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Coastguard New Zealand

Air Patrol Manual

Second Edition, May 2008 Royal New Zealand Coastguard IncPO Box 91322

Victoria Street West Auckland 1142

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Air Patrol ManualMay 2008

CNZ 2001

COASTGUARD NEW ZEALAND

AIR PATROL MANUAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many individuals and organisations assisted in the compilation of this manual and we

would like to thank them for their contribution. Information from the following

publications also assisted in the compilation of this manual:

International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual, a publication

of the International Civil Aviation Organisation

Marine Search and Rescue Controllers Manual, Coastguard New Zealand

American Coast Guard Manual

Canadian Coast Guard Manual

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Air Patrol Manual

PREFACE

In the few years since their inception, Coastguard Air Patrols (or CAPs) have become

an integral feature of the Coastguard New Zealand (CNZ) national profile. The

significance of these resources to the performance of Coastguard generally in the

marine Search and Rescue field is indisputable. Until now, however, there has been

little material available to CAPs to provide guidelines about their activities. In

publishing this manual, CNZ acknowledges the importance of these groups by offering

a foundation on which to base CAP operation.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this manual is to help CAPs understand and fulfil Search and

Rescue needs in the air. It details equipment, legal issues, performance standards

(including prerequisites and minimum training standards) and operational

requirements. It recommends standard practices for a variety of common Search and

Rescue situations.

The manual is not definitive and interested personnel may wish to access the many

other documents on the subject of Search and Rescue aircraft, some of which are

listed in the Acknowledgements. The emphasis in this manual is on minimum

requirements and on the basic obligations inherent in affiliation to CNZ.

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Air Patrol Manual

RECORD OF AMENDMENTS

Date Pages Name Signature

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4. CAP COMMUNICATIONS ............................ ................................ ................... 4-14.1. National Maritime Radio Coverage............................................. ............. 4-14.2. VHF AM Radio Communications....... ............................... ....................... 4-2

4.2.1. Frequency 121.5MHz......... ................................ ............................ 4-24.2.2. Frequency 123.1MHz......... ................................ ............................ 4-24.2.3. Ground to Air Frequencies............................ .............................. ... 4-3

4.3. VHF FM Marine Radio Communications .......................... ....................... 4-34.3.1. Table of VHF Channels........... ................................ ....................... 4-4

4.4. Cellular Telephones.......................... ............................... ........................ 4-54.5. Resource Identifiers............................................... ................................. . 4-54.6. CAP Callsigns................................................... .............................. ......... 4-64.7. Speechless and Visual Communications .............................. .................. 4-74.8. Microphone Failure..................... ................................ ............................. 4-74.9. Aircraft to Ground Signals ........................... .............................. .............. 4-8

4.9.1. Follow Me.......................... ................................ ............................. 4-84.9.2. Surface Vessels Assistance No Longer Required......................... 4-8

4.9.3. Aircraft Requires Directions ............................... ............................ 4-84.9.4. Instructions Understood ................................ .............................. ... 4-84.10. Ground to Air Signals ............................. .............................. ................... 4-9

4.10.1. Ground Symbols Used by Survivors ............................ .................. 4-94.10.2. Ground Symbols Used by Rescue Units........................... ............. 4-9

4.11. International Maritime Signalling Indicators of Distress..... ...................... 4-104.11.1. Visual Distress Signals................................. .............................. .... 4-104.11.2. Non Visual Distress Signals ............................... ............................ 4-12

5. STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES........................................ ............. 5-15.1. Tasking Protocols................................... .............................. ................... 5-15.2. Safety Briefings .......................... ................................ ............................. 5-2

5.3. Operation Briefings / Debriefings.................................................... ......... 5-35.3.1. Surface Craft Distress ............................. .............................. ......... 5-45.3.2. Size Consideration ............................. .............................. .............. 5-45.3.3. Vessel Position................................... .............................. .............. 5-45.3.4. Foundered Vessels ............................ ............................... ............. 5-45.3.5. Debris...... .............................. ................................. ........................ 5-45.3.6. Flares and Other Distress Signals .......................... ....................... 5-55.3.7. Aircraft Distress....... ................................ .............................. ......... 5-5

5.4. Identification Passes......................................... .............................. ......... 5-55.5. Airspace Restrictions and Reservations in SAR Operations................... 5-7

6. OBSERVATION SKILLS ................................ .............................. ................... 6-16.1. Observer Seat and Sector Assignments .......................... ....................... 6-26.2. Scanning Technique............................... .............................. ................... 6-4

6.2.1. Technique to Determine Obstructions to Visibility.......................... 6-66.3. Observer Tips ............................ ................................. ............................. 6-8

7. SEARCH PATTERNS.............................. ................................ ........................ 7-17.1. Trackline Pattern ............................... .............................. ........................ 7-27.2. Parallel Track Patterns ................................ .............................. .............. 7-37.3. Creeping Line Patterns................ ............................... ............................. 7-3

7.3.1. Combined Air/Surface Searches......... .............................. ............. 7-47.4. Expanding Square Patterns........................................ ............................. 7-57.5. Sector Search Patterns ............................... .............................. .............. 7-67.6. Contour Patterns ............................. ................................ ........................ 7-77.7. Electronic Searching........................................................ ........................ 7-8

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8. OPERATIONS REFERENCE GUIDE ............................. .............................. ... 8-18.1. Wind Speed Estimation Table .......................... .............................. ......... 8-18.2. Recommended Search Altitude for Specific Targets............. .................. 8-28.3. Airspeed vs Bank Angle Tables....................................... ........................ 8-2

8.3.1. Radius of Turn in Nautical Miles ............................. ....................... 8-28.3.2. Radius of Turn in Feet.................. ............................... ................... 8-3

8.4. Horizon Range Table........................................ .............................. ......... 8-38.5. Recommended Sweep Widths in Nautical Miles for Common Search Targets .. 8-48.6. Sweep Width Corrections for Special Conditions................................. ... 8-58.7. Vessel Identifiers ............................... .............................. ........................ 8-5

9. DITCHING .......................... ................................. .............................. ............... 9-19.1. Safety Equipment ............................ ................................ ........................ 9-1

9.1.1. Life Preservers ............................ ................................ ................... 9-29.1.2. Life Raft............................ ................................. ............................. 9-2

9.1.3. Signalling Equipment .............................. ............................... ........ 9-39.2. Ditching Technique................................. .............................. ................... 9-49.2.1. Beach Landings ........................... ............................... ................... 9-49.2.2. Initial Water Ditching Technique ............................. ....................... 9-59.2.3. Touchdown........................ ................................ ............................. 9-59.2.4. Exiting the Ditched Aircraft........................... ............................... ... 9-6

9.3. Survival Training.................... ................................ ................................. . 9-79.4. General Survival Considerations ........................... .............................. .... 9-7

9.4.1. Psychology.............. ................................ .............................. ......... 9-79.4.2. Exposure ........................... ................................ ............................. 9-89.4.3. Survival on Land .......................... ............................... ................... 9-8

9.4.3.1. Hypothermia on Land............................. .............................. ... 9-9

9.4.4. Survival at Sea ............................ ................................ ................... 9-99.4.4.1. Shark Defence ........................... ................................ ............. 9-109.4.4.2. Hypothermia on the Water ............................... ....................... 9-10

9.5. Recovery by Helicopter ............................... .............................. .............. 9-119.6. Recovery by Rescue Vessel....................................... ............................. 9-11

10. FORMS.................................... ................................. .................................. ...... 10-1

11. GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS............................. .............................. ... 11-1

