career-impeding supervisory behaviors: perceptions of african american and european american...

Career-Impeding Supervisory Behaviors: Perceptions of African American and EuropeanAmerican ProfessionalsAuthor(s): Ugorji O. UgorjiSource: Public Administration Review, Vol. 57, No. 3 (May - Jun., 1997), pp. 250-255Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Society for Public AdministrationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/976656 .

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Gareer-JInpeding Supervisory Behaviors: PercepfonsofAfrican Amedcan and European Alnefican Professionals Ugorji 0. Ugorji, State of New Jersey and the Center for Adult

Development at Rutgers University

It is hardly arguable that the behaviors ofsupervisors influence the careers of their subordinates. In the public sector, what types ofsupervisory behaviors adversely affect the careers ofsubordi- nates? Given the increasing diversity of employees in the work- place, do members ofdifferent ethnic groups and men and women experience these career-impeding supervisory behaviors differently? Is there a relationship between employees'experiences ofsuch behaviors and theirjob satisfaction?

These questions and the answers to them are very important if effective courses are to be developed to train managers to manage work force diversity. This study identifies career-impeding supervisory behaviors as reported by African American and European American professionals in New Jersey state government. African Americans experienced career-impeding supervisory behaviors more than European Americans, but gender difference was not significant. The more employees reported experiencing career- impeding supervisory behaviors, the lower the employees'job satisfaction. European Americans were more satisfied with their jobs than African Americans, but gender difference was again not

significant.

Diversity training has become a major challenge in professional development. Organizations have begun either hiring consultants or instituting internal programs to provide training in managing work-force diversity. However, many discussions about valuing and managing diversity have been based more on hunches and rhetoric than on sound research.

This article presents the findings of an empirical inquiry into the experiences of career-impeding supervisory behaviors perceived by New Jersey state professional employees. The experiences of two ethnic groups and of men and women are compared, and conclusions are offered with implications for diversity training.

Purpose of the Study Supervisors and managers take actions and make

decisions every day that affect the lives and careers of their subordinates. These supervisory behaviors are defined as career-impeding if subordinates perceive them to affect their careers adversely.

The purpose of this study was to identify specific career-impeding supervisory behaviors and to determine whether there was a relationship between ethnicity or gender and the likelihood that an employee would experience these behaviors. The research questions were: 1. 'What specific career-impeding supervisory behaviors do public-sector employees experience?

2. Is there a relationship between ethnicity or gender and the experience of these behaviors?

3. Is there a relationship between the extent of career-impeding supervisory behaviors experienced and employee job satisfaction?

4. Is there a relationship between ethnicity or gender and employee job satisfaction? An important assumption of this study was that

no ethnic or gender group of supervisors and managers exhibited more career-impeding behaviors than any other. Thus, no attempt was made to identify the ethnic group or gender of the supervisors about whom respondents reported. It was assumed that it would be more productive to identify the behaviors (which can be changed) and to find out whether any gender or ethnic group of employees was more likely to experience them.

250 Public Administration Review * May/June 1997, Vol. 57, No. 3



,,, ,,

Sample Population The population for the study consisted of employees in three

departments in New Jersey state service-Transportation, Person- nel, and Environmental Protection-which gave permission for the study. The three departments together employed 9,800 people, of which 3,971 held professional and-administrative titles. Of these professional employees, 83 percent were European Ameri- cans and 7 percent were African Americans. Women constituted 28 percent of the employees in the population; men were 72 percent. The ethnic and gender identifications were made by using the designations found in the employees' personnel records. It was from this group that the sample for the study was drawn.

Only European American and African American employees were included in the sample. This decision was based primarily on the author's belief that these groups represent the extremes in the historical ethnic divide.

Only those employees who held professional or administrative titles were included in the sample. These were titles for which an employee needed at least a bachelor's degree; the designations of professional and administrative were also part of the employees' personnel records. This criterion was used to ensure that only those employees participated who had the educational sophistica- tion necessary to understand and complete a selfadministered survey.

