Promote the use of information and communication technologies for good

governance and service delivery, and for the diffusion of knowledge, in support of poverty reduction and economic growth;

Promote human resource development at all levels in the areas of science, technology and innovation;

Build and improve the policy instruments, institutions and infrastructure of the S&T system;

Establish funding policies and mechanisms for research and innovation; Review, evaluate and enhance the performance of the S&T system; and Promote the mainstreaming of S&T within all sectors.


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In conclusion, there is a very clearly defined role for tertiary education in national development. This is illustrated in the prominence given to the role of education in general, and to tertiary education in particular, in the national development vision document, Agenda 2025. The several roles of higher education in relation to development have been recognised, namely (Committee of Counsellors 2005: 123):

The education and training functions of tertiary education for meeting labour market needs;

Education for preparing Mozambique for the knowledge economy; and Tertiary education for ensuring development of S&T “as one of the determining

factors for improving the quality of human capital and for increasing its use as a production factor”.

3.2.3 Governance and policy coordination Mozambique has developed excellent policy documents that articulate the importance of cross‐cutting issues such as governance, human resource development, economic development, and S&T, amongst others. These documents include Agenda 2025, PARPA I and II, the Strategic Plan for Education and the Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy. With respect to higher education and development, there is recognition on the part of policy‐makers of the causal linkages between higher education and development, as well as those between higher education, S&T and innovation. However, it is not at all clear from the documentation and the interviews with policy‐makers whether policy is being effectively translated into implementation. The institutional mechanisms necessary for effective coordination and implementation of policy at the national level appear to be absent at worst, or present but ineffective at best.

3.3 The Eduardo Mondlane University perspective

3.3.1 Institutional narrative(s) on the role of the university An institutional leader provided an overview of the historical development of the university from a predominantly teaching institution, through the temporary closure following independence, to the introduction of research into the core activities in the 1980s. He pointed out that at the time; there was not much in the way of steering from the national level in terms of research and science priorities:


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At that period [the 1980s] the country was not so organised in terms of what kind of research can be done and the age of science and technology was not yet well embedded in the system. In the 1990s the universities and the other institutions of higher learning have realised that science should take a vital role in development; they organised themselves in what we call the meeting of the directors of research institutions. This was led by Eduardo Mondlane University, this was bringing the director of agriculture, but then all these institutes were together in the same body. We started to push a little bit at government in order to look at science as an important thing. Because of that I think our country and Botswana and Uganda also, they engaged in a programme which was the Presidential Forum on Science and Technology – it was ’94, ’93, something like that. In that period we organised the first exhibition on science and technology results, and I think after Independence was the first one. (Institutional leader)

Following this, MHEST was established and the first national S&T policy was developed and approved in 2003. According to this respondent, this was the first real attempt to steer the system:

This was approved in 2003 and I think this is probably the first instrument which shows the direction in terms of science and technology in the country. The policy was approved but there were no implementation mechanisms as such. There was a period, the strategic objectives were defined, all these kind of things in the policy, but the implementation was not clear there. But at least it was shown that the government recognised that science and technology should be important and the institutions themselves should also take it into account. (Institutional leader)

The university responded by incorporating smaller projects into new, bigger programmes which were evaluated according to their contribution to national priorities such as the government’s poverty alleviation strategy. Today, as highlighted by a number of respondents, the university’s research policy (UEM 2007) is aligned with the priorities of the Mozambique Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy (see section 3.3.2). Another institutional stakeholder argued that the various governments since independence had always understood the value of higher education for development:


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I think our government understands the importance of higher education for development – that I’m sure. It’s not something new; from our Independence all the transformation of University Lorenzo Marques into Eduardo Mondlane University – the massive investment that we have done in training Mozambicans like all these cooperation agreements that the government negotiates since Independence in really building a national university that would have the three basic roles: education, research and extension well developed was clear from the first government of Mozambique – so from Samora Machel to Joaquim Chissano to Armando Guebuza. [...] you could see that many of our leaders, some of them stopped their higher education to go into the struggle. But they understood the power of knowledge. And I think that commitment became even more evident when President Chissano in ’97 nominated a national commission led by at the time Minister for Economic and Social Affairs at the Presidency, to look at higher education in the country, the role of higher education and to develop several scenarios for higher education development in the country so that it could become even a stronger driver of development. That study that was finished in ’98 was the one, in a way, that created the Higher Education, Science and Technology Ministry – because it was one of the recommendations from that study that we needed a central body at government level, at the ministry level, to look at higher education together with science and technology. (Senior academic)

However, according to this respondent, the recent separation of higher education from the S&T portfolio is a signal that the current government does not fully grasp the value of higher education for development:

I think the fact that the new government separated higher education from science for me was the first sign that they really don’t understand higher education. They don’t understand the system. They don’t know what higher education is. They know it’s powerful, they know it’s important, they know that they have to invest, but honestly I don’t think they understand what higher education is all about. (Senior academic)

This was echoed by another respondent, who argued that higher education is not a priority for the current Ministry of Education:

What I see is that there’s quite a distance between the official political discourse and reality. We have, for instance, a Ministry


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of Science and Technology, and this from 2005, but before that in 2000 in fact we had a Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology – and changing from the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology to a Ministry of Science and Technology was in my opinion going backwards, because science and technology is linked to the universities. So we need to find solutions for all these problems, looking at universities globally, and what the universities do is, on one hand, teaching and preparing graduates for the labour market. But they have this very important component or duty to do research and research that is useful, that has more or less direct impact in terms of the socio‐economic development of the country. Now what you are doing is that you have a Ministry of Science and Technology, and you have higher education under the Ministry of Education. And what happened is that the Ministry of Education, it’s main concern is not higher education, it’s primary education and secondary education, technical, vocational training – that’s what they are concerned. Just because of the numbers, let’s say, when you are dealing with primary or secondary education you talk about millions; when we are talking about university education – 60 000 – so it’s natural that the Ministry of Education doesn’t put higher education at the top of its concerns. But the fact is that we need attention to higher education, so this solution, this institutional arrangement was in my view a step backwards and doesn’t facilitate this integration that we need between the teaching and the research and finding a solution. (Senior academic)

This respondent spoke highly of the new Minister of Science and Technology but argued that the current institutional arrangements will not facilitate him in his work. One institutional leader suggested that the government does see the universities as having an important role to play given their commitment to expanding the university sector, the increase in funding, and government support for particular projects and courses:

In my opinion, the government of Mozambique, we are supporting higher education. If you see even the increase of the number of universities in terms of public, in the past it was only the one university but now we have more public universities. I think it’s the understanding of the government that the university has a role to play. Also we have some increase in our budget during the periods. It means that the government is supporting us in some projects, some courses that we are


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opening with the recommendation by the government so it means that the government is seeing us as development agents. (Institutional leader)

This institutional leader also noted that one of the main objectives of the current strategic plan is to increase participation “in terms of extension services or research for development”. For another respondent, the primary role for the university in terms of development is producing skilled people:

There is a vision in the country, there’s a vision. There are policies; there are strategies in different areas. I’m talking about education – it is considered one of the highest priorities in the country for several reasons. We are a very poor country; underdeveloped country. The rate of the literacy, it’s about 50% in Mozambique of people are not able to read and write. So the government has crafted different strategies at different levels. In terms of basic education for the elder there are campaigns to teach people at least to write their names, it’s basic – and these programmes run mainly in the rural areas. [...] Then when we come to formal education, primary, secondary and the tertiary education, again, there is a strong commitment by the government in order to boost this sector. The rationale for this lies in that for the country to develop it needs to have skilled people, educated people. Without that it is not possible. Even when we think of investment, foreign investment, the business will not invest if there are not skilled people, they’ll go rather to South Africa or to Singapore or Malaysia or China where they can find people, well‐educated people who can do the job. So we have different strategies. There is a strategy at higher education, at the primary education and the secondary education and that explain why, from time to time, we have been under reforms in education. Even now we are reforming the higher education and the secondary as well; there is ongoing reform. (Institutional leader)

In the preface of the university’s current strategic plan (UEM 2010), which covers the period 2008‐2014, the current rector, Prof. Couto, makes reference to the importance of science, technology and innovation in the knowledge economy and the need for a new social contract between science and society (UEM 2010):5 5The following quotation, and all subsequent direct quotations, from the strategic plan and the

research policy have been translated from Portuguese into English by Patricio Langa.


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We live in a knowledge society. In a knowledge‐based economy, this means whereby one of the great competitive advantages in all perspectives of human relations. We live in the era of scientific and technological revolution. Science and technology produces innovations. Innovation can help increase productivity and create more jobs, improve the quality of education and health, and thus contribute to accelerating economic and social development. [...] In the contemporary era, the greatest challenge is not only to promote higher education, but also to adapt it to a new social contract between the university and society.

To the extent that a role for the university in economic development forms part of the narratives of the institutional leadership and other senior academic staff, the question arises: what evidence is there that the institution is walking their talk? As such, we now turn our attention to an investigation of the policies, structures, programmes and funding that have been put in place relating to the institution’s role in economic development. It is important to note that it was beyond the scope of this study to assess or evaluate the effectiveness or impact of these initiatives. Instead, they are included here as part of our analysis of the vision that institutional stakeholders have for the university in relation to economic development.

3.3.2 Initiatives around research and innovation Institutional policies, structures and appointments There are no institutional‐level policies, structures or appointments relating to research and innovation in the area of economic development specifically. There is an institutional research policy (UEM 2007), but, according to one institutional leader, the university is yet to develop an implementation strategy for the policy. Research funding According to an institutional leader, the government contribution towards research at the university is negligible. In fact, it does not appear as a separate budget line but is incorporated in staff salaries (where a small percentage is regarded as an incentive for research) and in the budget for the maintenance of laboratories and so on. The university does have a small fund for research which the institution encourages staff – and especially new academics – to apply for towards their


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research. The ‘open fund’ is described in a university document as follows (UEM 2008: 6):

An open fund was established at UEM with the intention of provide [sic] UEM with the possibility of funding specific small scale research projects, encourage publication among UEM’s staff, contribute to the development of an academic environment and increase the ability of UEM’s staff to formulate and run scientific research projects. SIDA/SAREC and for a certain period the World Bank have contributed to this fund.

However, by far the largest proportion of research funding comes from foreign donors – up until recently, largely from SIDA but increasingly from other donors as well. The only mention in the university’s research policy of strategies to increase funding for research is to increase outreach (third mission) and consultancy activities and thereby generate additional external funds (UEM 2007:6‐7). Institutional research priorities A number of respondents made reference to the priority areas identified in the Mozambique Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy as forming the basis for the research priorities in their department or faculty. The strategy priorities are outlined in the university’s research policy as follows (UEM 2007:11‐12):

Strategic objectives: Human Resource Development; Education; Agriculture; Health; Energy; Marine Sciences and Fishing; Construction; Water; and, Mineral Resources.

Strategic cross‐cutting areas: Social and Human Sciences and Culture; Gender Equity; Ethno‐Botany; HIV/Aids; and, Environment.

The enabling and cross‐cutting technologies that act as catalysts for development in the strategic areas are Information and Communication Technology, and Biotechnology. The research policy does not, however, outline specific institutional research priority areas itself. The national S&T priorities are used as a guideline when the Donor Coordination Office is reviewing applications from departments and faculties for donor research funding – only those that are aligned with national strategies and policies are put forward for selection. Examples of these priorities include water, construction materials, HIV and rural development.


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3.3.3 Initiatives around teaching and learning Institutional policies, structures and appointments There are no institutional‐level policies, structures or appointments which link teaching and learning activities to economic development specifically. Linkages with the labour market Although not a formal policy, an institutional leader reported that departments are encouraged to develop courses that are in line with labour market needs as well as with the government’s priority of poverty alleviation. According to this respondent, while some departments are on board with this, others still stick to their traditional approach to curriculum design. The current strategic plan (UEM 2007) does make reference to improving access and enrolments in particular priority fields that are identified in the Mozambique Science, Technology and Innovation strategy (see section 3.3.2 above). For instance, a respondent in the Faculty of Science noted that they have recently introduced courses that are in line with the strategy and other government priorities:

For example, last year we started a Masters course in aquatic biology and coastal ecosystem, and this issue of marine resource is one of the areas in the strategic plan. The chemistry department is developing a Masters course in chemistry of natural resources. So we are doing a lot really in terms of meeting this strategic plan and meeting the priorities of our government. (Institutional leader)

The strategic plan does make reference to the need to involve external stakeholders in curriculum development and review, although it does not specify which stakeholders should be consulted. A respondent described the situation in his faculty as follows:

We are not conducting curriculum reform alone, never. We involve all stakeholders – business, the government and civil society, including the students. We set up some committees for different courses, they craft a draft. Then we go open, we hold seminars or workshops and we discuss this – what is good for this area, accountancy? Which calls for relevance, and this is our opinion. This is our way of working; we are not working in isolation, no, no, no. We have completed the first degree curriculum in terms of reform. Now we will move to the second, to Masters and the PhD – but with the involvement of all


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stakeholders. This is the way we are doing things; you cannot do this in isolation. (Institutional leader)

There is no mention in the strategic plan of lifelong learning, incubators, entrepreneurship programmes or developing new courses in response to industry.