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1 - North Island CAPs............ ............................... .............................. .......... 1-6Figure 2 - South Island CAPs ........................... ............................... ........................ 1-7Figure 3 - Identification Pass Technique .......................... .............................. ......... 5-6Figure 4 - Seating Configuration 1..... ............................... .............................. ......... 6-2Figure 5 - Seating Configuration 2..... ............................... .............................. ......... 6-3Figure 6 - Seating Configuration 3..... ............................... .............................. ......... 6-4Figure 7 - Observation Masking 1........................... .............................. ................... 6-7Figure 8 - Observation Masking 2........................... .............................. ................... 6-7Figure 9 - Ratio of Sweep Width to Track Spacing................ .............................. .... 7-1Figure 10 - Trackline Search Pattern........... ............................... ............................. 7-2Figure 11 - Parallel Track Pattern........... ............................... ................................. . 7-3Figure 12 - Creeping Line Pattern ............................... .............................. .............. 7-3Figure 13 - Formula for Determining Vessel Speed in Combined Operations......... 7-4Figure 14 - Combined Air and Search Pattern............................ ............................. 7-4

Figure 15 - Expanding Square Pattern ............................. .............................. ......... 7-5Figure 16 - Sector Search Pattern............................... .............................. .............. 7-6Figure 17 - Contour Pattern Search....................................... ................................. . 7-7Figure 18 - Electronic Searches ............................. .............................. ................... 7-8Figure 19 - Superstructure Descriptions................................ .............................. .... 8-5Figure 20 - Vessel Shapes ............................... .............................. ......................... 8-6Figure 21 - Vessel Shapes ............................... .............................. ......................... 8-7

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Air Patrol Manual Chapter 1 IntroductionMay 2008

CNZ 2001

1 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft have been used widely in Search and Rescue (SAR) since their advent, but

their formal entry to CNZ has been comparatively recent. The speedy formation of

CAPs throughout New Zealand has brought excellent coverage to the coastline and

major lakes (See Figure 1 and Figure 2.)

A CAP may be an independent incorporated society and stand-alone Unit of CNZ in its

own right, or alternatively an existing Coastguard marine Unit may administer a CAP.

In either case a recognised CAP enjoys the benefits of affiliation. This status makes

Coastguard funding available to the CAP and provides a national framework for

co-ordination with other marine SAR agencies.

1.1 Definition

A CAP is a resource comprised of personnel and equipment that is available to

Coastguard marine Units when air services are required during operations in their area

of responsibility. CAPs may also be made available when other agencies require

assistance with their operations, for example, the National Rescue Co-ordination

Centre New Zealand (RCCNZ) during Class 3 SAR operations, or Police during Class

2 land SAR incidents.

Most commonly CAPs are called on to:

Complete a search and locate service;

To communicate with land and sea based rescue services and assist with the

coordination of rescue responses;

To aid in the rescue of persons or vessels in distress.

A primary objective of a CAP is to respond as quickly as practicable upon notification

by Police or other Coastguard Units, provided conditions are acceptable for flying.

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1.2 Personnel

Effective Search and Rescue relies on a clear understanding of portfolios of all

personnel. In basic terms, the portfolios of CAP personnel in marine Search and

Rescue are as follows:

Portfolio General Duty

Licensed Pilot Personnel who are at all times responsible for

flying the aircraft, aviation band

communications, and the safety of the aircraft

and its crew. (See section 2.3.3 for more

information on this role.)

Inflight Co-ordinator (IFC) Personnel who are responsible for the on-board

planning and execution of search operations

and communications with search headquarters.

CAP SAR Training Officer Personnel who are responsible for the training

of CAP personnel in accordance with the

appropriate Training Matrix. This position is

similar to the SAR Training Officer role in

marine Coastguard Units.

Inflight Observers Personnel trained in specialist skills to scan,

observe and locate search targets.

Specialists Personnel with special skills who may from time

to time be tasked to assist in SAR Operations.

Aircraft Co-ordinator Land-based personnel who liaise with other HQ

(operations base) personnel, offering an

aviators view to the Marine or Land SAR

Controller, if required.

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1.3 Incident Management

Overall co-ordination of a marine SAR Class 2 operation involving a CAP is generally

the responsibility of a volunteer Marine SAR Controller appointed by Police.

Similarly, command of a land SAR Class 2 operation involving a CAP is generally the

responsibility of a Land SAR Field Controller, who is the land equivalent of a Marine

SAR Controller.

For some land or marine SAR operations, Police may activate and dispatch a CAP

directly. In such cases a Police Search Controller commands the operation.

In cases of Class 3 operations involving a CAP, command is the responsibility of theRCCNZ.

However, in all cases control of the aircraft is the responsibility of the pilot, who has

final say on how or where the aircraft is flown.

1.4 Co-ordination

Incidents involving CAPs almost invariably will be team efforts involving a variety of

agencies - usually Police or other marine Coastguard Units.

In cases where the activities and protocols of more than one agency are in effect,

coordination is essential. In most cases, the agency in control of the operation is also

responsible for its co-ordination.

Effective communications, good planning and established practices are required. Each

agency should perform the functions for which it is best suited e.g. the aircraft will

provide the extended search or observation coverage desired and the increased

communication range, while surface vessels will accomplish the detailed search,

positive identification and provide direct assistance. This combination may be applied

in routine safety patrol, Search and Rescue mission, or patrolling special marine

events.

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1.5 Use of CAP Aircraft in SAR

Most CAPs use light aircraft that offer Search and Rescue operations a number of

significant advantages:

1. The slow speed of the typical CAP aircraft makes it ideal for searches for small

vessels or debris. The fuel usage permits such aircraft to search a given area

often with less fuel consumption than some surface vessels.

2. One of the most effective uses of CAPs is in combination with surface vessels for

team operations. In these cases the fixed wing aircraft is used primarily as a

means of locating a distress, reporting it to the RCCNZ or local SAR co-ordinator,

and then guiding surface craft or helicopter to the scene. The search area coveredin a given time by a surface/air team can be 20 times greater than that covered by

the surface vessel alone. As time is often a critical factor in the success of a SAR

mission, such joint operations will often increase the chances of a positive result.

1.6 Limitations of CAP Aircraft

Although the typical CAP aircraft is an extremely effective and versatile element of the

Coastguard resource package, there are a number of limitations that must be

understood and must be considered by SAR personnel when assigning missions to

aircraft:

1. Individual Police Districts may have specific directives designed to meet local

requirements. Such local restrictions must be understood before CAPs are tasked

for SAR operations.

2. Physical limitations of the types of aircraft normally available to CAPs must be

considered. Most obvious of these is that little direct assistance can be rendered

from the aircraft. Fixed wing aircraft are not capable of rescues at sea, as are

helicopters.

3. Fixed wing aircraft are limited to locating distressed vessels or other targets,

establishing communications if possible, dropping rescue equipment if required

and approved, and directing surface vessels or helicopter to the scene.

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4. Other limitations of a particular aircraft and its crew should also be evaluated prior

to starting a mission. Missions under difficult conditions should be assigned to the

more experienced flight crews. The responsibility for determining the operational

capability of the crew is the responsibility of each CAP Unit.

5. Flight time is often limited by the aircrafts fuel endurance.

6. Some aircraft are not suitable for dropping objects to the surface safely. Where

doubt exists, SAR personnel must seek clarification from Civil Aviation Authority.

7. Low wing aircraft have areas blocked from view close to each side of the aircraft,

which limits the search effectiveness for small targets.

8. Cramped quarters on some smaller aircraft may increase scanner fatigue,

meaning the effectiveness of a search may diminish as it progresses.

