calicut university school of distance educationthe large majority of our personal relationships,...

CALICUT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATIONSTUDY MATERIAL

Core course ofBSc Counselling Psychology

V SEMESTERCUCBCSS

2014 Admn onwards

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IIPrepared by:Vishnu Sidharthan.T,Research Scholar Psychology,Dept of Psychology,University of Calicut

School of Distance Education

Social Psychology II

MODULE 1 - INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION& RELATIONSHIPS

MODULE 2 - GROUPS AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE

MODULE 3 – PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

MODULE 4 - ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

MODULE 1 –INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION& RELATIONSHIPS

Interpersonal attraction refers to positive feelings about another person. It can take manyforms, including liking, love, friendship, lust, and admiration. Social psychologists have



identified several major factors that influence interpersonal attraction which is anything thatdraws two or more people together characterized by affection, respect, liking, or love (Huston&Levinger, 1978). Interpersonal attraction has been an important topic of research inpsychology, because humans are social animals, and attraction serves an important function informing a social network, which in turn provides security and satisfies people’s need to belong toa social group (Baumeister& Bushman, 2008). In assessing the nature of attraction, psychologistshave used methods such as questionnaires, survey, and rating scale to determine level of one’sattraction toward another.Determinants of Interpersonal AttractionMany factors influence whom people are attracted to. They include physical attractiveness,proximity, similarity, and reciprocity.

Physical attractiveness:Research shows that romantic attraction is primarily determinedby physical attractiveness. In the early stages of dating, people are more attracted topartners whom they consider to be physically attractive. Men are more likely to valuephysical attractiveness than are women.People’s perception of their own physicalattractiveness also plays a role in romantic love. The matching hypothesis proposes thatpeople tend to pick partners who are about equal in level of attractiveness to themselves.

Proximity: People are more likely to become friends with people who are geographicallyclose. One explanation for this is the mere exposure effect. The mere exposureeffect refers to people’s tendency to like novel stimuli more if they encounter themrepeatedly.

Similarity: People also tend to pick partners who are similar to themselves incharacteristics such as age, race, religion, social class, personality, education, intelligence,and attitude.This similarity is seen not only between romantic partners but also betweenfriends. Some researchers have suggested that similarity causes attraction. Othersacknowledge that people may be more likely to have friends and partners who are similarto themselves simply because of accessibility: people are more likely to associate withpeople who are similar to themselves.

Reciprocity: People tend to like others who reciprocate their liking.

Determinants of Attraction Internal Determinants of Attraction: The Need to Affiliate and the Basic Role ofAffect1. The Importance of Affiliation for Human Existence

Based in evolution Ability to communicate/work together

Need to affiliate is hard-wired The tendency to affiliate appears to be based on neurobiological factors. Human

infants seem to be born with the motivation to seek contact with those in theirsocial environment. Newborns prefer to look at faces more than other stimuli.People respond automatically to facial cues.



A. Individual Differences in the Need to Affiliate Need for affiliation is a basic motive to seek and maintain interpersonal

relationships.Need appears to be a relatively stable trait; varies across people.When affiliation needs are not met, sadness and anger may result and cognitivefunctioning may be affected.

B. Situational influences on the need to affiliate

Threatening situations (e.g., natural disasters) may increase the need to affiliate.People like to affiliate with those who are experiencing the same negative event.

C. Ostracism– acts of excluding or ignoringUsed to regulate social behaviorReactions- especially females- depressed mood, anxiety, hurt feelings, efforts torestorerelationships, and eventual withdrawal

2.Affect and AttractionAffect as a Basic Response System, is a person’s emotional state include positive and negativefeelings and moods.Two important characteristics are intensity (strength) and direction (positiveand negative). Emotional states influence interpersonal attraction.Affect consists of at least twodimensions that stimulate different parts of the brain.This explains why people can respond tosituations with ambivalence.A.The Direct Effect of Emotions on Attraction

Attraction occurs when someonedoes/says something that makes you feel good orbad.