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4.1 Introduction As outlined in the analytical framework (Section 1.1.3), the nature, size and continuity of the academic core is a key factor in the extent to which universities can make a significant and sustained contribution to development. The academic core of universities refers to teaching via academic degree programmes and to research activities (often, but not exclusively of the basic type). In societies where there is a strong pact between higher education and society, the universities have been able (and allowed) to develop a strong core of academic activities that forms the basis for all their activities. The stronger its academic core the easier it will be for a university to defend its institutional identity and integrity against external or internal threats. In addition, a strong, institutionalised academic core will allow the university to invest a large part of its resources in the maintenance and further strengthening of the core, which can be regarded as the main foundation under its specific institutional identity. According to Burton Clark (1998), when an enterprising university evolves a stronger steering core, and develops an outreach structure, its heartland is still in the traditional academic departments, formed around disciplines, and some interdisciplinary fields. The heartland is where traditional academic values and activities such as teaching, research and training of the next generation of academics occur. For the purposes of this project, we have used the following to operationalise the concept of the academic core and to identify important preconditions for the development of a strong academic core in African universities:

Part 4

The nature and strength of the Eduardo Mondlane University academic core

AT A GLANCE

A profile of the UEM academic core: Enrolments in science, engineering and technology Postgraduate enrolments and graduation rates Academic staff‐to‐student ratio Academic staff qualifications Research funding Research output


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Increased enrolments in science, engineering and technology (SET): In African governments and foreign development agencies alike, there is a strong emphasis on SET as important drivers of development (Juma 2005). Included in SET are the agricultural sciences, architecture and urban and regional planning, computer and information science, health sciences and veterinary sciences, life sciences and physical sciences.

Increased postgraduate enrolments: The knowledge economy and universities are demanding increased numbers of people with postgraduate qualifications.

A favourable academic staff to student ratio: The academic workload should allow for the possibility of research and PhD supervision.

A high proportion of academic staff with doctoral degrees: Research (CHET 2010) shows that there is high correlation between staff with doctorates, on the one hand, and research output and the training of PhD students, on the other.

Adequate research funding per academic: Research requires government and institutional funding and ‘third‐stream’ funding from external sources such as industry and foreign donors.

High graduation rates in SET fields: Not only is it important to increase SET enrolments, it is crucial that universities achieve high success rates in order to respond to the skills shortages in the African labour market in these fields.

Increased knowledge production in the form of doctoral graduates: There is a need for an increase in doctoral graduates for two reasons. Firstly, doctoral graduates form the backbone of academia and are therefore critical for the future reproduction of the academic core. Secondly, there is an increasing demand for people with doctoral degrees outside of academia (e.g. in research organisations and other organisations such as financial institutions).

Knowledge production in the form of research publications recognised in ISI journals: Academics need to be producing peer‐reviewed research publications in order for the university to participate in the global knowledge community and to contribute to new knowledge and innovation. The preconditions outlined above are translated into the following academic core indicators: Indicator 1: Programmes – Strong SET enrolments and graduations Indicator 2: Postgraduates – Increased enrolments and graduations Indicator 3: Teaching loads – Improving academic staff/student ratios Indicator 4: Qualified staff – High percentage academic staff with PhDs Indicator 5: Funding – Availability of research funds Indicator 6: Research output – High or improving output In order to develop a benchmark against which the UEM academic core could be assessed, an analysis was undertaken of South Africa’s 22 contact universities and the seven African universities included in the current study, based on seven input indicators and two output indicators. (See Appendix 2 for a description of the cluster analysis methodology, the detailed data for the institutions included in the analysis, and a graph showing the results of the


43

analysis.) A cluster analysis of the results produced the following four clusters of institutions:

Cluster 1 consists of the five South African universities which have a strong focus on both undergraduate and postgraduate studies, which are well‐resourced in teaching and in research, and which have strong research outputs.

Cluster 2 consists of two South African and five African universities which have a primary focus on undergraduate studies, which have adequate undergraduate teaching resources, and which have good undergraduate but moderate research output rates.

Cluster 3 consists of eight South African and two African universities which have high proportions of SET students, which have a main focus on undergraduate studies, but which do not have available the same levels of undergraduate teaching resources as Cluster 2. Their undergraduate output rates are satisfactory, but their research output rates fall below the targets set for South African universities.

Cluster 4 consists of seven South African universities which have low proportions of postgraduate students. Their resource levels are low compared to the other three clusters, their output rates at undergraduate level are unsatisfactory, and their research performance is poor. UEM appears in Cluster 2 together with Makerere, Botswana, Dar es Salaam, Mauritius, Johannesburg and Limpopo. In the analyses which follow UEM (which had an enrolment of 16 000 in 2007) is linked to (a) one other African university in Cluster 2 (Botswana which had an enrolment of 16 000 in 2007) and (b) Limpopo (which also had an enrolment of 16 000 in 2007). UEM is also compared to a Cluster 1 university which is close to it in terms of enrolment size. This is the University of Cape Town which had an enrolment of 21 000 in 2007.

4.2 SET enrolments and graduations Figure 4.1 shows that UEM's student enrolment more than doubled between 2001 and 2007, growing at an average annual rate of 14.3%. SET enrolments grew at an average annual rate of 9.1% over this period, compared to average annual growth rates of 23.4% for business/management and 19.8% for humanities plus education. These different growth rates changed the shape of UEM's student enrolments. Its proportion of SET students fell from 62% in 2001 to 47% in 2007. The proportion of humanities plus education students grew from 29% to 38%, and of business/management students from 10% to 15%.


44

Figure 4.1: Eduardo Mondlane: Enrolments by field of study

Table 4.1: Eduardo Mondlane: Total enrolments by field of study (thousands)

Field of study 2001 2003 2005 2007 Average annual

growth rate: 2000‐2007

Science and technology 4.5 4.5 5.9 7.6 9.1%

Business and management 0.7 0.9 1.7 2.5 23.4%

Social sciences, humanities and education

2.1 2.6 3.9 6.2 19.8%

Totals 7.3 8.0 11.5 16.3 14.3%

Even though UEM's proportion of SET students fell over this period, it still had, in 2007, higher proportions of SET majors than the other universities in the group. Its 2007 proportion of 47% of students in SET matched those of Limpopo and Cape Town which have, by South African standards, high levels of enrolments in SET.

62%56%

51% 47%

10%11%

15%15%

29% 33% 34% 38%

2001 2003 2005 2007

Science & technology Business & management Humanities


45

Figure 4.2: Comparison of science and technology majors as % of total enrolment

Table 4.2: Comparison of total science and technology enrolments (thousands)

2001 2003 2005 2007

Eduardo Mondlane 4.5 4.5 5.9 7.6

Botswana 2.6 2.7 3.3 3.6

Limpopo 6.3 7.0 7.6 7.5

Cluster 1: Cape Town 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.0

The data in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 measure output performance in terms of a university’s ratio between graduates in any given year and student enrolments in that same year. These ratios serve as proxies for cohort output rates, which indicate what proportion of any cohort entering a university can be expected to eventually complete their degrees or diplomas. The bench mark of 25% is a proxy for a cohort success rate of 75% of entering students obtaining their degrees or diplomas. Figure 4.3 shows that UEM's average graduation rates remained low over this period. By 2007, its SET and overall ratios were only 7%, which were well below the benchmark rate of 25%. UEM's average graduation rate of 6% for SET for the period 2001‐2007 is equivalent to an exceptionally low cohort success rate of 20%. This implies that as many as 80 out of every 100 students entering SET programmes at this university are likely to drop out without completing their qualifications.

62% 56%

51%47%

22%

21%

21% 22%

52% 47%

43%46%

40%39%

41% 42%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

2001 2003 2005 2007

Eduardo Mondlane Botswana Limpopo Cluster 1: Cape Town

Eduardo Mondlane

Cluster 1: Cape Town

Limpopo

Botswana


46

Figure 4.3: Eduardo Mondlane: Graduation rates by field of study

Table 4.3: Eduardo Mondlane: Total SET graduates

2001 2003 2005 2007

Eduardo Mondlane 235 274 388 501

Figure 4.4 shows that UEM's performance in producing SET graduates was by far the lowest in the group. Its average cohort success rate for 2001‐2007 was 20%, compared to the ratios of over 60% for the other three universities.

5%6%

7%

7%

10% 9% 9%

7%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

2001 2003 2005 2007

Science & technology Average for all programmes

Target


47

Figure 4.4: Comparison of science and technology graduation rates

Table 4.4: Comparison of total science and technology graduates

2001 2003 2005 2007


Botswana 583 611 678 591

Limpopo 1 024 1 080 1 281 1 357

Cluster 1: Cape Town 1 392 1 576 1 869 2 049

4.3 Postgraduate enrolments and graduations Figure 4.5 shows that the proportion of postgraduate students in UEM's total enrolment grew from 0% in 2001 to 4% in 2007. Its 2007 proportion matched that of Botswana, but was below that of Limpopo. The graph also indicates that there is a considerable gap between UEM's proportion of postgraduate students and that of a strong research university such as Cape Town.

5%

6%

7% 7%

23% 21%

17%16%

16% 17%

18%19%

20%

21%

23%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

2001 2003 2005 2007


Eduardo Mondlane


Limpopo

Botswana

23%


48

Figure 4.5: Comparison of % postgraduates in enrolment total

Table 4.5: Comparison of total postgraduate enrolments in all fields of study

2001 2003 2005 2007


Botswana 840 1 029 1 439 1 530

Limpopo 1 632 3 032 3 199 2 784

Cluster 1: Cape Town 5 547 5 715 6 205 5 895

Table 4.6 gives, for UEM only, details of masters and doctoral enrolments and graduates over the period 2001 to 2007. The table shows that UEM had 0 masters enrolments in 2001. A total of 73 masters students were registered in 2002. This total grew rapidly in subsequent years and reached 602 in 2007. Doctoral students were enrolled for the first time in 2006, and reached a total of three in 2007.The table shows also that UEM's output rate of masters graduates has been low. It has had no doctoral graduates.

0% 2%

3%

4%

7%

8%

9%

9%

16%

21%

18% 17%

30% 28%

29%28%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

2001 2003 2005 2007


Eduardo Mondlane


Limpopo

Botswana


49

Table 4.6: Eduardo Mondlane: Masters and doctoral enrolments and graduates

2001 2003 2005 2007 Average annual growth:

2001‐2007

Masters

Enrolments 0 168 384 602 n/a

Graduates 0 5 51 18 n/a

Doctoral

Doctoral enrolments 0 0 0 3 n/a

Doctoral graduates 0 0 0 0 n/a

Total masters + doctoral

Enrolments 0 168 384 605 n/a

Graduates 0 5 51 18 n/a

Since doctoral students, especially in SET, are essential parts of research programmes, Figure 4.6 can be used as a first measure of a university's involvement in research. A university which has strong research programmes should have reasonably high proportions of doctoral students in its grouping of masters plus doctoral students. Table 4.7 and Figure 4.6 show that UEM had no doctoral enrolments in the first years of the period 2001‐2007. In 2007 it had a ratio of 201masters students for each doctoral enrolment which is a signal of low levels of research activity. The comparable ratios for the other Cluster 2 universities are: Botswana 32 masters enrolments per doctoral enrolment and Limpopo five. Cape Town, which has a stronger research record than either Botswana or Limpopo, had on average four masters students per doctoral enrolment.


50

Figure 4.6: Comparison of doctoral enrolments as % of masters and doctoral enrolments

Table 4.7: Comparison of masters and doctoral enrolments

2001 2003 2005 2007

Masters Doctoral Masters Doctoral Masters Doctoral Masters Doctoral

Eduardo Mondlane 0 0 168 0 384 0 602 3

Botswana 493 8 687 13 755 24 951 41

Limpopo 976 69 1 779 139 1 831 167 1 651 154


2 788 706 2 976 783 3 160 970 2 906 1 002

Figure 4.7 compares the total numbers of doctoral graduates produced by each of the four universities between 2001 and 2007. Cape Town produced 87% of the total doctoral graduate output of these four universities in 2007.

0%0% 0% 0%

2%2%

3%

5%7%

7%8%

9%

20% 21%23%

21%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

2001 2003 2005 2007


Eduardo Mondlane


Limpopo

Botswana


51

Figure 4.7: Comparison of total doctoral graduates

Table 4.8: Comparison of doctoral graduates

2001 2003 2005 2007


Botswana 3 5 6 4

Limpopo 4 10 15 17

Cluster 1: Cape Town 86 103 182 142

4.4 Student‐staff ratios Data on the formal teaching hours carried by academic staff at the four universities are not available. Use has therefore been made of proxies that compare student to academic staff growth rates, and ratios of full‐time equivalent (FTE) students to FTE academic staff. Table 4.9 shows how UEM's totals of FTE students and FTE academic staff changed over the period 2001 to 2007. UEM was not able to match growth in FTE academic staff to growth in FTE students in any fields of study. FTE student to FTE academic staff nevertheless remained favourable in SET and humanities plus education. The FTE student to FTE academic staff ratio in business and management was high in 2001, but became worse in 2007 because FTE student enrolments grew at a faster rate than the rate of growth in academic staff. It is worth noting that FTE student enrolments in business and management

0 0 0 03 5 6 4410

15 17

86

103

182

142

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

2001 2003 2005 2007



52

increased by 1 348 in 2007 compared to 2001, while the FTE academic staff complement grew by only 23.

Table 4.9: Eduardo Mondlane: FTE students and academic staff

2001 2003 2005 2007

Average annual growth:

2000‐2007

Science and technology

FTE students 3 928 3 934 5 081 6 549 8.9%

FTE academic staff 432 456 526 525 3.3%

FTE student to FTE academic ratio 9.1 8.6 9.7 12.5

Business and management

FTE students 562 695 1 381 1 910 22.6%



Humanities plus education

FTE students 1 754 2 123 3 078 5 059 19.3%



TOTALS

FTE students 6 244 6 752 9 540 13 518 13.7%

FTE academic staff 704 788 959 1 053 6.9%


Figure 4.8 compares FTE student to FTE academic staff ratios for 2007. The average ratio for all four universities was less than 20, which is regarded as satisfactory in terms of South African norms. It is worth noting that while the SET ratios of all four are satisfactory, UEM had the highest ratio of FTE students to FTE academic staff. UEM, Botswana and Limpopo all had high, and unsatisfactory, ratios in business and management studies.