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Figure 1 North Island CAPs

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Figure 2 - South Island CAPs

KaikouraCAP

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Air Patrol Manual Chapter 2 Regulations and Standards for CAPSMay 2008

CNZ 2001

2 REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS FOR CAPS

In general terms, CAPs are part of two wider communities: aviation and Search and

Rescue. Within these two groups are agencies that have operating standards and

expectations relevant to the activity they govern or oversee. Of these, some are

legislated - such as the Civil Aviation Rules - which everyone must comply with, while

others are recommendations or internal requirements that have been adopted by CNZ.

The key agencies and their area of authority or interest are as follows:

Civil Aviation Authority Sets strict requirements on airworthiness of aircraft and

pilot qualifications.

Aviation Industry

Association

Sets more specific standards and guidelines for aircraft

used as air ambulances, or in Search and Rescue.

New Zealand Police Sets specific guidelines about Police tasking of aircraft.

Coastguard New Zealand Upholds by policy the requirements, standards and

guidelines of the CAA and Police.

Coastguard Air Patrols May set specific standards and guidelines for local

operating conditions, so long as these do not

contravene policies, requirements or standards of CAA,

Police, or CNZ.

This chapter sets out some of the relevant standards for CAPs in terms of Search and

Rescue. Please note it does not encompass all the information that CAPs - as

independent societies - may require to ensure that their operation complies with

various standards or regulations.

It should be noted here that CAA regulations and Police policies on Search and

Rescue focus on the practicable delivery of help to those in need, on the basis that the

aircraft and its crew are safe and capable of fulfilling the task. Of course, in the event

of an emergency aboard the aircraft during SAR action, the pilot must respond

accordingly to protect safety, even if it means contravening the principles contained in

these instructions.

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2.1 CAA Rules

All aircraft in New Zealand are subject to the Civil Aviation Act and Rules, a very broad

arrangement of legislation. The administrator of the Act and Rules, the Civil Aviation

Authority, sets strict requirements on airworthiness of aircraft and pilot qualifications,

and penalties for failing to comply with them are very high. CAP aircraft and pilots are

not exempt from any CAA rules.

The key areas of CAA legislation that CAP personnel must be familiar with are as

follows. For more detail, interested CAP personnel may view the CAA rules at

www.caa.govt.nz

2.1.1 Rule Part 91

General Operating and Flight Rules - cover nearly all the general requirements for

the operation of aircraft.

2.1.2 Rule Part 119

Air Operation Certification - prescribes the certification for operators to perform Air

Operations and the requirements for the continuation of this certification.

2.1.3 Rule Part 135

Air Transport Operations, Small Aeroplanes and Helicopters - Operators who are

involved in air transport operations (which includes the movement of passengers)

should be well acquainted with this section, which governs the operation of air transport

operations in helicopters, and in fixed wing aircraft that have a passenger-seatingconfiguration of 30 seats or less.

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2.1.4 Pilot's Authority to Reject Personnel and Equipment

Civil Aviation Authority rules give pilots the authority to refuse entry of suspect persons

to their aircraft if they believe the safety of it and/or its crew could be compromised as a

result.

In addition, pilots have the right to refuse carrying any equipment they find unsuitable.

In cases where alien equipment is offered for use, the pilot must inspect it for

suitability, and any unsatisfactory equipment must not be used.

2.1.5 Section 13A

CAA accepts that in an emergency, some actions may be required that in ordinarycircumstances would contravene provisions of the Act. For this reason, Section 13A of

the Act provides for pilots to breach some regulations and rules in emergencies. This

section does not allow for a free for all in the air, however; there are very strict

guidelines governing how far the exemption extends.

The section provides for breaches in two scenarios emergencies that arise during

flight, or emergencies that require the immediate use of aircraft to render assistance.

In SAR situations, the use of aircraft to render emergency assistance is the more likely

of the two scenarios. These types of situations may arise when urgent air

transportation of persons or medical supplies is required.

In both cases, if any part of the flight involves a breach of the Civil Aviation Act or its

rules, the pilot-in-command may only make a breach of the Act if he or she is satisfied

that:

1. The emergency involves a danger to life or property;

2. The breach only goes as far as is necessary to deal with the emergency;

3. There is no other means of alleviating, avoiding or assisting with the emergency;

4. The degree of danger of complying with the prescribed requirement is clearly

greater than the degree of danger involved in deviating from it.

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2.2 CNZ Expects CAP Units to meet the following minimum standards

In many cases CAP aircraft will be activated during Class 2 SAR operations, for which

Police have accountability and responsibility. Police have developed internal policy

(General Instructions) to govern the use of aircraft in such circumstances, and if CAPs

do not meet the standard required by the policy, it may not be tasked for Class 2

operations. Accordingly, CNZ expects CAPs to meet the following standards:

1. Any aircraft used during any operation or SAR training exercise must be operated

in accordance with the Civil Aviation Act.

2. The aircraft must be operated strictly in accordance with the provisions of the

relevant flight manual.

3. PFDs are to be worn by all occupants on SAR operations or exercises over water.

4. All pilots who fly aircraft in SAR operations or exercises shall comply with

prescribed instructions and procedures as set out in their Units Standard

Operating Procedures (SOPs), the CAP Manual and if applicable their company

Operations Manual.

5. As practicable under prevailing circumstances, these instructions are to be brought

to the attention of all SAR personnel prior to the commencement of any SAR

operation or exercise.

6. Personnel involved in SAR operations or exercises shall comply with these

procedures and instructions.

It is expected that a clear understanding of operating protocols will be in place betweenthe local Police and CAPs.

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2.3 CNZ Standards

It is CNZ policy that CAP personnel and equipment must meet the relevant standards

set by the CAA, for Search and Rescue aircraft, equipment and personnel, as

specified.

In addition, CNZ has set internal standards that CAPs must comply with, as follows.

2.3.1 Organisational Standards

CAPs must:

1. Be a member Unit of CNZ;

2. Have a name which is recognisable by all SAR agencies;3. Communicate with other relevant SAR agencies to increase operational efficiency.

2.3.2 Equipment Standards

CNZ policy is that aircraft used by CAPs are to be appropriate for the Coastguard

activities for which they are used, e.g. of a proven type, configuration and size for SAR

activities, including close to shore and off shore tasking. All equipment used by CAPs

is expected to meet industry and regulatory standards.

CNZ recommendations for the basic, essential equipment a CAP requires in order to

operate effectively and safely are set out on the following page.

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Item Notes

1. Aircraft Maintained, equipped, certified and operable in

accordance with CAA rules.

2. PFDs CAA approved fitted with lights.

3. Immersion suits (If applicable) Capable of postponing hypothermia until rescue.

4. Laptop Electronic Search System

(If applicable)

Integrated GPS and chart plotter for tracking.

5. Direction finding equipment

(If available)

To be advised.

6. VHF FM marine radio Either a 1-5W handheld (preferably with plug in

external fixed aerials), or a conventional mobile

1-25W set.

7. Smoke marker flares Canister type approved.

8. Air drop life raft (CAA Approved) Recommended for over water ops beyond

10NM from land.

9. Binoculars (If available) Gyro-stabilised.

10. Maps Any local area SAR charts or maps, nautical charts,

or topographical maps, as appropriate.

11. Cell phone Portable (preferably hands free).

12. Crew Knives

13. Cyalume sticks and/or Marker dye High intensity Minimum 3 per crew.

14. First Aid Kit Standard equipped in watertight container .

15. Local SAR plan Consistently up-dated reference book with contact

details of SAR personnel and resources, andStandard Operating Procedure details.

16. Personal locator beacons As available.

17. Personal Refreshment kit Contain water, energy bars or similar in a plastic

container.