The initial sample was composed of 1,078 professional employees from the three departments. Of this number 278 were African Americans, all of whom were included in the sample to ensure that an adequate number would respond. The other 800 employees in the sample were European Americans. The Euro- pean Americans were randomly selected with the aid of a comput- er program.

For various technical reasons, 184 responses were subsequently eliminated from the sample. Thus, a final total of 894 employees received the survey, of whom 247 were African Americans and 647 were European Americans.

Response Rate and Sample Characteristics Altogether, 722 out of the 894 employees returned usable sur-

veys, for a response rate of 81 percent. Of the respondents, 77 percent identified themselves as European American, 23 percent as African American; 68 percent as males, and 32 percent as females. Slightly more than half of the respondents (51 percent) said they were supervisors, while 92 percent said they had classi- fied (permanent) civil service titles. The average age of the respondents was 41 years, the average of employees' years in the departments was 13, and the average for total number of years in state service was 14.5.

The Survey A survey was developed specifically for the study. Initially, 32

New Jersey state employees were interviewed to develop an item pool for the various sections of the survey. Of these employees 13 were men and 19 were women; 14 were European Americans, 12 were African Americans, 4 were Asians, and 2 were Latinos. They

held positions ranging from entry-level professional titles to direc- tors of major divisions. The interview questions: Whatispecific negative :or; adverse supervisory behaviors . have you experienced in your employment with the state?

The first section :of the survey asked for demographic data. A four-point Likert job-satisfaction scale was also part of this section, to ascertain the job-satisfaction level of the respondents. A four-point format was used to force a choice between disagree- ment and agreement from 1, strongly disagree, through 2, disagree, and 3, agree, to 4, strongly agree. The last section was the career-impeding, supervisory-behaviors scale. This part listed examples of negative. superrvisory behaviors that had been gathered during the interviews and from a literature review. Participants were asked to check 1, not applicable, next to the behaviors they had not experienced, 2, zero effect, next to behaviors they had experienced with no adverse effect on their careers, or 3, some effect, next to behaviors they had experienced and perceived to have adversely affected their careers. In essence, the nature of this measure was akin to what Nanry (1991, 2) referred to as upward evaluation, subordinates reporting on the behaviors of their superiors and making judgments about them."

The survey was pilot tested in classes in the Certified Manage- ment Program of the Human Resource Development Institute, the training hub of New Jersey state government. After the pilot, the survey contained seven items in the job-satisfaction scale and 34 on the supervisory-behaviors scale.

The survey was mailed to the sample with a cover letter that stated the purpose of the study and suggested that employees would be contributing to a better understanding of work-force diversity issues if they participated. The letter also gave participants instructions on how to complete and return the survey and promised the respondents anonymity and confidentiality. The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficients for the final survey were .80 for the job-satisfaction scale, and .94 for the supervisory- behaviors scale.

Data Collection and Analysis The survey was distributed in most cases by the payroll offices

of the departments and by the post office to employees who were at satellite offices or in the field. Respondents were asked to return completed surveys to the Center for Adult Development at Rut- gers University in a stamped, pre-addressed envelope.

Where appropriate, descriptive statistics were calculated for the demographic and scale data. Analysis of variance procedures and the Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel (chi square) procedure for signifi- cance testing were also used, while factor analysis was used to identify source variables, The scores of the two ethnic groups and the two gender groups were compared for the scales in the survey.

The larger the number of respondents in a sample, the lower the standard error, and consequently, the more powerful the results (Hinkle, Wiersman, and Jurs, 1988, 305). The sample size in this study, 722, was relatively high. Using the table in Babbie (1992, A3), estimated sample error (was a plus or minus 3 percent).

Career-Impeding Supervisory Behaviors 251



Another important assumption was that using the term "race" is meaningless and harmful; hence the term ethnicity is used in this study. Montagu (1974, 3) stated that race has been "man's most dangerous myth," and Cornel West (1993, 32) warned that "the pitfalls of racial reasoning are too costly in mind, body, and soul." Ethnicity, on the other hand, is more fundamental to culture. It describes groups in which members share a cultural heritage from one generation to another (Pederson, 1988). Some of the attributes of ethnicity include: (1) a group image and sense of identity derived from such cultural patterns as values, beliefs, behaviors, mannerisms, and language; (2) involuntary membership, although individual identification with the group may be voluntary; and (3) generally shared political and economic interests (Baruth and Man- ning, 1991; Appleton, 1983; Banks, 1981).