53

Figure 4.8: Comparison of 2007 FTE student‐staff ratios

Figure 4.9 compares the four universities' 2007 totals of permanent academic staff and FTE academic staff. Figure 4.10 can function as a proxy of the load carried by permanent academic staff members, who are expected to be the main supervisors of research students and producers of research publications. Figures 4.9 and 4.10 show that permanent academic staff at UEM had high levels of support from temporary and part‐time academic staff. These support levels were comparable to those of Limpopo and Cape Town. Limpopo had, in 2007, 753 permanent academics and the equivalent of a further 149 temporary and part‐time academics. UEM had 842 permanent academic staff in 2007, and the equivalent of a further 181 temporary and part‐time academics in that year.

13

50

1013

10

62

1917

10

71

21

1511

33

1816

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

SET Bus All Hum Average



54

Figure 4.9: Comparison of totals of permanent and FTE academic staff (2007)

Figure 4.10: Comparison of ratios of FTE to permanent academic staff (2007)

842

767 753

889

1023

767

902

1122

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200


Permanent academics FTE academics

1.2

1.0

1.21.3

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4


Ratio of FTE to permanent academic staff


55

4.5 Academic staff qualifications Figure 4.11 compares the 2007 proportions for the group of the permanent academic staff who have either a masters or a doctorate as their highest formal qualification. UEM's figure of 24% of permanent staff with doctorates is below the average for South African universities.

Figure 4.11: Comparison of highest formal qualifications of permanent academics (2007)

Table 4.10: Comparison of permanent academics with masters and doctoral degrees (2007)

Eduardo Mondlane

Botswana Limpopo Cluster 1: Cape

Town

Doctorate highest 163 238 120 518

Masters highest 188 161 303 265

Lower than masters 479 368 334 106

24%

31%

16%

58%

32%

21%

40%

30%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%


Doctorate highest Masters highest


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4.6 Research funding6 The information in Figures 4.12 and 4.13 attempts to set out the totals which each university had available for research in 2007. It should therefore reflect research income rather than expenditure on research. In their annual income statements, South African universities report on their research funding in terms of recurrent research income and research contracts for designated purposes. Cape Town's 2007 income statements gave its recurrent research income as 0 and its designated research contract income as R181 million. Limpopo's 2007 income statements gave its designated research contract income as R7.2 million. UEM’s financial statements suggest that it had no specific funding designated for research. For the purposes of the analyses which follow, its research funding will be assumed to be 0. Botswana did not provide specific information on research funding. For the purposes of these analyses it is assumed that Botswana's research income equals 1% of its total income. The calculations of market rate dollars are based on average exchange rates quoted by the central banking authorities of each country. The calculation of Purchasing Power Parity dollars (PPP$) is based on estimates contained in the 2008 publication on World Development Indicators (World Bank 2008). Because these estimates are based on 2005 exchange rates, the following method was used for the 2007 calculations:

The indicator set gives for each country a ratio between the PPP conversion factor and the market exchange rate. For example, the South African ratio is given as 0.61, based on a market exchange rate of R 6.4 per USD in 2005.

The 2007 calculations assume that the 2005 ratio will apply again. So the 2007 PPP conversion factor is taken to be 2005 ratio times 2007 market exchange rate. For example, the conversion factor for South Africa is calculated as 2005 ratio times 2007 exchange rate = 0.61 X 7.0 = 4.27. These calculations are based the research income totals referred to above. The amounts in local currency were converted to market rate USD and PPP$ using the methodology referred to above. The conversion rates used were these:

Botswana market rate = BWP6.3 per USD

6It must be noted that all universities in the sample appear to use different means to estimate

their research income. For the purposes of comparison where no figures have been supplied a

percentage of university income has been used. These figures however are not reliable and

more work needs to be done in further studies to accurately track university research income.


57

Botswana purchasing power parity = BWP3.15 per PPP$

South African universities market rate = R7.0 per USD South African universities purchasing power parity = R4.27 per USD The assumption made is that UEM had no funding designated for research.

Figure 4.12: Comparison of research income in market rate USD and PPP$ (millions)

Figure 4.13 is based on the income totals in Figure 4.12 and the permanent academic staff totals in Figure 4.9. The ratios show that the Cluster 1 university, Cape Town, had at 2007 market rate values USD 29 100 in research income available per permanent academic. The comparable 2007 market rate values per permanent academic were USD 1 000 for Botswana and USD 1 300 for Limpopo.

0.0 0.8 1.0

25.9

0.01.7 1.7

42.4

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

50.0


Market rate $ PPP $


58

Figure 4.13: Comparison of total research income per permanent academic in market rate USD and PPP$ (thousands)

4.7 Research outputs

For the purposes of this study, research outputs are measured in terms of research publications7, and doctoral graduates. Table 4.11 lists UEM’s totals of research publications and doctoral graduates for the period 2001–2007.

Table 4.11: Eduardo Mondlane: Research outputs

Research publications Doctoral graduates

2001 20 0

2003 14 0

2005 32 0

2007 21 0

Figure 4.14 deals only with research publication units. The target is based on the assumption that a permanent academic should publish at least one research

7 The research publication data presented here are based on the peer reviewed research

publications data in the Web of Science citation database within the ISI Web of Knowledge,

produced by Thomson Reuters. The database captures papers from all countries that are

published in journals that meet certain criteria of quality as determined by Thomson Reuters.

0.0 1.0 1.3

29.1

0.02.0 2.3

47.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0


Market rate $ PPP $


59

article every two years. The data in the graph show that Cape Town exceeded this target and that none of the others came close to it. The ratios of UEM suggest that very few of its permanent academic staff publish research articles.

Figure 4.14: Comparison of research publication units per permanent academic

Figure 4.15 sets out ratios between doctoral graduates and permanent academic staff, with the target again being derived from the research output targets used in the South African higher education system. In this case, the target takes account of the productivity of academic staff in terms of the total of doctoral graduates produced in a given year divided by the total of permanent academic staff employed in that year. The target ratio of 10% is based on these calculations: At least 50% of the permanent staff of a university should be supervising at least one doctoral student, and these students should take on average five years to complete their degrees. So a university with (say) 100 permanent academics should enrol at least 50 doctoral students, and 20% of these should graduate each year. The ratio between permanent staff and doctoral graduates should therefore be at least 10/100 = 10%. The data in the graph show that only Cape Town exceeded this target in both 2001 and 2007. The other three universities in the cluster fell well short of the target.

0.04

0.12

0.23

0.92

0.04

0.16 0.13

1.14

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20


2001 2007

Target


60

Figure 4.15: Comparison of doctoral graduates in given year as % of permanent academics employed

0.0% 0.4% 0.7%

11.3%

0.0%0.5%

2.3%

16.0%

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

18.0%


2001 2007

Target ratioTarget ratio = 10.0 %


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5.1 Introduction In order to ensure that the core activities of teaching and research are to some extent aligned with national development priorities and can thereby contribute to development in society, universities increasingly emphasise the need to engage with relevant external stakeholders. Furthermore, much of what might be termed the development‐related activities of the university usually fall within the so‐called ‘third mission’, which is variously referred to as ‘engagement’, ‘service’ or ‘community outreach’. This could include academics serving on committees in the public or private sector, providing support to small businesses, responding to requests for short courses, or undertaking contract research for outside clients. More often than not, the economic development‐related projects and activities of the institution fall under its engagement function. In the first part of this section, we explore UEM’s engagement with its key external stakeholders, namely government, industry and foreign donors. In the second part of the section, we turn our attention to an analysis of the extent of the connectedness of the economic development‐related centres and projects included in this study.

Part 5

The engagement and development‐related activities of the Eduardo Mondlane University

AT A GLANCE

University engagement and linkages with government and industry Incentives for academics to engage in development‐related activities Coordination of development activities Connectedness of economic development‐related projects and centres to the

academic core


62

5.2 Engagement and linkages with external stakeholders

5.2.1 University‐government‐industry linkages The university’s research policy makes reference to outreach and consultancy activities as “useful instruments for investigating, generating resources and strengthening the link between UEM and the productive and social sectors” (translation) (UEM 2007:6‐7). Some respondents highlighted interaction between academics and government, such as scientists in the Faculty of Science being approached by the Ministry for Science and Technology to give advice on various issues such as environmental or agricultural issues, and to participate in the development of the Ministry’s strategic plan. Some respondents expressed a concern, however, that in some cases government does not take their work into account:

I would say that there is a strong collaboration between the government and our university. Sometimes the researchers complain only about the issue that they are invited to work with them, to give some advice and sometimes it happened that when the final result comes it’s not exactly what the researcher proposed. (Institutional leader)

Most people complain because in some areas the results of the research must feed policy, from research to government. But most people say: oh, we have done this and this – government officials don’t bother to read all this! (Institutional leader)

Another complaint about working with or for government is that because the university is government‐funded, academics do not get paid for these services:

Researchers are starting to complain about the situation because it takes a lot of time, it is true, and they are starting to complain about this and they would like to be paid for the work that they do. (Institutional leader)

There was not much mention of interaction with industry or the private sector. One major forum for interaction is the Innovation and Clusters Programme (see section 5.3 below). According to an institutional leader, there are two national bodies which serve as forums for interaction between government, universities and civil society. One is the National Council for Higher Education which brings together the university, civil society and other actors such as representatives of the Ministry of Finance. The other is the Council on Science and Technology which involves the rectors of some of the universities as well as civil society representatives. It


63

was not clear, however, how effective these bodies are in terms of facilitating such interaction.

5.2.2 Incentives and rewards According to one institutional leader, the incentives and rewards for research are still traditional ones: “In terms of promotions I think that our system is still the old system. What is more valued is the publications.”For a project leader, however, the emphasis is still on teaching:

Honestly speaking, not yet, in practical terms there are no incentives for [extension services]. What we have been doing up till now it’s because we like to do so. In fact, I’ve been discussing this many times. What I say is that the university should recognise that our role is teaching, research and extension, and should provide time for the lecturers to do all these activities. But most times when we sit and plan, for instance, the next semester, what people say is: how many hours of teaching do you have? Nobody says: how many hours of research do you have and how many hours of extension do you have? (Project leader)

Another leader reported that there are some initial discussions underway about possible incentives for “research for development” or outreach activities:

We are still in discussions, as I said, but I think in the near future we may have something on that – because I realise that we are still very weak on this one. There are some things which are being done but these are done on an individual manner but not in an organised way. (Institutional leader)

A few respondents commented on the relatively low salaries paid to academics at the university and how many academics either teach at other universities or get involved in consultancy work in order to top up their salaries. One respondent went as far as to suggest that because of how the system works, academics are actually incentivised to do consultancy work rather than research:

What happened is that – so you have, on one hand, salaries at universities, they are not satisfactory and you have good alternatives – so what people do, even when they stay at university on a full‐time basis they use the time that’s available besides lecturing and administration to do consultancy through the university. So they enter into works with other consultants, and so on. But when they do consultancy they always receive a


64

significant part of the money that comes into the university or the faculty. When they do research all the funds that are given are, let’s say, for expenditure, so you can buy computers, you can buy books, you can go to a congress, but you never can have some kind of return in monetary terms for yourself or for your researchers. So you have a large incentive in terms of doing consultancy work, you have not this kind of incentive for research, and until we find a mechanism in which research gives you some benefit, some material benefit, then the situation will continue and will prevail. It’s not to say that there is no incentive; in fact, in the early stages, when you are a junior lecturer then of course you have an incentive to do research because you want to do your Masters, you’ll want to do a PhD – this becomes steps that are needed if you want to progress in your academic career. But once you do the PhD, you attain that level in which in fact you are qualified to do research, then at the same time you’ll have a more or less established position and then you have these alternatives. Or we lose people, people just leave university after the Masters or the PhD, or they stay at the university but they do very little research. So, in my opinion, people were doing more and better research, let’s say during the ‘80s, mid‐‘90s than what we are doing now. We had more people and in fact we were putting more work in research. (Senior academic)

Another respondent reported that because of the government’s current emphasis on increasing student numbers, there is great pressure on academics to increase their teaching loads, which leaves little time available for research or outreach activities:

But mainly we are busy with teaching. The government now is putting a lot of pressure on us because they want to increase the number of students. The last meeting the Rector said we should double. Then I don’t know where we’re going to find time to do research, which is bad for us. (Institutional leader)

5.2.3 Coordination Over and above the support received from the World Bank via the government, the university’s biggest donor partner has been SIDA/SAREC – with which the institution has had a more than 30‐year relationship. Over the years, SIDA has funded individual projects, capacity development (including Masters and PhD degrees), bigger research programmes and a facilities fund which covers expensive equipment and the maintenance of laboratories and so on. Over the


65

past few years, it has been mandatory to include Masters and PhD training in the larger research programmes funded by SIDA. According to an institutional leader, there are systems in place to negotiate with the larger donors (such as from Sweden, Italy and Belgium) that the programmes that are funded are aligned with both institutional and national priorities. This is coordinated by the Donor Coordination Unit. However, it is much more difficult to ensure this with the smaller donor‐funded projects since these are usually negotiated with individual researchers:

For the major donors we have a control of that, where every project, every large programme which is starting we discuss it first here with some people, they come and they ask: what are our priorities – well, we have to match with their priorities. So it means projects financed by SIDA we have a control of what should be done. The Belgium, the Italians, which are the large ones – but the small projects, these ones we do not have control over that well, they do apparently what they want, but it’s not easy to control this. In many cases they contact a single researcher and they work with him; what they want from us is a signature. (Institutional leader)

The newly established Donor Coordination Unit, which reports directly to the vice‐chancellor, is responsible for coordinating institutional and foreign donor interests and agendas. This unit emerged out of the long‐standing unit responsible for coordination of the SIDA/SAREC Cooperation. According to an institutional leader, the new unit will also be responsible for bringing together the major donors to meet and discuss their activities in order to coordinate funding areas and reporting mechanisms, and to avoid duplication or overlap where possible. The unit’s coordinator reported that at a recent meeting of large donors, it was evident that there was little coordination between them in terms of funding areas and activities:

It was very interesting to see, with just two more partners we could see already there was no coordination. They didn’t know each other and they were overlapping some activities. So it made us realise that it’s very urgent and important to have this horizontal dialogue, not just vertical dialogue. I mean, the donors communicate with us but they don’t communicate with each other. We have to find moments for that. (Institutional leader)


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5.2.4 Summary While there are linkages between the university and government, these appear to be more ad hoc and informal than strong and formalised. There was little evidence of interactions with industry and the private sector – perhaps in part because these sectors are not well developed in Mozambique. Within the university, there are no real incentives for academics to engage in research or engagement activities, let alone those linked specifically to economic development. There does, however, appear to be a long tradition and practice of coordinating linkages with foreign donors.