18. Signalling mirror Small pocket size in a protective pouch .

19. Strobes As available.

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2.3.3 Pilot Standards

In addition to the requirements and standards of the CAA, it is CNZ policy that CAP

pilots will meet the following pre-requisite standard:

Hold valid MRTO license Have 300 hours pilot experience

Have 100 hours PIC experience

Have 10 hours night-flying experience (required for night operations only)

15 hours low flying (Ground/Water) at or below 500 ft

Knowledge or training in visual and electronic search techniques Be type-rated for the aircraft available for CAP use, with a minimum of 10 hours

PIC experience on each

Undertake a course in SAR techniques Have a history of safe and responsible flying

2.3.3.1 Pilot Responsibilities

It is the pilots responsibility to ensure that the aircraft and its equipment are

serviceable and safe for flight in all respects. In order to comply with all the

requirements, a pilot must follow the guidelines set out in:

1. Their respective organisation's Standard Operating Procedures;

2. Civil Aviation Rules;

3. The aircraft flight manual.

2.3.4 IFC Standards

It is CNZ policy that IFC personnel will meet the following pre-requisite standard:

To have completed the certification process.

2.3.4.1 IFC Responsibilities

It is the IFCs primary responsibility to direct the pilot on how to achieve the search

pattern chosen by the local SAR controller, and in consultation with the pilot, ensure

that the search area and pattern are covered as thoroughly as conditions allow.

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In addition, so much as is practical, the IFC:

May operate the RDF

In conjunction with the local SAR Controller and pilot, helps to determine the

appropriate search pattern

Operates the marine GPS plotter (on computer laptop with Laptop Electronic

Search System) Completes any necessary SAR documentation

May assist the pilot in supplying crew with appropriate briefings prior to take off,

and takes part in debriefings at the conclusion of every operation

2.3.5 Observers Standards

It is CNZ policy that CAP observers meet the following pre-requisite standard:

Be aged 18 years or older

Be in good health

Have good eyesight

Be resistant to motion sickness

Have swimming ability

Have local area knowledge

Have some knowledge and familiarity with flying Be tolerant to G forces

Have a good attitude and motivation for observer's tasks

Have completed the IFO certification process.

2.3.5.1 Observers Responsibilities

In simple terms it is the observer's responsibility to be the 'eye in the sky' and, if the

search target is flown over, to identify and locate it.

In addition, the observer should be able to:

Fully comprehend any briefings given prior to a mission;

Be in a good physical and mental condition at the start of a mission.

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2.3.6 Safety Standards

CNZ is committed to developing and maintaining a strong culture of safety amongst its

Units. The purpose of this is to protect active personnel and to enhance the quality of

Search and Rescue services that each Unit provides.

In addition to CAA rules for the maintenance of aircraft, it is the responsibility of the

management committees of each Coastguard Unit to introduce and implement internal

safety policies and programmes. As part of this, CAPs may set operational safety

limits or make specific policies to meet the needs of its particular organisation. All

active personnel are required to be familiar with and committed to these policies and

programmes.

CAPs must ensure that the internal standards or policies established for their own

operating circumstances do not contradict any CAA rules, and CNZ policy.

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Air Patrol Manual Chapter 3 Crew Resource Management (CRM)May 2008

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3 CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM)

CRM is specifically designed to improve communication and teamwork among

members of flight crews and to foster the use of all the resources at their disposal.

These resources may include auto-pilots and other avionics systems, operating

manuals and personnel, including crew members, air traffic controllers, and others in

the flight system - in other words, hardware, software, and 'humanware'.

CRM can be applied even in single-pilot environments and so can be used to good

effect by CAPs, as effective resource management is of particular relevance in Search

and Rescue. With crew performance being the most significant threat to aviation

safety, the aviation industry and CNZ recommend that CRM principles are applied toCAP training and operation.

This chapter examines some of the background factors that may effect crew

performance and how these may be used or controlled during flight operation, before

explaining some of the principles of Cockpit Resource Management.

3.1 Stress and Stress Management

Stress is a psychological and physiological reaction to tension that occurs when

physical and/or mental demands are placed on us. Stress results from our perception

of environmental events and is truly 'in the eye of the beholder' - what is very stressful

for one person may produce little or no stress in another.

The degree of stress depends on how each person perceives their capability to handle

the situation. In general, high levels of stress occur when people are in situations over

which they have little or no control. Conversely, stress is likely to be low for those in

situations they control or think they control.

Most stress is caused by the little frustrations in life. In bad circumstances, stress can

accumulate to create dangerously high levels of stress. In terms of Cockpit Resource

Management, there are two types of stress that can degrade flight performance:

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1. Background Stress - This type of stress can range from simple, stand-alone

occurrences of stress resulting from 'every-day' difficulties, to consistent low-level

stresses such as career discontent. Background stress, on its own, is unlikely to

result in significantly effected performance in the majority of people.

2. Acute Stress - This is an overload of stress that occurs in a highly intense event,

such as an argument or flying a difficult approach. Performing non-standard

cockpit procedures can produce acute stress.

Acute stress can cause physiological consequences that can significantly affect

performance. For example, persons experiencing acute stress may also

experience:

Tunnel Vision a restriction of attention to only part of a task.

Rigidity of Response a compulsion to maintain a single course of action

even though conditions have changed.

Inhibited Thinking decreased ability to consider alternatives during decision

making.

Ballistic Decision-Making spontaneous decision-making without considering

the consequences of the decision. Of all the responses to acute stress, this

effect can be particularly lethal during flight operations.

3.2 CRM Principles

CRM is based on seven key principles that, when put into affect by all crew members,

have been shown to reduce stress and increase communication and efficiency. In

brief, they are

3.2.1 Team Co-ordination

CRM considers the attitudes and behaviours of flight crew as a group, rather than the

individual skills or flaws of each crew member.

A primary focus of CRM, then, is team co-ordination, or getting all members of the flight

crew working together. In commercial situations the team may include the flight crew,

air traffic controllers, maintenance, and other groups that interact with the cockpit crew.

For CAPs, the team may be comprised of the pilot, IFC and observers.

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3.2.2 Shared Responsibility

Cockpit Resource Management involves the entire flight crew - it is not simply the

responsibility of the pilot in command. All crew members are responsible for the

effective management of the resources available to them.

3.2.3 Motivation of Crew Members

While all crew share in the responsibility of implementing Cockpit Resource

Management, it is the pilot's responsibility to motivate them to observe the principles.

The pilot in command must maintain a positive climate on the flight deck and

encourage crew members to fully participate in crew activities. This can be done bymaintaining an 'open' cockpit environment, by encouraging crew members to speak up

when things do not seem right, or to ask questions if they do not understand. It is up to

the pilot in command to promote positive relations by providing non-punitive critique

and feedback.

3.2.4 Assertiveness and Authority

Assertive behaviour comes from highly developed interpersonal skills and confidence,

and is produced in environments where such behaviour is shared and encouraged.

Assertiveness by all flight crew helps to ensure an open exchange of information.

However, the pilot in command always maintains the authority to either accept or reject

the advice or opinion of others. Listening and responding to flight crew does not mean

abdicating command.

3.2.5 Consistent Participation

The acquisition of Cockpit Resource Management skills requires the active, consistent

participation of all crew members. It is not simply an element of pilot training gained

passively in a classroom lecture.

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3.2.6 Workload Management

Flight crew must be able to manage the tasks assigned to them and be able to

complete these to a good standard. This principle has particular relevance for CAPs.

In the commercial sector, workloads tend to remain the same, but in Search and

Rescue the workload may vary from incident to incident.

Managing a workload requires flight crew to:

Be well prepared

Be vigilant

Avoid distractions

Avoid complacency

During any flight operation, workload may vary according to phases, from the routine of

pre-flight planning and enroute cruise, to the high workload of a low visibility instrument

approach. Either workload can be a hazard to safety. Accidents often occur when the

workload demand exceeds crew capability or during phases of low workload. Crews

tend to be less alert during long cruise segments, and these periods are when

complacency, forgetfulness, and drowsiness are most common.