Thus, blacks and whites are referred to in this study as African Americans and European Americans, respectively. The former are those employees who can trace their ancestry to Africa. The latter are those who can trace their ancestry to Europe.

Findings

Career-Impeding Supervisory Behaviors Because the first purpose of the study was to iden-

tify supervisory behaviors perceived by public-sector employees to impede their careers, the frequency of respondents who checked zero effect or some effect on the supervisory-behaviors scale was calculated (Table 1). At least 20 percent of the respondents had experienced 29 of the 34 behaviors. One in five professional and administrative employees had experienced a particular adverse supervisory behavior.

An exploratory factor analysis of the supervisory- behaviors scale indicated unidimensionality. The sample mean was 1.51 on a scale of one to three. African Americans had a mean of 1.60, while European Americans had a mean of 1.48. An analysis of variance showed that the difference between the two ethnic groups was highly significant (F = 11.39, p < .001).

The cumulative mean scores for women and men were 1.47, and 1.53, respectively. There was no significant difference between the two means (p > .05). There was no interaction effect found between ethnicity and gender.

An item mean by item mean comparison using ANOVA was made by ethnicity and gender. For 19 of the 34 behaviors (over half) African Americans reported significantly higher experience rates than European Americans (Table 2).

With respect to gender, significant differences between men and women appeared in 10 of the 34 behaviors but not in the expected direction (Table 3). Men reported that they had experienced 9 out of the 10 behaviors at a greater rate than women reported them. The only exception was item 54, "Showed

unwelcome romantic interest in me," where women reported more experience than men.

There was a significant interaction effect between ethnicity and gender in only one of the 34 behaviors. African American men, with a mean of 1.65, reported that they experienced item 40, "Would not rate me a 1 no matter what," at a greater rate than African American women (1.50), European American men (1.51), and European American women (1.42) (F= 4.50, p < .05). Thus, African American men reported that they were less likely to receive the highest performance rating in the state's performance evaluation system than European Americans and African American women.

Job Satisfaction

An exploratory factor analysis of the job-satisfaction scale indicated unidimensionality as well. The sample mean was 2.91 on a scale of one to four. The mean for African Americans was 2.78, while the mean for European Americans was 2.95. The difference between the job-satisfaction means of the two groups was highly significant (F = 11.70, p < .001), with African Americans much

Table 1 Frequency of Experiences of Variables on the Supervisory-Behaviors Scale.

Item No. Item Description Percentage of Sample that reported the item

39 Did not give me a chance to negotiate my performance agreement 47 40 Would not rate me a "1" no matter what 46 41 Would not schedule me for overtime as much as others 22 42 Insisted on signing all documents I produced 50 43 Disregarded my ideas 53 44 Blocked my ideas 45 45 Took total credit for my work or initiatives 44 46 Did not seek my input in my work assignments 49 47 Did not seek my input in our unit's work assignments 50 48 Belittled or put me down in the presence of my colleagues 33 49 Did not invite or send me to highly visible meetings 47 50 Did not invite me to after-work social events with other colleagues 23 51 Criticized me without suggesting improvements 33 52 Frequently turned down my requests for training 31 53 Often set me up to fail 23 54 Showed unwelcome romantic interest in me 7 55 Steered me away from management track positions 19 56 Penalized me for disagreeing with her or him 31 57 Discouraged me from seeking promotional opportunities 23 58 Gave me unfavorable reference 17 59 Did not keep promise to me 39 60 Gave me the insignificant work of the unit 34 61 Gave me more work than I could effectively handle 46 62 Did not give me adequate resources or support 57 63 Gave me little or no orientation for my job 50 64 Constantly checked on me 37 65 Frequently questioned my judgment 36 66 Would call me in only when I did something wrong 40 67 Nothing I did was good enough 29 68 Told me that others in my team did the work, not me 13 69 Rated me below standard at least once 8 70 Passed me over for (or withheld) a promotion 31 71 Canceled programs or ideas I initiated 22 72 Kept moving the goal post with respect to promotion 25 Note: N = 722; estimated sampling error = plus or minus 3 percent.