5.3 The connectedness of development activities to the academic core A key issue for the relationship between higher education and economic development is to establish a productive relationship between knowledge and connectedness. On the one hand, if there is an overemphasis on the basic knowledge activities of teaching and research – in other words, an excessive inward orientation towards strengthening the academic core – this results in the university becoming an ‘ivory tower’. Or, if the academic core is weak, an overemphasis on knowledge results in the ‘ancillary’ role of the university (i.e. no direct role in development). On the other hand, if there is an overemphasis in the university on connecting to development activities, then it weakens the academic core and the university has little new or relevant knowledge to offer in the exchange relationship. The challenge for universities, then, is to deal with this inherent tension between ‘buffering’ (protecting) the core technologies of the institution, and ‘bridging’ (linking) those with external actors (Scott 2001: 199‐211). In reality, the boundaries between internal and external are not that clear cut. A number of theorists, such as Gibbons et al. (1994) and Scott (2001), have argued that during globalisation and its associated ‘new’ forms of knowledge production, the boundaries are becoming increasingly blurred and permeable. The higher education studies literature describes this problem in terms of the conceptual notion of ‘coupling’ (Scott 2001; Weick 1976); that is, the extent to which the core and the external (or ‘periphery’) are linked with, or connected to, one another. In ‘tight coupling’, the boundary is weak and the university is in a direct, ‘instrumental’ relationship with external actors such as government or industry. In ‘loose‐coupling’, the boundary is stronger, such as in the traditional notion of the university as a self‐governing institution, which assumes an indirect contribution to development. The more complex relationship is with the ‘engine of development’ notion where there are multiple, simultaneous forms of knowledge production and exchange.


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For the purposes of this study, we are using the term ‘connectedness’ to refer to the relationship (and tension) between the inward focus on strengthening and maintaining the academic core, and the outward focus on linking with external stakeholders and development. We operationalised ‘connectedness’ along two dimensions. The first dimension is ‘articulation’ which has a number of aspects. Firstly, it refers to the extent to which the aims and activities of development‐related activities articulate with national development priorities and the university’s strategic objectives. Secondly, it refers to the linkages the project has with two of the groups of stakeholders in the triangle – the government (usually through specific government departments / agencies) and external stakeholders (e.g. industry, small businesses, NGOs or community groups such as fishers or small‐scale farmers). In particular, our focus is on the extent to which there are linkages with an ‘implementation agency’, (i.e. an external body which takes up the knowledge and/or its products generated or applied through research or training). Thirdly, articulation takes into account linkages generated through sources of funding in two respects: whether the project/centre obtains funding from one or more of the three stakeholder groups (government, an external funder or the university itself); and the extent to which the project/centre develops a relationship with its funders over time. This latter aspect is determined through the nature of the financial sustainability of the project. The second dimension focuses on the extent to which development activities serve to strengthen the academic core of the university. This was operationalised in terms of the extent to which the work undertaken in projects/centres feeds into teaching or curriculum development; is linked to the formal training of students; enables academics to publish in academic publications (journals, books etc); is linked to international academic networks; and generates new knowledge (versus applying existing knowledge). These various aspects relating to articulation and strengthening the academic core were converted into indicators which could then be applied to an analysis of the development‐related projects and centres included in the study. On the basis of the indicator ratings, the projects/centres were plotted on a graph depicting the intersection between articulation and strengthening the academic core. In this section, we present the analysis of the connectedness of selected development‐related activities at UEM. These projects, which have an economic development or poverty reduction focus, were identified by the institutional leadership for inclusion in the study. It should be noted that this method of analysis is a work‐in‐progress and, in the context of this study, has two possible limitations. The first is that the method of analysis has been developed since completion of the data collection which means that there are some areas of the project data which were not explored in great detail during the interviews. We have, as far as possible, attempted to


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obtain this additional data from project leaders in the drafting of this report. A second limitation is that the analysis which follows is based on a small number of projects rather than a large representative sample. In addition, the projects selected have an in‐built bias since they were selected by institutional leadership on the basis of their economic development or poverty reduction focus. Despite these limitations, however, we believe that the analysis that follows is an illuminating first step towards the development of a tool which can enable institutions and donors to think critically and strategically about the implications of different models of funding and engagement or development‐related activities.

5.3.1 A brief overview of the projects

Advancing Sustainable Construction in Mozambique

Location Faculty of Engineering

Project leader Prof. Daniel Baloi

Timeframe 2006; ongoing

Type Research programme

Web site –

Construction sites make a significant impact on the environment. The main aim of the project is to develop ideas and technologies that can be used in construction in a way that reduces the impact on the environment, thereby making a contribution to sustainable development. The particular focus of the project is on energy use in construction. Mozambique has experienced a very rapid increase in energy demand for commercial, industrial, institutional and domestic building uses. The country needs additional infrastructure to cope with the increase in demand as the current availability of energy is not sufficient. As the cost of energy has increased due to increasing production costs and other factors, few can benefit from these services, particularly in the domestic segment. On the other hand, the increasing demand puts much pressure on the producers/suppliers who have to make efforts to meet that need. A rational and efficient use of building energy could help to save valuable resources on both the supplier and consumer sides. Furthermore, efficient energy management in buildings can be a significant contribution to sustainable construction and development. This research programme seeks to investigate mechanisms and develop a framework for effective and efficient energy use in buildings in Mozambique, based not only on technological tools but also on specific social, economic and sustainability management aspects. The research will focus on two important issues related to building energy efficiency mechanisms, namely bioclimatic building design, and building energy modelling and simulation. In pursuing this broad objective, the research will attempt to find answers to questions such as: How is sustainability in the construction industry currently perceived in


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Mozambique? How efficient is the management of energy‐use systems and energy building today? What parameters are the main drivers in building energy efficiency? What specific measures – technical, managerial, social and economic – can be taken in order to increase building energy efficiency? The research programme was initiated by faculty staff who had identified a gap in the broader issue of sustainability in the construction industry. The research is undertaken in collaboration with colleagues in the University of Lund (Sweden), the University of Dar es Salaam and Makerere University. The programme is funded by SIDA/SAREC.

Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme in Eastern Africa (ISCP‐EA)

Location Faculty of Engineering

Project leader Prof. António Cumbane

Timeframe 2004; ongoingType Long‐term research programme and business support

Web site –

In September 2003, ten participants from Uganda, Tanzania and Mozambique attended the 6th Global Conference on Innovations Clusters, which was organised by the Competitive Institute and the Swedish Agency for innovation systems (VINNOVA‐Sweden), in Gothenburg, Sweden. SIDA/SAREC invited the East African participants because they had realised that the investments they were making in research in universities in these countries were not contributing to development. The focus of the conference was on the development of methodologies and policies for building innovative clusters and innovation systems. The participants from East Africa then approached SIDA/SAREC for funds to host their own regional conference on innovation systems and clusters. The first regional conference was hosted by the College of Engineering and Technology of the University of Dar es Salaam in 2004, and gave birth to the Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme in Eastern Africa (ISCP‐EA). The Faculty of Technology at Makerere University hosted the second regional conference, held in March 2005 in Jinja. This conference took the planning and co‐operation around operationalising the innovative systems and clusters activities forward. Other regional conferences have been held since then. The Faculty of Engineering at Eduardo Mondlane University hosted the Mozambique Stakeholders’ Workshop in April 2005. The main objective of the programme is to stimulate, catalyse and promote the development of innovation systems and clusters in East Africa, and thereby facilitate speedy socio‐economic development and poverty reduction. The programme enables the universities to fulfil their mandate of reaching out and impacting on societal development by stimulating, catalysing and promoting the generation of solutions to solve problems that confront their respective societies instead of remaining as ‘ivory towers’. The clusters are also a means of


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transferring the results of research to the community to promote economic development. The aims of the programme include the following:

To facilitate and enhance innovativeness among firms and farms; To facilitate enhanced competition and cooperation among firms and farms

within clusters and sectors; and To nurture a competitive mindset amongst the cluster members.

The cluster facilitators in Mozambique were trained in 2006. The facilitators are usually researchers or business people who are familiar with the business of the cluster and are also in a position to get involved in the day‐to‐day activities of the cluster. The first eight cluster initiatives were launched in 2007/2008. These include Beef Farming, Small‐Scale Mining, Cassava, Logistics, Solid Waste Recycling and Composting, Cashew Nuts, Medicinal Plants Processing, and Tropical Fruit Processing. In 2007, the three universities discussed the need to share their knowledge and experience with other African countries, as a contribution to broader economic development on the continent. They brought the issue to the attention of the African Union and, in 2008 the Pan African Competitiveness Forum was launched in Addis Ababa as a new continent‐wide competence and action centre for innovation‐ and cluster‐based competitiveness initiatives for national and regional economic development in Africa. The Forum Council includes representatives from 22 African countries as well as some international experts. One of the recommendations from the forum is that the programme is expanded in each of the three original countries beyond the host university in order to identify new clusters and train a new group of facilitators. The Mozambique component of the programme is coordinated by the Faculty of Engineering at Eduardo Mondlane and involves private sector and government stakeholders as well. SIDA/SAREC funding was secured for the first phase of 2007‐2009. The programme is in the process of preparing a new contract with SIDA for another round of funding.

Energy, Environment and Climate Change Research Programme

Location Faculty of ScienceProject leader Prof. Boaventura Cuamba


Type Research programmeWeb site –

In the early 1990s, the Department of Physics was undertaking two research projects into solar energy. These projects were then consolidated into a larger project on renewable energies, which are broadly associated with issues of environment and climate change. Then another project in nuclear physics was also transformed into a project relating to environmental issues, using various


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methods to investigate environmental pollution (e.g. air pollution) and climate change. These two projects merged in 2006 to become the Energy, Environment and Climate Change Research Programme and began to involve researchers from outside the Department of Physics. The programme comprises an interdisciplinary research group drawn from a range of departments in the university including engineers, chemists and physicists. A number of research projects are undertaken within the programme that focus on issues relating to environmental pollution, energy resources and energy technologies, as well as climate change mitigation and adaptation. The programme also engages in extension services including, for example, training of people around the country in using renewable energy technologies, and demonstrations of different energy technologies, especially in rural areas, such as installing water pumping systems. The programme is funded by SIDA/SAREC (via the university) and through competitive funding from the Norwegian Programme for Development, Research and Education (NUFU), the Volkswagen Foundation in Germany, and the Mozambique National Research Foundation. The programme collaborates with other universities in Africa and Europe in order to bid for competitive funding.

School of Management and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto

Location College of Business and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto

Project leader Prof. Manoela Sylvestre


Type Academic programme

Web site –

According to the project leader, both the government and the leadership of the UEM have realised that universities play a key role in economic development and poverty alleviation. The government has also realised that the demand for higher education has increased in recent times. Part of the government’s response to this has been to expand access to UEM in other parts of the country by establishing new campuses in other provinces. This expansion began in Inhambane province, and then in Quelimane and Vilanculos. The School of Management and Entrepreneurship was established in Chibuto in the Gaza province. The schools that are established in other provinces usually have an applied focus. The mission of the school is to find out about business opportunities and to transform these into real opportunities and wealth for the students who come from the Gaza province and elsewhere in the country. When they were considering how to expand the university, they decided to focus on the district level as it was seen as the core level for development but where there is a lack


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of expertise. One aim of establishing the school was therefore to bring expertise and training to people in the districts in key subjects such as business and commerce. In this sense, the academic programmes and short courses are seen as a knowledge transfer mechanism from the university to the local communities to increase their economic productivity. The school will be offering four courses at undergraduate, masters and PhD levels. The courses are finance, commerce, agro‐business and leadership management. These courses are not offered in any other faculty of the university and thus should draw students from all over the country. The courses have a practical component from the first year which includes entrepreneurial simulations so that students can get real practice in terms of business. Each student will be placed with a family in the local community that may or may not run some kind of business. The idea is that this becomes a platform for the students’ practical training – either in how to run an existing business or in how to come up with a business idea and start a business for the family. There are also plans (depending on funding) to set up facilities such that students can simulate a business environment. The school also offers short courses for locals who have never attended a higher education institution. Although very new, staff in the school have developed a research proposal for a project that will look at the relationship between small and medium enterprises and economic growth and development in Mozambique. At the time of the interview, they were looking for funding. The planning phase of the establishment of the school, including the curriculum design, was funded by the UNDP. The school has some funding from the university but is seeking external funding to set up some of the other ideas and projects outlined above. Integrated Water Resources Management for Sustainable Development in Southern Mozambique Location Faculty of Engineering

Project leader Dr Nelson Matsinhe


Type Research programme and capacity development

Web site –

The previous project leader and colleagues began working with SIDA/SAREC on research projects relating to water issues in the early 1980s. Over the years, they undertook research in the broad area of water resources management. More recently, these researchers began looking into issues relating to trans‐boundary water management, for example, water allocation and problems of negotiations between countries.


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The project focuses on three areas of specialisation, namely:

Hydrology and water resources engineering and management; Drinking and waste water treatment; and Groundwater exploration.

The Integrated Water Resources Management project started out of the need to have a comprehensive programme for further advanced training for university staff that already had MSc degrees. The main objective of the project is thus to offer a platform for advanced training of Mozambican specialist in these subjects but also to drive a research agenda that is in line with the key water issues of the country. The general objective of the present research programme is to foster the fundamental/applied research‐capacity of the Civil Engineering Department of the Faculty of Engineering of the UEM on issues related to water resources management and exploitation. The project is funded by SIDA/SAREC.