3.2.7 Situation Awareness

Crew should be trained to avoid distractions, but the reality is that these will occur. The

principle of situation awareness relates to the need for flight crew to focus on two key

areas - aircraft control and hazard avoidance - particularly when distractions arise

either inside or outside the aircraft.

Maintaining situation awareness requires flight crew to be constantly aware at any

stage in a flight operation of the following factors:

Mission status - What needs to be done to complete the mission?

Resource status - Is equipment functioning properly?

Personnel status - Are personnel completing the tasks assigned to them?

Time orientation - Is there sufficient time to complete the mission?

Geographic orientation - Is the location of the aircraft known?

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It is the pilot's responsibility to have the most highly developed situation awareness, but

he or she must be able to rely on other members of the flight crew for information and

input. In cases where any doubt exists about any factor of situation awareness, the

Crew Resource Management technique is to adopt the most conservative response.

3.3 CRM Rules

The rules of CRM were designed with the flight decks of air passenger carriers in mind,

but are still are valid for the CAP environment:

1. In abnormal situations, the first order of business must be to decide who flies the

aircraft and who monitors or works on the problem.

2. Positive delegation of monitoring duties is as important as positive delegation of

flying duties.

3. The pilot flying must not attempt to accomplish secondary tasks during busy

portions of a flight.

4. Whenever uncertainty or conflicting opinions of fact occur, such as amisunderstood radio transmission, the conflict must be resolved unequivocally

using external sources of information. (For example, request a repeat of the

transmission.)

5. If any crew member doubts a clearance, procedure or situation, he or she is

obligated to make that doubt known to other crew members.

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4-1

Air Patrol Manual Chapter 4 CAP CommunicationsMay 2008

CNZ 2001

4 CAP COMMUNICATIONS

Reliable communication systems between resources and different agencies create the

framework that makes Search and Rescue possible. So central is this facet to SAR

that the adage 'No coms, no ops' sums up what happens when various resources are

unable to communicate.

Frequently SAR operations require aircraft to quickly locate and then guide surface

vessels to a search target. The benefits of a speedy search, however, can be quickly

lost if the aircrews are unable to communicate the target's position to SAR resources

below. For this reason, it is imperative for CAP personnel to have a good

understanding of the marine radio communications spectrum, and to work withCoastguard marine Units to ensure communications are clear and of a good standard.

This chapter examines communications in terms of CAPs involvement in Search and

Rescue. For more information, interested readers are directed to the CNZ SAR Crew

Manual and the Marine SAR Controllers Manual, as well as the SAR Crew Training

Module ' SAR Communications'.

4.1 National Maritime Radio Coverage

The Maritime Safety Authority of New Zealand (MSA) is responsible for a national

maritime distress and safety radio service. MSA contracts Broadcast Communications

Ltd (BCL), a subsidiary of Television New Zealand, to operate the Maritime Radio

Service from a central maritime operation centre (MOC) at the Television Studios at

Avalon in Lower Hutt.

BCL provides marine VHF coverage of virtually the entire coastline of New Zealand

through transceivers strategically located throughout the country. National and

offshore HF coverage is achieved from a single site in the central North Island. The HF

service has the call sign 'Taupo Maritime Radio' and the VHF service has localised call

signs.

The Maritime Radio Service provides a 24-hour listening watch on all recognised

maritime distress and calling frequencies.

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The Maritime Radio Service is dedicated to the handling of distress messages,

broadcasting weather reports and warnings of maritime hazards, and the provision of

communication support to Search and Rescue operations and medical emergencies at

sea. It will also accept TRs (Trip Reports) from ships and vessels at sea.

Note : The Maritime Radio Service has no executive role in Search and Rescue -

distress calls are referred immediately to the appropriate authorities. However, it is

staffed by professional operators trained to handle distress traffic, and is particularly

well placed to broadcast All Stations calls or to assume the role of controlling station in

a distress situation. Its considerable potential to assist in the communications aspect

of any emergency should not be ignored.

4.2 VHF AM Radio Communications

Aircraft are generally fitted with VHF AM Radios that operate in the frequency range

108135.975MHz. These frequencies generally allow aircraft to communicate with

other aircraft, airport control towers, and when necessary airport surface vehicles using

simplex (line of sight). The key frequencies in this range are:

4.2.1 Frequency 121.5/406MHz

This is the international aeronautical distress frequency to which many EBIRBs are

tuned to transmit a signal in the event of being activated. Use of this frequency is also

common for EBIRBs carried on marine craft, although more recently 406MHz has been

introduced. From July 2008 all aircraft must have installed a 406MHz Emergency

Locator Transmitter (ELT), and a remote switch situated on the instrument panel for

manual activation of the ELT where possible is still good practice for aircraft to monitor

121.5MHz. (See section 4.11.2 and 9.1.3 for more information on ELTs and EBIRBs.)

4.2.2 Frequency 123.1MHz

This frequency is the designated international on-scene SAR working frequency and

may be used by both aircraft and surface vessels; however, it is uncommon for marine

vessels in New Zealand to have this capability.

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4.2.3 Ground to Air Frequencies

These frequencies include 119.0MHz or 119.1MHz of the VHF AM range. New

Zealand Police stations generally have some portable Ground to Air sets that allow line

of sight radio contact between surface resources and deployed aircraft.

4.3 VHF FM Marine Radio Communications

It is a requirement that CAP aircraft are fitted with VHF FM marine band radios to

ensure that in combined-resource incidents, the aircraft, surface vessels and SAR

headquarters are able to communicate.

CNZ recommends that either handheld sets (1 or 5 watt), or mobile sets (1 or 25 watt)are used. Ideally, the aircraft's marine band radio will be operated using an aerial that

has been fitted to the exterior of the aircraft. This arrangement produces superior

communications than a handheld internal aerial configuration.

CAPs and local Coastguard marine Units must work together to ensure a high standard

of radio communications is available for combined training and SAR operations. In

particular, common knowledge should exist about:

The availability of particular channels for dedicated SAR activity.

Guard channels: which channel is preferred in the 1st instance, 2nd instance, etc.

What the coverage range of each channel is for acceptable 2-way communication.

As a general guide, a table outlining the allocation of VHF FM Marine frequency

channels follows. The high number of Coastguard and other coastal radio stations,

and their differing ranges of operation, makes it impractical to list all details within this

manual.

It should be noted that all distress/emergencies should be broadcast in the first

instance on Channel 16.

Information about radio communications should form part of the each CAP's SAR Plan

for quick reference when required. For information on how to assemble a suitable SAR

plan, refer to Chapter 6 of the CNZ Marine SAR Controllers Manual .

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4.3.1 Table of VHF Channels

1 2 3 4 5 6 8

Two frequency talk-through repeater

channels

For connection tothe public

telephone network

Two frequency talk-through repeater channels

For inter-ship working

9 10 11 12 13 14

Working channels for harbour authority radio stations on port operations and ship movements

16 17 21 23

The international distress, safety and callingfrequency for the maritime mobile VHF

radiotelephone service

Channelavailable for

aquatic events

Continuous weather transmission

24 25 26 27

For connection to the public telephone network

60 61 62 63 64 65 66

Two frequency talk-through repeater channels

67 68 71 73 74 77

Working

channel

between coast

and ship

stations after

initial contact

has been made

on Channel 16

Working

channel and for

use by rescue

organisations

Working

channel

between coast

and ship

stations after

initial contact

has been made

on Channel 16

Channel for

use in

association

with marina

developments

Working

channel

between coast

and ship

stations after

initial contact

has been made

on Channel 16

Channel

available for

aquatic events

83 84 85 86 87 88

Coastguard repeater channels for SAR communications

Light grey shading denotes simplex channels Dark grey shading denotes repeater channels

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4.4 Cellular Telephones

Cellular telephones work well for point to point conversations within range of supporting

cellular networks and some cellular telephones can shift to satellite communications

when they are moved outside terrestrial cells. They are popular, inexpensive and

multi-purpose. A 'hands-free' type mobile telephone should be standard on-board

equipment for any CAP aircraft. However, the devices have limitations in emergencies

involving SAR, and should not be relied on to the exclusion of other, more proven

equipment.