Positive affect leads to liking others. Negative affect leads to disliking others.

B.The Associated Effect of Emotions on Attraction

This refers to the factthat our mood when we interact with someone affects howwe feel aboutthat person.For example, subliminal presentation of pleasant picturescan increase expressed liking of a person one meets shortly after viewing thepictures.



C. Additional Implications of the Affect-Attraction Relationship Laughter and liking: Laughter helps strengthen bonds between people.Early

interactions with others involve forms of play that evoke laughter.Sharing ahumorous experience increases the likelihood of a pleasant interaction betweenindividuals.

External Determinants of Attraction: Proximity and Observable characteristics1. The Power of Proximity



Smaller physical distances are related to an increased likelihood that two people willcome into repeated contact and exposure to each other, feel positive affect, and developmutual attraction.

A. Why does proximity matter? Repeated exposure is the key• Repeated exposure (sometimes called the mere exposure effect)—Zajonc’s

(1968) finding that frequent contact with any mildly negative, neutral, orpositive stimulus results in an increasingly positive evaluation of thatstimulus

Repeated exposure without harmful effects increases familiarity, reduces uncertainty, andincreases liking.

B. Extensions of the repeated exposure effect

The repeated exposure effect is stronger when people are not aware that theexposure has occurred.

Positive affect elicited by repeated exposure to subliminal stimuli generalizes toother, similar stimuli

People high in the need for structure may be more responsive to repeated exposureeffects.

The repeated exposure effect does not happen when people’s initial reaction to astimulus is very negative.In this case, familiarity can result in more dislike.

C. Applying knowledge about the effects of proximity. It is possible to learn from research findings on proximity and apply them to one’s

surroundings and the choices made within them. Architects have used this research to design offices and neighborhoods to promote

social interaction.2. Observable Characteristics: Instant EvaluationsA. First impressions can arouse strong affect and may overcome the effects of proximity.

Indicates the influences of past experiences, stereotypes, and attributions that do notapply to a particular person, but yet are used in the evaluation of him or her.

B. Physical attractiveness: combination of characteristics that are evaluated as beautiful orhandsome at the positive extreme and as unattractive at the negative extreme. Found to bean important factor in interpersonal attraction.It is like Judging books by theircovers.Physical appearance determines many social outcomes.

C. Stereotypes: People hold stereotypes based on people’s appearance.Most believe thatattractiveness in both men and women is associated with being interesting, sociable,exciting, well-adjusted, and successful.Most assume that “what is beautiful isgood”.Positive stereotypes are universally related to attractiveness.However, the contentof the stereotypes may differ according to which traits a culture values. Most of thecommon appearance stereotypes are inaccurate. However, attractiveness is associatedwith popularity, good interpersonal skills, and high self-esteem, which probably resultfrom how attractive people are treated by others.



D. Appearance Anxiety:People can be wrong about others’ perceptions of how they look.Appearance anxiety is the apprehension or worry about whether one’s physicalappearance is adequate and about the possible negative reactions of other people. Thiscan lead to anger and dissatisfaction with oneself.

E. Other aspects of appearance and behavior that influence attraction: Neatness and color ofone’s clothing, observable disabilities, actions that suggest mental illness, perceived age,eyeglasses, and men’s facial hair etc.Men’s height is perceived to be related to qualitiessuch as leadership and masculinity.A person’s physique is related to stereotypes thataffect attraction despite no relationship between it and personality.Excess fat is the leastfavored physique.Obesity is stigmatized and it can be associated with someone who isphysically near a person who is obese. This occurs despite the fact that stereotypesassociated with weight do not result in accurate predictions about an individual’sbehavior.