***

The key features of these development‐related projects/groups are summarised in Table 5.1 over page. The projects have been categorised according to type. Four out of the five are long‐term research programmes while the fifth is a new undergraduate and postgraduate programme that intends to introduce a research component in the future. The economic development focuses of the research programmes include the use of research to develop solutions in areas of energy use, business competitiveness and water resource management. The academic programme aims to develop business expertise among people living in districts outside of Maputo. All five of the projects are funded primarily by foreign donors (and most often by SIDA/SAREC – the university’s long‐term donor partner). More often than not, agenda‐setting is undertaken by the academic staff in the particular faculty or department, in conjunction with an external stakeholder.


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Table 5.1: Overview of the development‐related projects

Project/centre Classification Funder(s) Beneficiaries External linkages Initiation/ agenda‐setting

Economic development focus

Advancing Sustainable Construction

Research programme Foreign donor Construction practitioners, building owners, students, public sector

Other African universities, government agencies, NGOs

Academic staff Researching ways of making energy use in construction cheaper and more efficient

Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme

Long‐term research programme and business support

Foreign donor Small and medium enterprises, small‐scale farmers, public institutions

Other universities, private sector companies, government agencies, NGOs

Foreign donor, universities in East Africa

Assisting SMEs and small‐scale farmers to become more competitive

Energy, Environment and Climate Change

Research programme Foreign donors, government agency

Not reported Other African universities, NGOs, government agencies

Academic staff Development of renewable energy solutions

School of Management and Entrepreneurship

Academic programme

Foreign donor, university

Potential entrepreneurs in Mozambique

None as yet (new initiative)

Academic staff, government

Developing business expertise through training

Integrated Water Resources Management

Research programme and capacity development

Foreign donor Policy‐makers, water resource management institutions

Universities internationally, regional networks

Foreign donor, academic staff

Research and capacity building to improve management of water resources


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5.3.2 Articulation Table 5.2 below summarises interviewee’s responses to the question about the extent to which the project/centre aims and objectives were in response to / articulated with the university’s strategic objectives (as contained in the institution’s strategic plan), as well as the country’s national development priorities. Methodologically, we do recognise that project leaders might have drawn these links more strongly in retrospect than originally was the case in order to give the impression of greater articulation. A deeper exploration of the circumstances of the initiation and agenda‐setting of the project would have enabled us to see these linkages more clearly ourselves. Nevertheless, the reported linkages are sufficient for a first‐level analysis. As can be seen from Table 5.2, four of the five projects/centres reported articulation of project aims with national objectives, and four of the five reported articulation with institutional strategic objectives. The articulation with institutional objectives or national priorities is, in some cases, quite specific (i.e. links to a clearly identifiable objective or priority) while, in other cases, the articulation is more general (i.e. linking to a broader, less specified, objective or priority). In order to rate the degree of articulation of each of the projects, we used the notions of ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’ articulation (see Table 5.5). Table 5.3 indicates the extent to which each project or centre had linkages with an external agency that has or will directly or indirectly ‘implement’ (or utilise) the outputs. Table 5.4 summarises the comments made by project leaders about the financial sustainability of the projects. Finally, Table 5.5 summarises the total articulation ratings for the six projects/centres.


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Table 5.2: Articulation with institutional objectives and national priorities

Project/centre Funder(s) Initiation/ agenda‐setting

Institutional strategic objectives National priorities


Foreign donor Academic staff The project is broadly aligned to the university’s research policy.

The project is broadly aligned to the country’s development strategies and the S&T strategy. It is a contribution to the government’s prioritisation of sustainable development.


Foreign donor Foreign donor, universities in East Africa

The programme enables the university to fulfil its mandate of reaching out and impacting on societal development by stimulating, catalysing and promoting the generation of solutions to problems that confront their society, instead of remaining an ‘ivory tower’. The clusters are also a means of transferring the results of research to the community to promote economic development.

None reported.


Foreign donors, government agency

Academic staff None reported. Energy, environment and climate are national priorities. More specifically, in 2009 the government developed a new policy specifically on renewable energies.


Foreign donor, university

Academic staff, government

The project is a response to the university’s plan to increase access and enrolments.

The project is a response to the government’s recognition of the importance of universities in economic development and poverty alleviation, and their intention to increase access in response to demand for higher education.


Foreign donor Foreign donor, academic staff

The UEM, being the oldest university in the country and with highest capacity in the field of water, has not only the responsibility but the duty to help the country to materialise its development goals through science‐based and informed development options.

Water is one of the nine strategic areas of research as defined in the Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Mozambique (2006) document.


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Table 5.3: Initiation/agenda‐setting, funding sources and implementation agencies

Project/centre Initiation/agenda‐setting Funder(s) Implementation agencies


Academic staff Foreign donor The project shares its data with three key government ministries which could constitute (potential) implementation agencies for this project.


Foreign donor, universities in East Africa

Foreign donor The SMEs and small‐scale farmers involved in the programme.


Academic staff Foreign donors, government agency Although project members do contribute to the work of government in their capacity as experts or through training, there are no links with specific implementation agencies.


Academic staff, government Foreign donor, university Apart from the training of individuals from the districts near the School, there are no direct links with an implementation agency as such.


Foreign donor, academic staff Foreign donor There was no evidence of any specific implementation agencies.


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Table 5.4: Financial sustainability of the projects/centres

Project/centre Classification Timeframe Funder(s) Financial sustainability


Research programme

2006; ongoing Foreign donor The second round of five‐year SIDA/SAREC funding was secured and began in July 2010. The project team and the university are cognisant of the fact that they cannot rely on external donor funding forever. However, no definite strategies for increasing university research funding sufficiently are yet in place.



2004; ongoing Foreign donor SIDA/SAREC funding was received for the 2007‐2009 phase and a new contract was being negotiated for a second round of funding. One of the tasks of the Pan African Competitiveness Forum is to raise additional funds from other sources. Following a conference in 2008, the project team convened a meeting of stakeholders in Mozambique (from academia, government, private sector and NGOs) to continue the discussion about the future sustainability of the initiative through further collaboration. In addition, the idea is that the activities in the clusters begin to generate their own income in order to sustain themselves.


Research programme

2006; ongoing Foreign donors, government agency

Securing competitive funds is very important for the sustainability of the project. Apart from that, the project depends on collaboration with government, NGOs and the private sector for consultancy work linked to the project that generates additional income.


Academic programme

2009; ongoing Foreign donor, university

The basic infrastructure and activities of the school will be sustained by university funding but external funding will need to be sourced in order to implement other planned activities.



2002; ongoing Foreign donor The project is now being considered for its third term of (five‐year) funding from SIDA/SAREC. No other strategies for ensuring the future financial sustainability of the project were reported.


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Table 5.5: Articulation rating (maximum score = 13)

Project/centre Advancing Sustainable

Construction




Integrated Water Resources

Management

Institutional objectives 1 2 0 2 1

National priorities 1 0 2 1 2

No. of funding sources 1 1 2 2 1

Funding sustainability 2 2 2 3 2

Implementation agency 2 2 1 1 0

Total articulation rating 7 7 7 9 6

Key:

Institutional objectives / National priorities: 2 = Direct (link to specific strategic objective or national priority) 1 = Indirect (broad/general reference) 0 = None (no reported link) No. of funding sources: 1 for each of the following: University; Government; Foreign donor; Income generation Funding sustainability: 1 = Once‐off, short‐term (a project that is one year or less in duration and which receives only one round of funding) 2 = Long‐term but capped (a project that is more than one year in duration and which receives one or more rounds of funding, but the funding is capped) 3 = Ongoing (a project which receives ongoing funding, e.g. from the university or from income generation) Link to implementation agency: 2 = Direct 1 = Indirect 0 = None


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5.3.3 Contribution to strengthening the academic core Table 5.6 below summarises the information pertaining to each of the projects with regard to their connection to the academic core activities of the university. ‘Core strengthening’ activities include the generation of new knowledge; the involvement of students in the project as part of their formal training; project knowledge and experience feeds into teaching and curriculum development; project knowledge and experience is published in academic publications; and, the project is linked to international academic networks. In order to rate the extent to which the projects contribute to strengthening the academic core, each of the five factors highlighted above were assigned a value of 1 when present. The results are captured in Table 5.7. Perhaps not surprisingly, the research programmes all generate new knowledge and some also apply existing knowledge through training. They also all have linkages with international academic networks. In those cases where the faculty does not have a masters or postgraduate programme, students are not formally involved in projects.


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Table 5.6: Contribution to strengthening the academic core

Project/centre Classification New/existing knowledge

Link to academic core Link to international academic networks Student involvement Teaching/curriculum Publishing


Research programme

Generate new knowledge

All of the projects involve masters and PhD students as part of their formal training.

Yes, project knowledge feeds directly into teaching and curriculum development.

Yes Yes



Generate new and apply existing

Undergraduate students have been involved in some research activities but not part of their formal training.

Project experience will feed into the review of the curricula that was underway at the time.

Only conference proceedings

Yes


Research programme


Undergraduate and postgraduate students involved in the projects as part of their formal training.

As a result of the research, two new undergraduate specialisations and a new postgraduate programme have been introduced.

Yes Yes


Academic programme

Apply existing knowledge

Formal undergraduate and postgraduate programmes.

Not at present Not at present Yes




No Project experience does feed into teaching but not curriculum reviewed as yet.

Yes Yes

Table 5.7: Strengthening academic core rating


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Project/centre Teaching / curriculum

development

Formal training of students

Generate new knowledge

Academic publications

Link to international academic networks

Total rating

Advancing Sustainable Construction 1 1 1 1 1 5

Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme 1 0 1 0 1 3

Energy, Environment and Climate Change 1 1 1 1 1 5

School of Management and Entrepreneurship 0 1 0 0 1 2

Integrated Water Resources Management 1 0 1 1 1 4

Key: 1 = Yes 0 = No


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5.3.4 Analysis of the connectedness of development projects/centres In order to analyse the development projects identified for the study, we operationalised the notion of ‘connectedness’ along two axes – the first, articulation, refers to the extent to which there is some coherence between the development projects/centres and the objectives and priorities of government and the institution, as well as linkages between the project and key external stakeholders, and especially implementation agencies. The second axis considers the extent to which the development projects/centres serve to strengthen or weaken the academic core of the institution. The total ratings for each project in terms of its articulation and contribution to strengthening the academic core of the university are summarised in Table 5.8 below. Using these ratings, each of the projects is then plotted on the articulation and academic core axes in Figure 5.1.

Table 5.8: Summary of ratings

Project/centre Articulation Academic core

Advancing Sustainable Construction 7 5

Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme 7 3

Energy, Environment and Climate Change 7 5

School of Management and Entrepreneurship 9 2

Integrated Water Resources Management 6 4


ASCM 5, 7ISCP 3, 7 EECC 5, 7

SME 2, 9

IWRM 4, 6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Direct articulation

Indirectarticulation

Weakening academic core

Strengthening academic core

Figure 5.1: Plotting the development‐related projects

Key: ASCM Advancing Sustainable Construction in Mozambique ISCP Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme in Eastern Africa EECC Energy, Environment and Climate Change Research Programme SME School of Management and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management for Sustainable Development in Southern

Mozambique

Following the analytical proposition, our assumption would be that for development‐related projects to make the most sustained contribution to development they would best fall within the top right‐hand quadrant in the graph; in other words, their activities articulate with national priorities and institutional strategic objectives; they have close linkages with key external stakeholders, especially any implementation agencies; and they contribute towards strengthening the academic core of the institution, rather than weakening it. As can be seen from Figure 5.1, only two of the projects – both long‐term research programmes – fall in the top right‐hand quadrant. Both of these


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projects scored the maximum ‘5’ on the strengthening the academic core rating. The School of Management and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto did not score very high in terms of strengthening the academic core, but this is likely to be the case because the project is still very new and has not had the time to establish a number of its activities. It did, however, score well on the articulation rating – higher than any of the other projects, in fact. The articulation ratings of some of the other projects were weakened primarily because they have only one source of funding and an indirect or no link to an implementation agency. Significantly, compared to the other seven universities in the HERANA sample, on average, the UEM development projects had low scores in terms of connectedness. To a large extent this is because of an over‐reliance on foreign donors as the only source of funding, as well as limited linkages to implementation agencies. Finally, reflecting on the information provided in sections 3.3 and 5.2, it is our contention that where projects are located on the articulation and academic core axes has more to do with the choices of individual academics, academic units and donors than it does on a particular institutional approach. We could also argue that the scattered picture which emerges points to a number of tensions facing the institution including, for example, the imperative to generate third‐stream income or to partner with external stakeholders to enhance the relevance of university activities, versus strengthening the academic core activities of the university.


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6.1 Introduction A vast amount of data has been gathered and presented in the preceding sections of this report. But what does this tell us about the possible contribution that higher education in Mozambique can make to the country’s economic development? In order to answer this broader question, we return to the key concepts and questions which were summarised in section 1.1.3. Here, our point of departure was that higher education’s role in and contribution to economic development can best be understood by investigating the following three inter‐related factors:

The nature of the pact between the universities, political authorities and society at large;

The nature, size and continuity of the university’s academic core; and The level of coordination, the effectiveness of implementation, and

connectedness in the larger policy context of universities. Furthermore, these factors need to be considered in relation to various contextual features including local circumstances, institutional characteristics and external relations. By way of concluding this report, we review and analyse the data presented in order to answer the following questions:

1. How does Mozambique fare on the preconditions for an effective and productive relationship between higher education and economic development identified in the international case studies (see Pillay 2010b)?

Part 6

Key findings

AT A GLANCE

Macro‐observations about higher education and economic development in Mozambique

The nature of the pact around the role of higher education in Mozambique The strength of UEM’s academic core The connectedness of the university’s development‐related activities to the

academic core


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2. To what extent is there a pact between key stakeholders (national and institutional) in Mozambique about the role of higher education in general, and in relation to economic development in particular?