4.5 Resource Identifiers

It is imperative in Search and Rescue operations involving a variety of resources thatpersonnel are able to distinguish the call sign and recognise the appearance of the

resources.

Unfortunately, a common practice amongst marine rescue vessels and SAR aircraft

alike has been to adopt similar-sounding identifiers or call signs - such as 'Rescue 1',

or 'Rescue 2'.

In operations combining multiple surface vessels with SAR aircraft, this practice often

leads to confusion.

To overcome the problem, CAPs and Coastguard marine Units alike have been

requested to adopt callsigns that clearly identify the resource and distinguish it from

others.

To further assist CAPs, Coastguard dedicated rescue vessels and cutter vessels are

often marked 'top-side' with an identifier that makes recognition from the air easy.

Such an identifier often takes the form of the vessel's call sign, or a simplified call sign

that the vessel's crew will recognise (even if it is not the current one in use by the

operations HQ).

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4.6 CAP Callsigns

Under construction reserved for future use.

Note: All CAPs will be required to acquire a local identifying callsign. Once collated by

CNZ, a complete list of these will then be added to this section.

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4.7 Speechless and Visual Communications

While most dedicated SAR aircraft have marine radio capability, occasionally a SAR

operation may involve an aircraft without this form of communication. Unfortunately,

the alternative communication available to most aircraft the VHF AM frequency is

rarely fitted to surface marine vessels.

SAR operations using combined surface and aircraft will often necessitate the passing

of instructions between the two resources, and in the absence of radio

communications, there are internationally recognised signals for visual communication

that all SAR aircraft personnel (and surface personnel, for that matter) should be

familiar with.

It should be noted that while aircraft, marine vessels or persons in distress should use

one of the accepted means of attracting attention, making their positions known or

obtaining help, any means might be used and SAR personnel should be alert to these.

4.8 Microphone Failure

A radio set that works, but a microphone that does not, can render communications

between resources worthless unless both parties are familiar with the following

techniques.

Generally, microphone failure on one radio means its users are speechless, while still

being able to hear the other partys transmission. However, the affected party may still

be able to transmit clicks by depressing the PTT (press to talk) switch on their radio.

The signals are commonly understood:

Button Presses Meaning

I am speechless talk to me

Yes

No

Not understood or say again

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4.9 Aircraft to Ground Signals

If no reliable speech-based communications are available between the aircraft and

surface vessel, the following signals should be used to advise a vessel to/that

4.9.1 Follow Me

Circle vessel at least once.

Fly low across the path ahead and close to the vessels bow, rocking wings and/or

opening and closing the throttle or prop surging. Then head in the required

direction.

4.9.2 Surface Vessels Assistance No Longer Required

Cross the vessels wake at low level and close to the stern, rocking wings and/or

opening and closing the throttle or prop surging.

4.9.3 Aircraft Requires DirectionsNote: This signal is used normally to indicate the pilot is lost and is in need of an

airstrip. Pass low overhead of the vessel and flash the aircrafts landing lights.

If the vessels crew has knowledge of such a facility, the vessel will be turned in a

complete circle and then bear off in direction of the strip.

4.9.4 Instructions Understood

During the hours of daylight, rock the aircraft.

During the hours of darkness, flash the aircraft landing lights on and off twice; or if

not so equipped, switch the navigation lights on and off twice.

No signal is used to indicate instructions have not been understood.

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4.10 Ground to Air Signals

There are significantly more signals and symbols available to persons on the surface to

communicate with aircraft, given the additional resources at their disposal (for example,

written in sand or with rocks, etc.). The following signals are internationally recognised:

4.10.1 Ground Symbols Used by Survivors

Symbol Meaning

V Require assistance

X Require medical assistance

N No or negative

A Yes or affirmative

Proceeding in this direction

LL All well

SOS International sign of distress

4.10.2 Ground Symbols Used by Rescue Units

Symbol Meaning

LLL Operation ended

LL Found all personnel

++ Found only some personnel

XX Not able to continue, returning to base

Divided into two groups - proceeding in directions indicated

Information received that objective is in this direction

NN Nothing found will continue with search

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4.11 International Maritime Signalling Indicators of Distress

In addition to the symbols above, there are internationally recognised signals, symbols

and procedures used by the maritime community particularly to indicate distress -

that CAP personnel must be aware of. (For information about using these signals, see

section 9.1.3.)

During SAR missions, it is often very difficult to sight a lifeboat or a life raft from the air.

First contact will often be made through a visual detection aid such as pyrotechnics,

dye marker, signal mirror, or an electronic detection aid such as a portable radio.

All search personnel should therefore be familiar with the appearance and

characteristics of the possible signalling devices carried on boats, lifeboats, and raftsand as personal survival gear.

Generally, these types of devices fall into one of two categories, visual and non-visual.

The tables on the following pages provide guidance as to the type, appearance and

meaning of these signals.

4.11.1 Visual Distress Signals

Resource Meaning/Comments

Balloons and box kites Used to raise antennas of emergency radio sets, these can

indicate the presence of a life raft but can also be a hazard to

search aircraft. CAP personnel must be alert for such hazards.

Sea Dye Markers Release slick of usually green, yellow-green, red or aluminium

dye, which remains for approximately two hours on a calm sea

but only 15 minutes on rough seas. From the surface,

detectability of this signal is extremely limited, but from an

altitude of 3,000 feet, has been sighted up to 10 miles away

with an average detectability of three miles.

Canvas protective covers Of the type used on life rafts, are often painted red, blue, or

yellow and may be used for signalling. They can also be used

for limited messages using the surface to air signals.

Continued following page

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Flares, esp. red A common, internationally recognised distress signal available

in various sizes. Often sighted up to 35 miles at night, with an

average of 10 miles at night and about one to two miles during

daylight. Approved flares are much brighter than the old fuse

type and are therefore quite visible from an aircraft. Hand

held flares , although better at night, are also used as daytime

signals. Mini rocket flares , in which the launcher is the size of

a fountain pen and fits in the pocket, can reach altitudes of 200

to 1800 feet, depending on the size and type.

Signal light Often used to signal SOS in morse code, e.g.

_ _ _

Heliograph Flashes from a signal mirror have an average detection range

of five miles, but are sometimes detectable up to 45 miles.

Outstretched arms Slowly raised and lowered by surface personnel.

Smoke Orange smoke is effective up to 12 miles during the day if

winds are less than 10 knots. On average effective in a range

of 8 miles.

Hand held or floating smoke signals are used in daytime.

They emit a large volume of bright orange smoke that remains

visible for several minutes. Under high wind conditions the

smoke will dissipate rapidly making the signal less effective.

Flames For example, from a burning oil barrel. Very effective at night

and have been sighted as far away as 50 miles.

Square flag with ball or ball

shape above or below it

Distress signal not in common use

Two flags Corresponding to the letters N and C of the International

Code of Signals

N = blue and white checks of 16 squares

C = blue/white/red/white/blue horizontal bars

V sheet Some craft may carry a large Orange Square sheet with the

black letter V on it

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4.11.2 Non Visual Distress Signals

Resource Meaning/Comments

VHF Channel 16 May Day standard meaning

Pan Pan standard meaning

EBIRB/ELT The Emergency Locater Transmitter (ELT), with which most aviators

are familiar, is also used in the marine environment, where it is called

an EPIRB ( Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon).