Table 2 Means of Items on the Supervisory-Behaviors Scale for Total Sample, African Americans and European Americans

Item No. Code Name Total Sample African Americans European Americans F p M SD M SD M SD

39 NEGOTIAT 1.62 .73 1.76 .81 1.60 .70 11.80 <.001 40 RATING 1.69 .82 1.88 .87 1.64 .80 12.73 <.001 41 OVERTIME 1.31 .62 1.40 .67 1.28 .60 5.12 <.05 42 SIGNING 1.68 .77 1.73 .82 1.66 .75 1.66 >.05 43 DISREGAD 1.81 .84 1.86 .88 1.80 .83 1.80 >.05 44 BLOKIDEA 1.71 .85 1.76 .85 1.69 .85 1.31 >05 45 CREDIT 1.69 .84 1.77 .84 1.66 .84 3.16 >05 46 MYINPUT 1.71 .82 1.84 .85 1.67 .81 8.08 >.05 47 UNITINPU 1.74 .82 1.78 .84 1.73 .82 1.30 >.05 48 BELITTLE 1.53 .80 1.61 .87 1.51 .79 1.65 >05 49 MEETINGS 1.72 .84 1.78 .66 1.70 .83 1.65 >05 50 SOCIALS 1.29 .58 1.41 .79 1.26 .55 10.55 <.005 51 CRITIC 1.49 .76 1.54 .81 1.48 .75 1.47 >05 52 TURNDOWN 1.46 .75 1.57 .72 1.43 .72 5.08 <.05 53 SETUP 1.34 .67 1.42 .48 1.32 .65 3.89 <.05 54 ROMANTIC 1.11 .40 1.15 .80 1.09 .37 .75 >05 55 STEERED 1.29 .64 1.51 .84 1.23 .57 23.36 <.001 56 PENALIZE 1.50 .79 1.60 .75 1. .77 4.20 <.05 57 DISCORAG 1.34 .67 1.45 .65 1.31 .64 3.95 <.05 58 REFERENCE 1.25 .59 1.33 .87 1.23 .57 7.64 <.05 59 PROMISE 1.63 .85 1.67 .80 1.62 .84 .28 >05 60 PEONWORK 1.46 .72 1.60 .80 1.43 .69 4.50 <.05 61 MOREWORK 1.64 .78 1.65 .88 1.64 .77 .18 >05 62 RESOURCE 1.92 .88 1.90 .87 1.93 .89 .03 >.05 63 NO ORIEN 1.76 .84 1.82 .77 1.74 .83 .93 >.05 64 CHECK ME 1.50 .72 1.65 .84 1.45 .70 10.05 <.005 65 QUESJUDG 1.52 .76 1.70 .77 1.47 .72 10.63 <.005 66 WRONG 1.62 .82 1.73 .84 1.59 .80 6.18 <.05 67 NOT GOOD 1.42 .72 1.63 .88 1.36 .67 20.32 <.001 68 TOLD 1.19 .53 1.29 .82 1.16 .50 6.85 <.01 69 BELOW 1.12 .43 1.15 .60 1.10 .41 4.35 <.05 70 PASSEDME 1.55 .84 1.57 .48 1.54 .85 .55 >05 71 CANCEL 1.31 .63 1.40 .84 1.29 .61 6.35 <.05 72 GOALPOST 1.42 .76 1.54 .69 1.38 .74 6.31 <.05 M SAMPLE M 1.51 .43 1.60 .48 1.48 .42 11.39 <.001

Note: Total sample N = 722; African Americans' N = 169; European Americans' N = 553. (Description of the items with the code names below are the same as in Table 1.)

less satisfied. For both men and women, the job satisfaction mean was exact-

ly the same, 2.91. Thus, no difference was found between the job satisfaction levels of men and women (p > .05).