3. Does UEM, as a specific case, have capacity to make a contribution to economic development in terms of: a. The nature and strength of the academic core; and b. The connectedness of its development‐related activities to the academic

core?

6.2 Some macro‐observations about higher education and economic development in Mozambique Pundy Pillay’s investigation of three systems (Finland, South Korea, North Carolina state) suggested a number of ‘preconditions’ for an effective and productive relationship between higher education and economic development (Pillay 2010b). These were summarised in section 1.1.2.

How does Mozambique fare in meeting these preconditions?

1. High quality schooling. Participation rates are relatively low at both the

primary and secondary levels. The net enrolment ratio in primary education increased significantly from 52% in 1999 to 76% in 2006, but still leaves the country far short of achieving universal primary education. The secondary schooling participation rates are shocking and illustrate very clearly why Mozambique is unable to build a sound foundation for an effective tertiary education system. In 2006, the GER in secondary schooling was 16% and the net enrolment ratio was 4% (UNESCO 2009). The corresponding averages for sub‐Saharan Africa were 32% and 25%, not high by developing country standards (60% and 53% respectively), but much higher than the Mozambique figures. Moreover, there is considerable concern about inefficiencies in the system particularly around completion rates at the primary levels and quality of provision and outcomes throughout the system. The survival rate to the last grade of primary schooling was 40% in 2006 (the average for sub‐Saharan Africa was 67% and that for developing countries, 81%) (ibid.).

2. Effective economic and education planning. A serious commitment to economic and education planning is reflected in the policy documents. However, there is little evidence that such planning actually takes place.

3. The role of the state. The state (through donor funding) plays an important role with respect to funding, as well as encouraging private sector provision of higher education. The state’s policy documents give prominence to the role of tertiary education in development; however, financial resource constraints


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have clearly prevented it from ensuring effective implementation of desired policies.

4. Partnerships. In general, no evidence could be gleaned of partnerships between the state, the universities and the private sector.

5. Institutional differentiation. There is evidence of differentiation amongst universities (e.g. UEM vs. the Pedagogic University) and across the system (universities vs. polytechnics). It is likely also that most of the research and innovation takes place at UEM and that the other higher education institutions are forced, because of a lack of financial and human resources, to focus largely on their education and training function.

6. Quality. Serious questions have been raised about the quality of educational provision across the system. The finding on poor quality features prominently in the WEF’s GCI and the GII.

7. Funding. State funding of tertiary education is low in absolute terms given the extent of need and the imperative to increase access and enhance equity.

8. Innovation. Up to this point, Mozambique has not invested sufficiently either in its universities or its private sector nor has it provided appropriate incentives for partnerships to develop between these two sets of important actors.

6.3 Evidence of a pact around the role of higher education in Mozambique? For the purposes of this study, we use the definition of a pact provided by Gornitzka et al. (2007: 184):

A ‘pact’ is a fairly long‐term cultural commitment to and from the University, as an institution with its own foundational rules of appropriate practices, causal and normative beliefs, and resources, yet validated by the political and social system in which the University is embedded. A pact, then, is different from a contract based on continuous strategic calculation of expected value by public authorities, organised external groups, university employees, and students –all regularly monitoring and assessing the University on the basis of its usefulness for their self‐interest, and acting accordingly.

The key actors of the pact are national, institutional and external stakeholders. It is assumed that the stronger the pact between universities, university


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leadership, national authorities and society at large, the better the universities will be able to make a significant, sustained contribution to development. Our interest is in exploring the extent to which there is a pact around the role for higher education in economic development in Mozambique. Key to the development of such a pact is agreement or consensus that there should be a role and then about what that role should entail. In order to investigate this aspect, we have sought to address the following questions:

1. Is there a role for knowledge production and for universities in the national development plan?

2. How do the relevant national authorities and institutional stakeholders talk about and conceptualise the role of universities? The role of knowledge and universities in national and institutional policies and plans were operationalised into a series of indicators. These indicators were then rated on a 3‐2‐1 scale by three of the researchers. The indicators and the ratings (indicated by shading) are presented in Table 6.1 below. At the national level, there is strong policy commitment to both the knowledge economy and a strong role for higher education in development. At the university level, while there is a commitment to science, research and innovation at the level of discourse amongst the top leadership, it is not reflected in the UEM’s new strategic plan; neither are there any formal structures or funding incentives to promote it.

Table 6.1: Role for knowledge and universities in development in Mozambique

National Rating = 5/6

The concept of a knowledge economy features in the national development plan

3 StrongAppears in a number of policies

2 WeakOnly mentioned in one policy

1 Absent Not mentioned at all

A role for higher education in development in national policies and plans

3 PrevalentClearly mentioned in development policies

2 Weak

1 Absent

Institutional (UEM) Rating = 3/6

Concept of a knowledge economy features in institutional policies and plans

3Features strongly in strategic plan and/or research policy/strategy

2Vague reference in strategic plan or research policy

1 Not mentioned at all

Institutional policies with regard to the university’s role in economic development

3Institutional policy

2Embedded in strategic plan, research policy etc

1 No formal policies


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FINDINGS:

At the national level, the importance of the knowledge economy was only mentioned in one policy. However, the importance of higher education in development was clearly mentioned in a number of policy statements.

Contrastingly, at the university level, there was a weaker reference to the knowledge economy, and the important role of the university in development was not mentioned in the strategic plan.

There was no broad agreement between the national and institutional levels that knowledge, and by implication higher education, is key to development.

6.3.1 Notions of the role of knowledge and universities in development How do national and institutional stakeholders conceptualise the role of higher education and the university in development? And, to what extent is there consensus or disjuncture between the national and institutional levels? Our conceptual framework for addressing these questions comprises four notions of the relationship between higher education (especially universities) and national development. These four notions8, which are elaborated upon below, emerge in the interaction between the following two sets of scenarios:

Whether or not a role is foreseen for new knowledge in the national development strategy; and

Whether or not universities, as knowledge institutions, have a role in the national development strategy. These two sets of scenarios, and the concomitant four notions of the role of universities, are depicted in Figure 6.1 below:

8 These four notions are based on ideas developed by Maassen and Cloete (2006) and Maassen

and Olsen (2007).


AncillarySelf‐

governing

Instrument Engine

Figure 6.1: The four notions of the role of knowledge and universities in development

The four notions are elaborated as follows:

The university as ancillary: In this notion, there is a strong focus on political/ideological starting‐points for development. Consequently, it is assumed that there is no need for a strong (scientific) knowledge basis for development strategies and policies. Neither is it necessary for the university to play a direct role in development since the emphasis is on investments in basic healthcare, agricultural production and primary education. The role of universities is to produce educated civil servants and professionals (with teaching based on transmitting established knowledge rather than on research), as well as different forms of community service.

The university as self‐governing institution: Knowledge produced at the university is considered important for national development – especially for the improvement of healthcare and the strengthening of agricultural production. However, this notion assumes that the most relevant knowledge is produced when academics from the North and the South cooperate in externally‐funded projects, rather than being steered by the state. This notion portrays the university as playing an important role in developing the national identity and

University not part of development strategy

No/marginal role for new knowledge in development

strategy

Central role for new knowledge in development

strategy

University part of development strategy


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in producing high‐level bureaucrats and scientific knowledge – but not directly related to national development; the university is committed to serving society as a whole rather than specific stakeholders. This notion assumes that the university is most effective when it is left to itself, and can determine its own priorities according to universal criteria, independent of the particularities of a specific geographical, national, cultural or religious context. It also assumes there is no need to invest additional public funds to increase the relevance of the university.

The university as instrument for development agendas: In this notion, the university has an important role to play in national development – not through the production of new scientific knowledge, but through expertise exchange and capacity building. The focus of the university’s development efforts should be on contributing to reducing poverty and disease, to improving agricultural production, and to support small business development – primarily through consultancy activities (especially for government agencies and development aid) and through direct involvement in local communities.

The university as engine of development: This notion assumes that knowledge plays a central role in national development – in relation to improving healthcare and agricultural production, but also in relation to innovations in the private sector, especially in areas such as information and communication technology, biotechnology and engineering. Within this notion the university is seen as (one of) the core institutions in the national development model. The underlying assumption is that the university is the only institution in society that can provide an adequate foundation for the complexities of the emerging knowledge economy when it comes to producing the relevant skills and competencies of the employees in all major sectors, as well as to the production of use‐oriented knowledge. Table 6.2 below summarises the notions of the role of higher education held by national and institutional stakeholders, and indicates whether the notion is strong, prevalent, present or absent altogether. While acknowledging that all four notions would be present within most universities, the question is: what appears to be the dominant discourse during a particular period amongst the key national and institutional stakeholders? From the evidence presented above, it appears that while there is still quite a strong belief that the university as an institution is important in national development, in producing professionals for government and industry, and in producing scientific knowledge, there is no need for a direct role in national development. This is reflected in the repeated reference to the core functions of teaching, research and service. This self‐governing notion is accompanied by both an instrumental and an engine of development discourse, with the latter stronger in government than in the university, but with very little operationalisation.


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Table 6.2: Comparing national and institutional notions of the role of higher education in Mozambique

Notions National stakeholders Institutional stakeholders

Ancillary Want higher education more involved in development

See the university as central to development

Self‐governing Autonomy is accepted, but there is strong political involvement

A strong traditional notion of teaching‐research‐service

Instrument for development agendas

Wants stronger direct service provision by academic experts

There is a discourse of delivering more service, but no incentives

Engine for development Strong discourse, but not in policy or implementation

Weaker in discourse than government, and not even reflected in official policies

Key:

Strong Prevalent Present

FINDINGS:

In terms of notions of the role of the university in development, at the national

level there was a strong instrumental expectation, with some reference to the autonomy issue.

At the university level, there was a strong leaning towards the self‐governing notion, with constant reference to instrumental, although the latter was not dominant.

At both the national and the university levels the instrumental and self‐governing notions were prevalent, but not resolved. Amongst university leadership there was a much weaker discourse about the engine of development approach.

6.4 The academic core of the Eduardo Mondlane University The university’s unique contribution to development is via knowledge – either transmitting knowledge to individuals who will go out into the world and contribute to society in a variety of ways (teaching), or producing and disseminating knowledge that can be applied to the problems of society and economy (research, engagement). Part of our conceptual framework for understanding what impacts on a university’s ability to make a sustainable contribution to development therefore focuses on the nature and strength of its knowledge activities. According to Burton Clark (1998), when an enterprising university evolves a stronger steering core and develops an outreach structure, its heartland is still in the traditional academic departments, formed around disciplines and some


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interdisciplinary fields. The heartland is where traditional academic values and activities such as teaching, research and training of the next generation of academics occur. Instead of ‘heartland’, we use the concept ‘academic core’. According to our analytical assumption, it is this core that needs to be strengthened if flagship universities – such as those included in this study – as key knowledge institutions, is to contribute to development. While most universities also engage in knowledge activities in the area of community service or outreach, our contention is that the backbone or the foundation of the university’s business is its academic core – that is, its teaching via academic degree programmes, its research output, and the production of doctorates (those individuals who, in the future, will be responsible for carrying out the core knowledge activities). Furthermore, in societies where there is a strong pact between higher education and society, the universities have been able (and allowed) to develop a strong core of academic activities that forms the basis for all their activities. Our interest in the academic core of UEM has the following two dimensions:

1. What is the strength of the academic core of the institution? 2. Has the academic core been strengthening or weakening in recent years?

In Part 4 of this report, we presented a detailed profile and analysis of the nature and strength of the UEM academic core. The analysis was undertaken on the basis of seven key indicators (see Table 6.3 below). The rating of the UEM indicators was undertaken on the basis of a cluster analysis which included South Africa’s 22 contact universities and the seven other African universities included in the study.


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Table 6.3: Eduardo Mondlane University: Rating of the academic core

Indicator Strong (3) Medium (2) Weak (1)

1 Science, engineering and technology enrolments and graduations

SET majors have 47% enrolment share, but graduation rate is far too low (2007)

2 Postgraduate / undergraduate enrolments ratio Masters / PhD enrolment ratio

Postgraduates = 4% of enrolments in 2007; masters output low, and no doctoral enrolments until 2006

3 Teaching load: Academic staff / student ratio

Overall and SET FTE student: academic ratio both = 13:1(2007). Business ratio problematic at 50:1

4 Proportion of academic staff with doctorates

24% of academics with doctorates

5 Research income per permanent academic staff member

No information provided, but assumed to be low

6 Doctoral graduates Graduates in 2007 constituted 0.00% of permanent academics

7 Research publications Research productivity poor with 0.04% in 2001 and 2007. Very few academics publish research articles.

The following observations can be made about the academic core data for UEM:

1. SET enrolments – UEM’s SET enrolments grew from 4 500 in 2001 to 7 600 in 2007. The average annual SET growth rate was 9.1% over this period, which was below the growth rate in other fields of study. Because of the differences in growth rates, the proportion of SET students fell from 62% in 2001 to 47% in 2007. This was still a good proportion, but it was off‐set by the university’s very poor SET graduation rate. Its output ratios suggest that only about 20 of every 100 students entering UEM’s SET programmes will eventually graduate.


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2. Postgraduate enrolments – UEM’s proportion of postgraduate students in its total enrolment was low, and remained low, throughout this period. It enrolled masters students for the first time in 2002 and doctoral students for the first time in 2006. In 2007, its masters enrolment was 602 and its doctoral enrolment only 3. The postgraduate students constituted 4% of the total enrolment in 2007.

3. Teaching load – Between 2001 and 2007, UEM’s FTE academic staff total grew at half the average annual growth rate of FTE students. As a consequence, its FTE student to FTE academic staff ratio increased from 9:1 in 2001 to 13:1 in 2007. Its 2007 ratio could, nevertheless, be regarded as a satisfactory one, in comparison to the South African norm of 20:1. The university increased its teaching staff capacity by about 20% in 2007 through the employment of temporary and part‐time academic staff. The conclusion which can be drawn is that its permanent academics must, in 2007, have had reasonable teaching loads.