EPIRBs transmit a continuous warbling signal on 121.5MHz and

243MHz , which are the same frequencies used by the ELT in an

aircraft. Some also have capabilities for communication as well as

alert/locate.

Category 1 EPIRBs transmit on 406MHz and 121.5MHz. Each

Category 1 EPIRB has a serial number which is registered when the

Unit is purchased and identifies the vessel on which it is located.

When the Category 1 EPIRB is activated, the serial number is

transmitted (often referred to as the footprint) as a data burst on

406MHz to a satellite which relays the information and location of thetransmitter to ground stations - e.g., the National Rescue

Co-ordination Centre, which deploys suitable rescue resources. A

continuous signal on 121.5MHz is transmitted for tracking by

direction finding equipment.

Marine environment EPIRBs are designed to float and to transmit

their signal while in the water. As the distribution of EPIRBs

increases it becomes ever more important that air crews be proficientin ELT locating techniques.

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5-1

Air Patrol Manual Chapter 5 Standard Operating ProceduresMay 2008

CNZ 2001

5 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES

It is CNZ policy that the standard operating procedures of CAP personnel and aircraft

should, so much as possible, adhere to the following guidelines and principles.

5.1 Tasking Protocols

1. The RCCNZ, Police, or the designated controlling agency will provide SAR mission

assignments to CAP personnel. Assignments should include information about the

nature of the mission and the area to be covered.

2. The directions of the SAR Controller should be followed provided they do not

hazard the aircraft or crew. If the aircraft pilot is unwilling to comply with them, the

SAR Controller must be immediately notified of that decision.

3. The CAP pilot must have previous knowledge of, and demonstrated proficiency in,

various search patterns so that the assignments can be carried out. The CAP pilot

and IFC should be familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of various search

patterns, and so be able to provide recommendations to the SAR Controller.

4. In addition, many CAP pilots have accumulated local knowledge - for example

about geographical features - that may affect the success of a search. This

knowledge should be used to make recommendations to the SAR Controller or

appropriate operational commander.

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5.2 Safety Briefings

Prior to a SAR mission, a pilot (or their designate) must carry out a safety briefing for all

flight staff which may include members from Police, CAP and/or civilian SAR staff.

Topics covered in the safety briefing should include:

1. How to approach or exit from the aircraft, usually within the pilots field of vision at

the front of the aircraft.

2. The policy on the wearing of safety belts. It is compulsory for every one on board

to wear a safety belt. The briefing should include instruction on how to put it on,

adjust it, and take it off.

3. Information on the storage of equipment within the aircraft or storage lockers, and

how to open and shut these.

4. Information about the wearing of Personal Floatation Devices (PFDs). If the

mission is to be conducted over water, all personnel in the aircraft must wear an

approved type PFD.

5. Instruction on the use of any special equipment that will be used during the

mission.

6. Instructions on how to use the inboard communications system for conversation

between the Pilot in Command and SAR personnel.

7. Information about the location and use of emergency and safety equipment carried

on the-aircraft.

8. Ditching safety brief.

9. Any other relevant information.

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5.3 Operation Briefing/De-Briefing

In addition to the safety briefing, SAR personnel must be advised of details about each

particular operation. Research has shown that well-appraised personnel are more

likely to perform the tasks set them, than if they are not provided any background

information. In the case of CAP missions, this has particular relevance to observers'

performance. So much as possible, operation briefings should be conducted as

follows:

1. Information about a SAR mission may originate from more than one source, and it

is important that the briefer or the Pilot-In-Command (PlC) gather all the relevant

information into one briefing package.

2. Operation briefings should include, as a minimum, the following information:

Full description of the type of distress or object of the search;

Type of search and how it is to be carried out;

Altitude and lateral separation;

Sectors assigned to observers;

Communications;

Position reports;

Location of surface Units in the search area; Any other information relevant to the particular operation.

3. Ample time should be allowed before take off for this crew briefing. A portion of

the briefing prior to any search should be devoted to the characteristics of the

probable targets, as follows:

Debriefing

Debriefings should be conducted as soon as possible after the mission, and must beheld within two weeks. Debrief minutes must be circulated to all concerned. The team

leader should conduct the debriefing, and should indicate their mistakes first to set the

example; Keep a cordial, informal atmosphere

Evaluate both positive and negative aspects of team performance

Avoid finger-pointing - talk about team performance

Plan for the next time you encounter a similar situation, and if necessary

recommend changes to Unit SOPs

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5.3.1 Surface Craft Distress

So much as possible, the briefer should provide personnel - particularly observers -

with any specific details known about the target or conditions on scene that may affect

the searchers' ability to detect it. If known, the following information, incorporating as

much detail as possible about the actual target, should be included in briefings:

5.3.2 Size Consideration

Large vessels are good visual and radar targets and often are able to provide an

accurate fix by radio. Small surface vessels may prove difficult to detect by either

visual or electronic means. Small craft and fishing vessels are even harder to detect

under adverse circumstances and search aircraft, in many instances, have flown

directly overhead without making visual contact.

5.3.3 Vessel Position

A drifting, disabled vessel is more difficult to detect than one under way. A small boat

in deep water and showing no wake may be unable to anchor or use power.

5.3.4 Foundered Vessels

If a distressed vessel has foundered prior to the arrival of rescue Units, the most

probable objects of search will be lifeboats, rafts, debris, oil, and persons in the water.

Lifeboats may vary in size from 12 to 50 feet in length and be of any colour. Rafts may

also be of any colour and are found in a wide variety of sizes and shapes ranging from

4 feet in diameter and box shaped to 20 feet in diameter and circular. Small craft, such

as yachts and fishing vessels, usually carry only small dinghies. Some have wooden

or pneumatic rafts while others have only PFDs. Dinghies may be of any colour but

most commonly white.

5.3.5 Debris

Initially, the scene of the disaster may be marked by debris and perhaps an oil slick.

Debris will be found downwind of the oil slick, and boats and rafts are downwind of

debris. Persons in the water are usually found in the area of the debris clinging to

floating objects. If the vessel was abandoned some time before sinking, lifeboats, rafts,

and personnel may sometimes be found upwind of the point of foundering. Because of

this, search Units should search both upwind and downwind of the oil and debris area.

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5.3.6 Flares and Other Distress Signals

Lifeboats from large vessels are normally equipped with ample pyrotechnic visual

distress signals and if more than one boat is launched, they can expect to be grouped

or tied together, making sighting easier. Boats and rafts from small craft usually have a

limited supply of visual distress signals, frequently no more than the minimum required

by law.

There may be times when a close check must be made of a vessel to determine if

there is trouble. If a close fly-by is performed, look for the international distress signs.

Some of these signals are not very effective when viewed from aircraft since they are

not visible from more than several hundred yards, although binoculars may extend this

somewhat.

Further information about standard distress signals appears in section 4.11 of this

manual.

5.3.7 Aircraft Distress

In searches for downed aircraft over land - particularly heavily wooded terrain -

observers should be briefed to look for broken or scarred trees, bits of shiny metalbeneath the trees, burned out areas which look fresh, and parachutes or visual ground

signals which may have been set out by survivors.

In a search over water for survivors of an aircraft incident, observers should be briefed

to look for scattered wreckage such as oxygen bottles, floor boards, pieces of debris,

partial or whole rafts or seat cushions. However, in some cases, there may be nothing

other than an oil slick.