Supervisory Behaviors and Job Satisfaction A correlation analysis between the mean scores of

employees on the job-satisfaction scale and scores on the supervisory-behaviors scale showed an inverse relationship. The higher the mean score on the supervisory-behaviors scale, the lower the mean score on the job-satisfaction scale. The more career-impeding supervisory behaviors an employee experienced, the less job satisfaction. The Pearson correlation coefficient, r, for the sample was -.36, the intercept was 3.6, and the slope was -.5. The regres- sion line is represented by the equation: y = -.5x + 3.6, where y is the job satisfaction mean, and x is the mean on the supervisory-behaviors scale.

Discussion and Conclusions When an employee says that he or she has experienced a partic-

Table 3 Career-Impeding Supervisory Behaviors Experienced Differently by Women and Men, F tests, p < .05

Item No. Description Women Men 40 Would not rate me a "1 " no matter what 1.57 1.74 41 Would not schedule me for overtime as much as others 1.20 1.36 43 Disregarded my ideas 1.69 1.85 47 Did not seek my input in our unit's work assignments 1.66 1.78 54 Showed unwelcome romantic interest in me 1.20 1.06 64 Constantly checked on me 1.43 1.53 66 Would call me in only when I did something wrong 1.52 1.67 67 Nothing I did was good enough 1.36 1.45 69 Rated me below standard at least once 1.04 1.15 71 Canceled programs or ideas I initiated 1.22 1.36




ular supervisory behavior, he or she is reporting an actual experience, especially if there is no reason to believe the employee's report is false. For instance, either an employee has been rated below standard at least once in his or her career or he or she has not. Thus, the fact that 20 percent or more of the respondents said that they had experienced 29 of the 34 behaviors on the supervisory-behaviors scale is indeed significant and must be taken seriously.

However, whether a specific supervisory behavior was career-impeding is a matter of perception on the part of the subor- dinate. Because all the comparisons between African Americans and European Americans and between men and women were based on the respondents' judgments of the effects of the supervisory behaviors they experienced, the findings may not perfectly reflect reality as it exists in New Jersey state service. In the absence of permission to look at state records on promotions, performance evaluations, training, and other issues addressed by the supervisory-behaviors scale, it was not possible to determine the extent to which the findings reflect reality.

Further cautions must be offered regarding conclusions from this study. The fact that the entire population of African American professionals was used in the study rather than a random sample may have influenced the findings. The proportion of African American professionals in the sample (23 percent) far exceeded their proportion in the three departments (7 percent) and in the state service as a whole (15 percent). Moreover, 68 percent of the African Americans who received the survey responded, as opposed to 85 percent of the European Americans. The lower response rate of the African Americans may have resulted from a greater feeling of alienation on their part. Another explanation is that African Americans may have been more suspicious of the motives behind the study.

It was not possible to do a department-by-department analysis or to control for age, length of service, or socioeconomic class. Thus, there was no way of knowing whether any of these other variables affected the results. However, no relationship was found between supervisory status and experiences of career-impeding supervisory behaviors, nor was there a relationship between supervisory status and job satisfaction.

Ethnicity, Supervisory Behaviors, and Job Satisfaction A relationship does appear to exist between ethnicity and the

mean score on the supervisory-behaviors scale. African Americans reported that they experienced career-impeding supervisory behaviors at a greater rate than their European American colleagues. Fur- thermore, the mean scores of African Americans differed significantly from those of European Americans in 19 of the 34 behavioral variables. In no case did European Americans report more experience with adverse supervisory behavior than African Americans.

The 19 supervisory behaviors with which African Americans reported more experience relate to four general aspects of human resource management and career advancement: performance evaluation, professional development (training), work assignment, and promotion. The experiences of the African Americans are possibly the result of preconceived notions on the part of supervisors about people from this ethnic group.

With respect to performance evaluation, Cox and Nkomo (1986) found that social behavior characteristics were more important in the rating of African American managers than they were for European Americans. Other researchers have found that the performance of African Americans may be rated as average regard- less of actual level of performance (Hamner, Kim, Baird, and Bigoness, 1974). The findings in the current study support these earlier findings.