4. Qualifications of staff – In 2007, 24% of UEM’s permanent academic staff had doctorates as their highest formal qualifications. This proportion is below the average for South African universities.

5. Research funding – UEM did not provide information on research funding. It appears not to have designated funds available to support the research activities of its academic staff.

6. Doctoral graduates – In 2007 the university only had three doctoral enrolments and no graduates. Historically, doctoral studies were undertaken abroad.

7. Research publications – In terms of research publications, UEM’s output is extremely low. In 2007 its 842 permanent staff produced only 21 research articles. In terms of input variables, UEM had a strong enrolment in SET and a very positive student‐staff ratio. However, there were low postgraduate enrolments (although masters enrolments improved from 0 in 2001 to 420 in 2007), the lowest staff qualifications in the HERANA sample, and very little research per permanent academic staff member. SET graduation and knowledge production outputs were also the weakest in the sample. Positive developments are the increase in masters students, and the beginnings of enrolling PhDs.

FINDINGS:

The university is not changing from a predominantly undergraduate teaching institution.


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On the input side, UEM scores strongly on two indicators, namely SET enrolments and staff teaching load, and scores weak on all three output indicators.

The knowledge production output variables of the academic core do not seem strong enough to enable UEM to make a sustainable contribution to development.

6.5 Coordination and connectedness Knowledge policies have become increasingly important in the context of the knowledge economy. Broadly speaking, knowledge policies refer to political mechanisms (such as policies and incentives) that are aimed at improving the (knowledge) capacity of a country to participate in the global knowledge economy. Such policies thus relate to the higher education and science and technology sectors, and to high‐level skills training, research and innovation. The coordination of knowledge policies can take place at the level of both policy formulation and policy implementation. In this project ‘coordination’ is used to refer to more structured forms of interaction, mainly between government and institutions; in other words, the knowledge policies and implementation activities of different government departments, particularly departments of education, science and technology, and research councils. Of specific interest to this study is the coordination of knowledge policies across ministries involved with higher education, science, technology and innovation, as well as those responsible for economic development or planning. Implementation can be regarded as a component of the coordination of government policies and is a complex combination of agreement (relevant parties support the policy) and capacity to design and apply the implementation mechanisms or instruments. At the national level we looked at the role of the ministry responsible for higher education, steering and funding. At the institutional level, indicators dealt with aspects such as units or structures to implement strategic plans, incentives and rewards, special teaching and research programmes that link to economic development and funding support for research. Another key issue for the relationship between higher education and economic development is to establish a productive relationship between knowledge and connectedness. On the one hand, if there is an overemphasis on the basic knowledge activities of teaching and research – in other words, an excessive inward orientation towards strengthening the academic core – this results in the university becoming an ‘ivory tower’. Or, if the academic core is weak, an overemphasis on knowledge results in the ‘ancillary’ role of the university (i.e. no direct role in development). On the other hand, if there is an overemphasis


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in the university on connecting to development activities, then it weakens the academic core and the university has little new or relevant knowledge to offer in the exchange relationship. The challenge for universities, then, is to deal with this inherent tension between ‘buffering’ (protecting) the core technologies of the institution, and ‘bridging’ (linking) those with external actors (Scott 2001: 199‐211). For the purposes of this study, we are using the term ‘connectedness’ to refer to the relationship (and tension) between the inward focus on strengthening and maintaining the academic core, and the outward focus on linking with external stakeholders and development. In this section, we address the following three questions relating to coordination and connectedness:

1. Does government coordinate policies and steering mechanisms that enable the university to contribute to development?

2. Does the university connect to external groupings in ways that promote development?

3. Do development activities in the university strengthen or weaken the academic core?

6.5.1 Knowledge policy coordination and implementation Acknowledging a lack of coordination within government, and between government and the university, two national bodies were established to serve as forums for interaction between government, universities and civil society. One is the Higher Education Council which brings together the university, civil society and other actors such as representatives of the Ministry of Finance. The other is the Council on Science and Technology which involves the rectors of some of the universities as well as civil society representatives. In order to pull these different groups together, a National Council for Higher Education, Science and Technology was established, reporting directly to the Council of Ministers. However, it appears that this body has never really functioned properly. For instance, one interview respondent commented that when this Council met, it was apparent that the parties did not know each other and that there was no coordination and an overlap in some activities. This highlights the importance of having both horizontal and vertical dialogue. In addition, while forums between higher education and government, and in some cases civil society, are becoming quite widespread in Africa, there is seldom follow‐through or monitoring of implementation of decisions. Instead, these forums often create a diversionary illusion of consultation and coordination.


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Table 6.4: National coordination of knowledge policies


Economic development and higher education planning are linked

3 SystematicFormal structures Headed by senior minister

2 SporadicClusters / forums

1 Weak Occasional meetings

Link between universities and national authorities

3Specific coordination structures or agencies

2Some formal structures but no meaningful coordination

1 No structures, and political rather than professional networks

Coordination and consensus building of government agencies involved in higher education

3Higher education mainstreamed across government departments

2Intermittent interaction with ineffective forums

1 Higher education issues limited mainly to one ministry or directorate

FINDINGS:

At the national level, there seem to be mainly informal interactions, but no

institutionalised processes of coordination. While there are considerable personal networks between government officials

and particular university leaders, it is not clear whether these contribute towards building consensus and strengthening the institution.

Table 6.5: Implementation of knowledge policies and activities


Role of the ministry responsible for higher education

3Organised ministry with capacity to make predictable allocations

2Spots of capacity with some steering instruments

1 Weak capacity with unpredictable allocations

Implementation to ‘steer’ higher education towards development

3 StrongInstruments such as funding / special projects that incentivise institutions/individuals

2 WeakOccasional grants for special projects

1 Absent No particular incentive funding

Balance / ratio of sources of income for institutions

3Government, fees and third stream

2Mainly government plus student fees

1 Mainly government with external funders

Funding consistency 3A stable, transparent public funding mechanism based on criteria agreed upon by all actors involved

2Funding allocations somewhat predictable but do not allow for long‐term planning nor reward enterprising behaviour

1 No clear funding or incentives from government


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Institutional (UEM) Rating = 7/18

Specific units, funding or appointments linked economic development

3Specific units, funding or appointments

2Economic development initiatives aspect of a unit or appointment

1 Mainly ad hoc, staff‐initiated operations

Incentives and rewards for development‐related activities

3Incentives / counts towards promotion

2Some signals but largely rhetoric

1 No mention

Teaching programmes linked to the labour market

3Targets for enrolments in fields considered to be of high economic relevance

2Some programmes in response to specific industry requests

1 No new programmes linked to labour market

Special programmes linking students to economic development

3Entrepreneurship, work‐based learning and/or incubators for students mainstreamed

2Ad hoc programmes

1 No special programmes

Research activities are becoming more economy‐oriented

3Research policy/strategy has an economic development focus

2Some research agendas have an economic development focus

1 Ad hoc project funding

Levels of government and institutional funding for research

3High

2Medium

1 Low

FINDINGS:

At the national level, the Department of Education seems to have low capacity with no steering mechanisms and somewhat unpredictable funding.

When it comes to structures, resources and incentives – in other words implementation – there is weak capacity in the ministry; there has been only one serious steering attempt. There is also funding inconsistency.

The university has a few development‐related structures linking it to development initiatives. The problem is that most of these are driven by individuals rather than being institutionalised.

Research related to development is not significantly rewarded through incentives beyond the traditional academic promotion system and foreign consultancies.

6.5.2 Connectedness to external stakeholders and the academic core At the university level, there was little evidence of interactions with industry and the private sector – perhaps in part because these sectors are not well developed in Mozambique. There are also no real incentives for academics to engage in research or engagement activities, let alone those linked specifically to economic development. Instead, the increased pressure to expand access


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and the diversion of a proliferation of private institutions that offer salary supplementation to academics at the public institutions is a strong disincentive for R&D activities. Regarding coordination, there is a long tradition and practice of coordinating linkages with foreign donors. Over and above the support received from the World Bank via the government, one of the university’s biggest donor partners has been SIDA/SAREC – with which the institution has had a more than 30‐year relationship. Over the years, SIDA has funded individual projects, capacity development (including masters and PhD degrees), bigger research programmes, and a facilities fund which covers expensive equipment and the maintenance of laboratories and so on. Over the past few years, it has been mandatory to include masters and PhD training in the larger research programmes funded by SIDA. There are systems in place to negotiate with the larger donors (such as from Sweden, Italy and Belgium) that the programmes that are funded are aligned with both institutional and national priorities. This is coordinated by the newly established Donor Coordination Unit. However, it is much more difficult to ensure this with the smaller donor‐funded projects since these are usually negotiated with individual researchers. The Donor Coordination Unit, which reports directly to the vice‐chancellor, will also be responsible for bringing together the major donors to meet and discuss their activities in order to coordinate funding areas and reporting mechanisms, and to avoid duplication or overlap where possible. The unit’s coordinator reported that at a recent meeting of large donors, it was evident that there was little coordination between them in terms of funding areas and activities. This is certainly the most structured level of donor coordination we have seen in the eight country case studies. With regard to the connectedness of development‐related activities to the academic core, the articulation and academic ratings applied to the five projects/centres (section 5.3) are presented again in Figure 6.2 below.


ASCM 5, 7ISCP 3, 7 EECC 5, 7

SME 2, 9

IWRM 4, 6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Direct articulation

Indirectarticulation

Weakening academic core

Strengthening academic core

Figure 6.2: Plotting the development‐related projects at the Eduardo Mondlane University

Key: ASCM Advancing Sustainable Construction in Mozambique ISCP Innovation Systems and Clusters Programme in Eastern Africa EECC Energy, Environment and Climate Change Research Programme SME School of Management and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management for Sustainable Development in Southern

Mozambique

As can be seen from Figure 6.2, only two of the projects – both long‐term research programmes – fall in the top right‐hand quadrant. Both of these projects scored the maximum ‘5’ on the strengthening the academic core rating. The School of Management and Entrepreneurship in Chibuto did not score very high in terms of strengthening the academic core, but this is likely to be the case because the project is still very new and has not had the time to establish a number of its activities. It did, however, score well on the articulation rating – higher than any of the other projects, in fact. The articulation ratings of some of the other projects were weakened primarily because they have only one source of funding and an indirect or no link to an implementation agency.


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Significantly, compared to the other seven universities in the HERANA sample, on average, the UEM development projects had low scores in terms of connectedness. To a large extent this is because of an over‐reliance on foreign donors as the only source of funding, as well as limited linkages to implementation agencies.

FINDINGS:

Projects/centres that are considered by university leadership to be strongly connected to development tend to score well on the articulation indicators – in other words, they reflect national priorities (and to a lesser extent institutional objectives), have more than one funding source and, in some cases, plans for financial sustainability, and may have a connection to an implementation agency.

Three of the projects also score high on strengthening the academic core (a SIDA requirement). The problem is a matter of scale: there need to be many more of these types of projects which articulate development goals and strengthen the academic core.

6.6 Concluding comments Mozambique has been a high‐growth country for a considerable period and is often cited as a ‘World Bank success case’. However, this has not translated into climbing the ladder in terms of its HDI, nor in significantly reducing income and regional inequality. While there is an increasing commitment, certainly within some government departments, to knowledge as a basis for development, very little has been done to effect implementation. Some of the interviewees sketched a picture of the historical development of the UEM, starting with the fact that many of the prominent leaders – from Samora Machel to Joaquim Chissano to Armando Guebuza – interrupted their own higher education studies in order to join the struggle for liberation, although retaining a strong appreciation for the power of knowledge. The university developed from a predominantly teaching institution, through the temporary closure following independence, to the introduction of research into the core activities in the 1980s. During the 1990s the Presidential Forum on Science and Technology, and President Chissano’s (1997) national commission, led very appropriately by the Minister for Economic and Social Affairs, resulted in the establishment of the MHEST. The first national S&T policy was developed and approved in 2003 – the first real attempt to steer the system in the direction of S&T, and a demonstration that the government recognised its importance in development.


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The university responded positively by, amongst others, incorporating smaller projects into new, bigger programmes which were evaluated according to their contribution to national priorities, such as the government’s poverty alleviation strategy. This signalled some alignment between the university’s research policy and the priorities of the Mozambique Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy. But, alas, according to some interviewers and our rating of policy, structures and resources, there was very little consistent implementation, and as the new ministry was in the process of capacitating itself, and in collaboration with considerable international networks, political change disestablished the ministry, separating higher education from S&T and relocating higher education with education. For some stakeholders, this separation of higher education from the S&T portfolio is both a signal that the current government does not fully grasp the value of higher education for development, and that higher education is no longer a priority for the new Ministry of Education. The above shows a very interesting progression and regression associated – as is so often the case in Africa – with regime change. The interpenetration of small elites means that there are not adequate boundaries between different spheres of the state; in other words, when there is a change in, say, political leadership, it directly effects changes in the leadership of institutions such as the university. This is in contrast to more stable democracies with larger elites, such as the United Kingdom, where the change from labour party rule to a liberal/conservative coalition had no direct effect on the choice of the leadership at Oxford University. In Mozambique it seems that at the very moment that both government and the UEM leadership were moving towards the beginnings of a pact about the importance of high‐level skills and knowledge production as a key component of development, a change of leadership and direction occurred. The new direction could be described as an attempt at massification, associated with the knowledge economy. This form of massification believes that broadening access, particularly through differentiation, even if of low quality, lifts the skills base and improves equity. It also brings credits to government for providing greater access to higher education, which is quite rightly seen as improving equity. However, differentiation associated with globalisation and knowledge economies encourages both high‐end research and innovation universities, along with a range of institutions that produce different levels and types of skills (e.g. the United States spectrum from Harvard, to state land grant universities, to community colleges). The Mozambique example seems to be going in another direction, that is, where higher education is important for social mobility and votes. So, while there seems to be a pact that higher education is important for development, there is considerable disagreement on what a system of higher education that will contribute to development should look like.