5.4 Identification Passes

If a low pass is required to identify a vessel, it must be done in such a way as to not

cause alarm to the persons on the surface. It must also be done in a safe manner that

allows an escape route should mechanical difficulties be encountered during the pass.

Crew should be briefed prior to the pass so each member knows exactly what will

happen, what to look for on the vessel, and what to do in case if an emergency.

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1. Route: The let down for the pass should be made some distance from the vessel

and the altitude stabilised prior to passing the vessel. The pass should be made

parallel to the vessel or across its stern, at such a distance that the persons on

board do not feel threatened by the pass. It is preferable to have the vessel on the

starboard side of the aircraft so the observer can make the necessary observationsand the pilots only responsibility is to fly the aircraft. Do not fly any lower or closer

than is absolutely necessary to note the features needed for identification. Avoid

passing directly over the vessel. Repeated passes should be avoided.

2. Speed: The approach and pass should be made into the wind when feasible. This

will make the ground speed as low as possible. The minimum airspeed used

should be sufficiently above stall airspeed, so that there is time and airspeed to

manoeuvre should something unexpected happen during the pass. The flaps, if used, should be set in the maximum lift, or short field take-off, configuration.

Figure 3 - Identification Pass Technique

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5.5 Airspace Restrictions and Reservations in SAR Operations

Some SAR incidents (especially those involving helicopters) can attract media

attention, and the Police or SAR Controller may request CAA to order temporary

restricted air space or altitude reservations.

These prevent non-essential aircraft from interfering with SAR aircraft operations, and

avoid unnecessary hazards to aircraft. Should these bans be put in place, the SAR

Controller will advise all SAR personnel involved in the operation.

CAP pilots may request the Controller to instigate an airspace ban if they feel the

aircrafts tasking and/or safety is being compromised by non-essential aircraft.

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Air Patrol Manual Chapter 6 Observation SkillsMay 2008

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6 OBSERVATION SKILLS

For SAR activities, the real payload for the search aircraft is the observer. While the

pilot is a contributor to the observations, their main task is to safely control and

navigate the aircraft. The effectiveness of the search team can be no greater than the

effectiveness of the observer.

Effective and efficient observation requires training and experience. Observer

scanning techniques must be accomplished in a systematic way to assure a high

degree of coverage of the search or patrol area. Observers must know what to look

for: objects usually look different from the air than they do from the surface. Moreover,

if a crash or sinking is involved, the objects of the search will usually be quite differentin appearance from their original form.

In addition, once the search object or suspected search object has been sighted, the

observer must know how to retain surveillance of the object while communicating its

relative position to the pilot so that the aircraft can be manoeuvred into a more

advantageous position.

The information provided in this chapter may be used as a basis for training, or for individual CAPs seeking to develop Standard Operating Procedures for their particular

operating circumstances.

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6.1 Observer Seat and Sector Assignments

1. The SAR Controller will normally provide instructions on the type of search pattern

to be flown. If not, the pilot will determine a pattern including leg directions and

track spacing. Based upon the pattern selected, the visibility from the aircraft and

the number of observers aboard, specific relative sectors must be assigned to

each observer.

2. CAP aircraft are usually light aircraft with one or two engines and seats for two to

six passengers. In two place aircraft, the seats may be tandem (one behind the

other) or side-by-side. For tandem seating, the pilot will usually be in the front

seat. In this arrangement, the pilot will have to cover the area directly ahead of the

aircraft. The rear seat observer should be assigned to cover both sidesalternately.

3. In a side-by-side two place aircraft,

the pilot will need to cover the left

side of the aircraft as well as

observing ahead for aircraft controlpurposes. The observer in the right

seat should also be assigned to

scan ahead of the aircraft as well as

the right side (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 - Seating Configuration 1

4. Many four-place aircraft will be operated with two or three persons on board.

When only two persons are on board, coverage will be the same as for a two

place, side-by-side aircraft.

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5. When three persons are on

board, the observer in the rear

seat should be assigned the

position behind the pilot (see

Figure 5). Their search sector

should cover as much of the left

side of the aircraft as possible.

In high wing aircraft, this can be

a sector approaching 180

degrees. In low wing aircraft,

the observer in the rear seat will

only be able to search off the

wing effectively. Figure 5 - Seating Configuration 2

6. If the piloting duties are to be shifted between occupants of the two front seats,

loading of the aircraft should permit the rear-seat observer to cover either side by

shifting position from left to right. The front seat observer, when only one observer

is available for the rear seat, will cover the side opposite the pilot as shown for a

two place, side-by-side aircraft in Figure 4.

7. When all four seats are utilised in a four place aircraft, the observer in the right rear

seat will cover the right side of the aircraft described for the left rear seat observer

above. The right front seat observer will cover the sector forward of the wing in a

low wing aircraft. For a high wing aircraft, this coverage can extend further. A

satisfactory assigned limit might be dead abeam; or otherwise assigned based on

the configuration of the Figure 6 aircraft structure. Some overlap of coverage

between the front and rear seat observer can be beneficial in the search.

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Figure 6 - Seating Configuration 3

8. For aircraft with more observer positions, sectors should be assigned depending

upon position visibility. The sectors will overlap, but this will allow rest periods and

improve probability of detection.

6.2 Scanning Technique

Although the human eye can see over a wide angle, it only ever focuses sharply on a

spectrum containing about 10 degrees of the total field. For CAP searches, this means

that the observer is most likely to be able to detect a target when it is within 5 degrees

either side of the central position of the eyes. Practically speaking, you must 'be

looking right at it' to really see an object. Moreover, the scan of the eye must be

stationary for effective sharp vision - rapid scanning reduces the likelihood of the eye

seeing an object in the area scanned.

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For these reasons, observers should scan their assigned sectors with discrete

movements of the eye, using the following basic tenets:

1. Each movement should be about 3 or 4 degrees.

2. The rate of movement should be two or three shifts per second. To make one

scan across a 90 degree sector will take about 10 to 15 seconds.

3. The search of an assigned sector should start close to the aircraft and should

sequentially move outward from the aircraft in units of 3 or 4 degrees after each

horizontal scan.

4. Consecutive scans should be in opposite directions. That is, start the first scan

from left to right, move up, make the second scan from right to left, move up

another 3 to 4 degrees and scan back from left to right again.

5. Continue this sequence to the horizon, or to the limit of meteorological visibility or

to a predetermined upper limit.

6. For the pilot and front seat observer, the scanning should be repeated again by

returning the eyes for sequential sweeps starting close to the aircraft. This

technique helps compensate for the changes in view caused by the aircrafts

forward motion and ensures optimum coverage of the close-in area.

7. When flying at low altitudes searching for small objects (such as a life raft, or

persons in the water), rear seat observers should employ a similar technique. In

such cases, both front and rear seat observers should limit their outward scanning.

8. When searching for personnel in the water, this limit should be set at about half the

track spacing for the aircraft at 500 feet, e.g., using 1/4 nautical mile spacing track,

the limit should be .125 nautical miles or 250 yards.

9. For life rafts, the limit should be 2.5 miles or less, and for boats under 60 feet in

length, 10 nautical miles or less, even though the horizon may be over 25 miles

distant for an aircraft at 500 feet altitude.

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10. Thus, for small objects, even under optimum conditions, no search should be

made above 10 degree below the horizon and for rafts, no more than 2 degrees

below the horizon. For boats up to 60 feet, the scan will extend virtually to the

horizon. If the meteorological visibility is less than optimum, these distances

should be further reduced.

6.2.1 Technique to Determine Obstructions to Visibility

Although aircraft make excellent search platforms, the framework of most small civilian

aircraft have some obstructions that limit scanning sectors. This varies with the design

of the aircraft and the observers position. Generally, obstruction to visibility is m

cap manual 2008

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