Regarding professional development, Darkenwald and Merriam (1982, 121) suggested that African Americans (all things being equal) are more likely to pursue continuing education than most groups. In the New Jersey civil service, African American professionals rated "opportunity for continuing education or training," second among eight variables as a component of career advancement (Ugorji, 1994). Yet in the current study, African Americans had a significantly higher response to the item, "Frequently turned down my requests for training." Even on the issue of promotion, African Americans also reported significantly higher means in experiencing such behaviors as "Steered me away from management track titles," "Discouraged me from seeking promotional opportunities," and "Kept moving the goal post with respect to promotion."

The fact that African Americans reported significantly lower job satisfaction than their European American colleagues was not altogether surprising. Many studies have shown that African Amer- ican employees and managers report lower job satisfaction than other groups, especially European Americans ( Slocum and Strawser, 1972; Jones, James, Bruni, and Sells, 1977; Moch, 1980). The current study reinforces earlier ones with its finding of an inverse relationship between the experience of career-impeding supervisory behaviors and degree of job satisfaction. African Amer- icans reported that they experienced more such behaviors; thus, it made sense that they also reported lower job-satisfaction levels.

Several scholars have advanced various explanations for differences between the job-satisfaction scores of African Americans and European Americans. The reasons include cultural differences, e.g., the beliefs and value systems employees of different ethnic groups bring to work (Jones, James, Bruni, and Sells, 1977); structural effects, e.g., the fact that employees of different ethnic groups are treated differently (Brown and Ford, 1977); social influences, e.g., the degree of isolation employees experience at work (Moch, 1980); and sociopsychological mediators, e.g., the degree to which members of particular ethnic groups believe they are deprived or discriminated against (Moch, 1980). The inverse relationship found in the current study between the experiences of career-impeding supervisory behaviors and job satisfaction is a powerful support for the structural explanation of the lower job satisfaction of African American professionals. The implication is that managers can increase job satisfaction and motivation by eliminating certain structural impediments in the work environment.

Other than certain system-driven factors, such as freezes in promotions and budget constraints, there are at least two possible reasons for adverse behaviors on the part of supervisors-eficiencies in management skills and cultural (ethnic) prejudices. Therefore training in work force diversity must develop managerial skills and improve supervisors' multicultural literacy. It is not enough to have




one or two courses in diversity or multiculturalism; the idea of cultural pluralism can and should be woven into every course and every educational activity.

Gender, Supervisory Behaviors, and Job Satisfaction The findings in this study suggest that gender does not affect

the experience of career-impeding supervisory behaviors. Men and women reported experiencing such behavior to the same degree. Because there was no interaction effect between gender and ethnicity in the scale scores, this finding was probably not influenced by the fact that European American women outnumbered African American women. Even when the scores on the individual behavioral items are compared for men and women, the results are surprising. Women reported experiencing only one career-impeding behavior more than men. Men reported experiencing nine items more than women. It could be that, contrary to expectation, women are actually being treated more fairly than men. At least that was their perception.

No relationship was found between gender and job satisfaction,

nor was there an interaction effect between gender and ethnicity with respect to job satisfaction. Here again, two findings support one another. No relationship was found between gender and the experiences of career-impeding behaviors. Therefore, it makes sense that no relationship was found between gender and job satisfaction, because as we have seen, such behaviors correlate negatively to job satisfaction. Ethnicity, not gender, appears to drive the experiences of career-impeding supervisory behaviors, which in turn reduce job satisfaction. If through awareness training and culturally plural education, we reduce the frequency of career-impeding supervisory behaviors, we may also increase job satisfaction, reduce grievances, and better manage work force diversity.

Ugorji 0. Ugorji is an executive assistant with the New Jersey state government, as well as a research associate with the Center for Adult Development, Rutgers University, New Brunswick. His research interests are in the areas of human resource development and management, with particular emphasis on work force diversity issues. He is currency working on a book on managing in the con- text of diversity in the public sector.

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