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6.6.1 Factors impacting on the university’s capacity to contribute to development The first factor that impacts on the capacity of the university to make a contribution to development is the lack of a pact, or the changing pact. It appears that from the late 1990s to the middle of the 2000s there was an attempt to move on the agenda towards a vision that knowledge, particularly S&T, was important for development. There was some considerable correspondence between government, the reorganisation of ministries, cooperation from the leadership of the institution, and the beginnings of funder coordination. The Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Mozambique 2000–2010, developed through an extensive consultative process involving major stakeholders and all provinces, was completed in August 2000. This was followed by the establishment of MHEST which led the last phase of the conception of the Strategic Plan, and which emerged as an important driving force in the process of working out the Operational Plan approved by the Cabinet and major funders such as World Bank and SIDA. This does not mean that academics had necessarily bought into this new direction, but at least at the national and university leadership levels there seems to have been considerable movement towards a pact. In other words, a number of conditions for the UEM to make a stronger contribution to development had been falling into place, and then it changed. The 2004 presidential and parliamentary election brought about a change in leadership in the country, ministry and the leadership of the university. The new direction of massive expansion, public and private, represents a different notion of the role of the university and currently there seem to be considerable contestations within the institution. Within the university the key factors that seem to be weakening the academic core are poor graduation rates in its SET and other programmes, a low proportion of postgraduate students, accompanied by low numbers of doctoral students, and low output of research publications. This means that the institution has not been gearing up, with the necessary policies and resource allocations, to fulfil the notion of a stronger knowledge contribution to development. A positive development is that the university is beginning to build up its student numbers in masters programmes. A positive towards strengthening connectivity and knowledge is the greater coordination and institutionalisation of donor funding. Both the establishment of the Donor Coordination Unit and the number of development projects that strengthen the academic core, are examples of positive attempts to strengthen, and make development projects more sustainable. The fact that UEM still has such small numbers of doctorates and low publication rates could be attributed


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to a number of reasons, such as that the institution started from a relatively low base and that it takes time to build knowledge capacity. Finally, the absence of a pact means that there is not a coordinated triangle of government, donors and the university. Universities and donor agencies cannot contribute meaningfully and sustainably to development alone; neither can donors play the role of a surrogate state because they do not have the resources for a sustainable economy of scale contribution.


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Appendix 1: List of interviewees

Eduardo Mondlane University

Prof. Angêlo Macuacua (Deputy Vice Chancellor: Management Affairs) Prof. Orlando Quilambo (Deputy Dean for Academic Affairs) Dr Maria da Conceição (UEM Coordinator for SIDA/SAREC Co‐operation) Dr Lidia Brito (Department of Wood Science and Technology) Dr Domingos Buque (Deputy Dean for Research and Postgraduation, Faculty of

Education) Prof. António Cumbane (Head: Dept of Chemical Engineering) Prof. Amália Uamasse (Dean: Faculty of Science) Prof. Daniel Baloi (Dean: Faculty of Economics) Prof. Mário Falcão (Dean: Faculty of Agronomy) Prof. Armindo Ngunga (Director: Centre for African Studies) Prof. Manoela M Sylvestre (Director: School of Management and

Entrepreneurship in Chibuto) Dr Álvaro CarmoVaz (retired, Faculty of Engineering) Dr Afonso Lobo (Deputy Dean for Management, Faculty of Engineering) Prof. Boaventura Cuamba (Dept of Physics) Prof. Serafina Vilanculos (Faculty of Engineering) Prof. Brazao Mazula (Faculty of Education)

National stakeholders

Dr Venâncio Simão Massingue (Minister of Science and Technology) Constantino Gode (Advisor to the Minister of Finance) Augusto Sumburane (National Director: Ministry of Finance Research Unit) Dr Vitória Afonso de Jesus (National Programme Coordinator: Programa Vilas

de Milenio) Dr Arlindo Chilundo (Advisor to the Minister of Education and Culture)


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Appendix 2: Cluster analysis methodology and data

A K‐means clustering analysis was applied for the identification of four statistically significant and distinct clusters. Averages for 2005 to 2007 were used for input variables as well as non‐financial output variables. Financial data for 2007 were used. Original values for all variables were statistically scaled to make the data comparable and to ensure equal weighting for all variables. The following input variables were used for the clustering analysis:

% headcount enrolments in science, engineering and technology (% SET) % masters and doctoral headcount enrolments (% M & D students) Inverse of the student: academic/research staff FTE ratio (inverse of stud: staff

FTE ratio) % of permanent academic/ research staff with a doctoral degree (% staff with

PhD) % private income Total income per FTE student (purchasing power parity dollar thousands)

(income per FTE) Academic staff costs per FTE academic (purchasing power parity dollar

thousands) (staff cost per FTE). The following output variables were used for the clustering analysis:

Graduation rate (number of graduates in a given year/ enrolments in a given year x 100)

Research outputs (doctoral graduates + research publications). The data values are shown in Table A2.1 over page. Figure A2.1 lists the universities in the four clusters and plots the means for each cluster.


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Table A2.1: Cluster analysis data table

INPUT INDICATORS OUTPUT INDICATORS

Total 2007 head counts (thousands)

Averages for 2005‐2007 2007 only

2007 income 2007 expenditure Averages for 2005‐2007

% SET % M & D students

Student: staff FTE ratio

% Staff with PhD

% Private Income

Income per FTE(purchasing power parity

dollar thousands)

Academic staff costs per FTE academic (purchasing power

parity dollar thousands)

Graduation rate

Weighted research output per permanent academic

LARGE CONTACT

Tshwane University of Technology

51 38% 3% 31 12% 16% 10.5 81.0 19% 0.27

University of Pretoria 49 38% 15% 18 38% 40% 24.8 92.8 24% 1.36North West University 45 20% 8% 30 43% 37% 12.6 106.2 24% 1.17University of Johannesburg 42 31% 5% 16 18% 27% 15.9 46.0 23% 0.94University of Nairobi 39 30% 16% 16 71% 34% 9.9 58.7 16% 0.45University of KwaZulu Natal 38 32% 14% 18 30% 37% 21.2 96.1 21% 1.07Makerere University 34 31% 7% 18 31% 15% 5.9 48.7 26% 0.51

MEDIUM CONTACT

Cape Peninsula University of Technology

29 48% 2% 26 11% 27% 15.3 98.1 22% 0.20

University of the Free State 25 29% 12% 17 49% 30% 18.2 73.6 21% 1.27University of the Witwatersrand

25 48% 23% 11 45% 51% 39.7 96.7 21% 1.52

Walter Sisulu University 24 26% 1% 30 9% 5% 8.7 108.6 12% 0.05Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

24 30% 7% 29 34% 25% 18.4 120.1 23% 0.82

Stellenbosch University 23 41% 22% 16 61% 51% 36.4 90.9 25% 2.03Durban University of Technology

23 48% 2% 28 7% 11% 12.4 108.9 20% 0.14

University of Cape Town 21 42% 18% 13 58% 42% 40.0 99.3 26% 2.13University of Dar es Salaam 18 39% 10% 15 50% 16% 8.6 44.1 24% 0.40University of Ghana 26 18% 6% 29 47% 15% 6.3 68.5 20% 0.53

SMALL CONTACT

University of Limpopo 16 44% 11% 16 16% 19% 21.3 77.5 21% 0.31Vaal University of Technology

16 48% 1% 31 12% 13% 11.4 81.5 15% 0.12

Eduardo Mondlane University

16 50% 3% 12 19% 14% 5.6 24.9 8% 0.03

University of Botswana 16 25% 23% 17 20% 10% 14.8 85.6 22% 0.27University of the Western 15 31% 10% 19 43% 41% 22.3 84.0 20% 0.91


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INPUT INDICATORS OUTPUT INDICATORS

Total 2007 head counts (thousands)

Averages for 2005‐2007 2007 only

2007 income 2007 expenditure Averages for 2005‐2007

% SET % M & D students

Student: staff FTE ratio

% Staff with PhD

% Private Income

Income per FTE(purchasing power parity

dollar thousands)

Academic staff costs per FTE academic (purchasing power

parity dollar thousands)

Graduation rate

Weighted research output per permanent academic

Cape University of Venda 12 31% 3% 34 35% 14% 10.0 100.3 16% 0.24Cape University of Technology

10 45% 3% 28 29% 14% 13.0 79.2 22% 0.32

Mangosothu University of Technology

10 59% 0% 44 5% 13% 10.6 140.9 17% 0.03

University of Zululand 9 16% 5% 32 38% 30% 15.9 95.9 21% 0.70University of Fort Hare 9 18% 6% 21 19% 37% 15.6 94.2 20% 0.45University of Mauritius 8 42% 15% 16 45% 6% 3.7 20.9 27% 0.94Rhodes University 6 22% 14% 17 50% 29% 26.9 107.7 32% 1.65

Notes: 1. The calculation of purchasing power parity dollars (PPP$) is based on estimates contained in the World Bank’s (2008) World Development Indicators report.

Because these estimates are based on 2005 exchange rates, the following method was used for the 2007 calculations: The indicator set gives for each country a ratio between the PPP conversion factor and the market exchange rate. For example, the South African ratio is

given as 0.61, based on a market exchange rate of R 6.4 per USD in 2005. The 2007 calculations assume that the 2005 ratio will apply again. So the 2007 PPP conversion factor is taken to be 2005 ratio times 2007 market exchange

rate. For example, the conversion factor for South Africa is calculated as 2005 ratio times 2007 exchange rate = 0.61 x 7.0 = 4.27. 2. The financial data for the following three universities were based on the following assumptions:

University of Nairobi: academic staff costs assumed to = 35% of total expenditure Eduardo Mondlane University: academic staff costs assumed to = 35% of total expenditure University of Dar es Salaam: (a) academic staff costs assumed to = 35% of total expenditure; (b) private income = donor income.


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Figure A2.1: Plot of means for each cluster

% SET% M & D students

Inverse of stud: staff FTE ratio

% Staff with PhD

% Private Income

Income per FTE

Staff cost per FTE

Graduation Rate

Weighted Research Outputs

Cluster 1 0.27 1.54 1.04 1.00 1.33 1.78 0.50 1.03 1.72

Cluster 2 0.19 ‐0.10 0.78 ‐0.23 ‐0.72 ‐0.58 ‐1.25 0.10 ‐0.53

Cluster 3 ‐0.86 0.04 ‐0.37 0.46 0.47 ‐0.14 0.22 ‐0.14 0.11

Cluster 4 0.84 ‐1.07 ‐1.00 ‐1.14 ‐0.89 ‐0.49 0.58 ‐0.63 ‐0.86

‐1.50

‐1.00

‐0.50

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

Cluster 4

Cluster 4 Tshwane University of Technology,

Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Walter Sisulu

University, Durban University of Technology, Vaal University of

Technology, Central University of Technology, Mangosothu University of Technology

Cluster 3 North West University, University of Nairobi, University of KwaZulu ‐Natal, University of the Free State, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, University of Ghana, University of the Western Cape, University of Venda, University of Zululand, University of Fort Hare

Cluster 2 University of Johannesburg,

Makerere University, University of Dar es Salaam, University of Limpopo, Eduardo Mondlane

University, University of Botswana, University of Mauritius

Cluster 1 University of Pretoria,

Witwatersrand University, Stellenbosch University, University of Cape Town, Rhodes University


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Appendix 3: Academic core rating descriptions

Indicators Strong (3) Medium (2) Weak (1)

1 Strong science and technology

SET enrolments growing, and SET share of enrolment shape increasing. Graduation rates of cohorts of SET students minimum of 70%.

SET share of enrolment shape steady. Graduation rate of cohorts of SET students 60% to 70%.

SET enrolments static, and SET share of enrolment shape declining. Graduation rate of cohorts of SET students below 60%.

2 Increased postgraduate enrolments and outputs

Postgraduates at least 25% of total enrolment. Masters and doctoral enrolments and graduates increasing. Ratio of masters to doctoral enrolments no more than 5:1. Ratio of graduates in year to enrolments in same year: masters 25%, doctorates 20%.

Postgraduates as proportion of total enrolments above 10% and increasing. Ratio of masters to doctoral enrolments no more than 10:1. Ratios of graduates to enrolments: masters 20%, doctorates 15%.

Postgraduate enrolments and graduates grow at average annual rate below that of undergraduates. Postgraduates 10% or less of total enrolment. Ratio of masters to doctoral enrolments above 10:1.

3 Teaching loads of academic staff

FTE academic staff ratio close to growth in FTE students. FTE student to academic staff ratios maximum of 15:1 for SET, and maximum average of 20:1 for: all programmes.

FTE students grow at faster rate than FTE academic staff. FTE student to academic staff ratios close 20:1 for SET, close to 30:1 for all programmes.

FTE students grow at faster rate than FTE academic staff ratio. FTE student to academic staff ratios more than 20:1 for SET, and 30:1 for all programmes.

4 Qualifications of academic staff

At least 50% of permanent academic staff have doctorates.

Between 30% and 50% of permanent academic staff have doctorates.

Less than 30% of permanent academic staff have doctorates.

5 Availability of research funding

Annual research funding of at least USD10 000 per permanent academic.

Annual research funding of between than USD 2 000 and USD 10 000 per permanent academic.

Annual research funding of less than USD 2 000 per permanent academic.

6 Doctoral graduates Doctoral graduates in given year = 10% or higher of permanent academic staff.

Doctoral graduates in given year between 5% & 9.9% of permanent academic staff.

Doctoral graduates in given year < 5% of permanent academic staff.

7 Research publications

Ratio of 0.50 or higher of publication units per permanent academic.

Ratio of publication units per permanent academic between 0.25 and 0.49.

Ratio of publication units per permanent academic < 0.25.

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