F. Observable differences in behavior influence attraction: A youthful walking style, a firmhandshake, animated behavior, active participation in discussions, and modesty areassociated with positive responses from others. Men who act in a dominant, authoritative,and competitive manner in initial encounters are liked better than those who appearsubmissive, noncompetitive, and less masculine. After subsequent interactions, men whoare prosocial and sensitive are preferred. People who eat healthy food are judged as morelikeable and morally superior compared to those who eat “junk food”. A person’s firstname also plays a role in interpersonal attraction.

Interactive Determinants of Attraction:Similarity and Dissimilarity.1. Similarity predicts subsequent liking - Equally true for males, females, and different age,educational, and cultural groups.2. Similarity-dissimilarity predicts attraction.

Similarity-dissimilarity effect: consistent finding that people respond positively toindications that another person is similar to themselves and negatively to indications thatanother person is dissimilar from themselves. Also, similar people are judged as moreintelligent, informed, moral, and better adjusted than people who are dissimilar.

LOVERobert Sternberg developed the triangular theory of love. In the context of interpersonalrelationships, the three components of love, according to the triangular theory, are an intimacycomponent, a passion component, and a decision/commitment component.

1. Intimacy – Which encompasses feelings of attachment, closeness, connectedness, andbondedness.

2. Passion – Which encompasses drives connected to both limerence and sexual attraction.3. Commitment – Which encompasses, in the short term, the decision to remain with

another, and in the long term, plans made with that other.



The amount of love one experiences depends on the absolute strength of these threecomponents, and the type of love one experiences depends on their strengths relative to eachother. Different stages and types of love can be explained as different combinations of thesethree elements; for example, the relative emphasis of each component changes over time asan adult romantic relationship develops. A relationship based on a single element is lesslikely to survive than one based on two or three elements.

Forms of Love Nonlove: refers simply to the absence of all three components of love. Nonlove characterizes

the large majority of our personal relationships, which are simply casual interactions. Liking/friendship: is used here in a nontrivial sense. Rather, it refers to the set of feelings

one experiences in relationships that can truly be characterized as friendship. One feelscloseness, bondedness, and warmth toward the other, without feelings of intense passion orlong-term commitment.

Infatuated love: infatuation results from the experiencing of passionate arousal in theabsence of intimacy and decision/commitment. Romantic relationships often start out asinfatuated love and become romantic love as intimacy develops over time. Withoutdeveloping intimacy or commitment, infatuated love may disappear suddenly.

Empty love: is characterized by commitment without intimacy or passion. A stronger lovemay deteriorate into empty love. In an arranged marriage, the spouses' relationship maybegin as empty love and develop into another form, indicating ‘how empty love need not bethe terminal state of a long-term relationship, but the beginning rather than the end’.

Romantic love: derives from a combination of the intimate and passionate components oflove. Romantic lovers are not only drawn physically to each other but are also bondedemotionally- bonded both intimately and passionately, but without sustaining commitment.

Companionate love: is an intimate, non-passionate type of love that is stronger thanfriendship because of the element of long-term commitment. This type of love is observed inlong-term marriages where passion is no longer present but where a deep affection andcommitment remain. The love ideally shared between family members is a form ofcompanionate love, as is the love between close friends who have a platonic but strongfriendship.

Fatuous love: can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage - fatuous in thesense that a commitment is made on the basis of passion without the stabilizing influence ofintimate involvement.

Consummate love: is the complete form of love, representing an ideal relationship whichpeople strive towards. Of the seven varieties of love, consummate love is theorized to be thatlove associated with the "perfect couple." According to Sternberg, these couples willcontinue to have great sex fifteen years or more into the relationship, they cannot imaginethemselves happier over the long-term with anyone else, they overcome their few difficultiesgracefully, and each delight in the relationship with one other. However, Sternberg cautions



that maintaining a consummate love may be even harder than achieving it. He stresses theimportance of translating the components of love into action. "Without expression," hewarns, “even the greatest of loves can die”. Thus, consummate love may not be permanent.If passion is lost over time, it may change into companionate love.

MARRIAGEMarriage is the process by which two people make their relationship public, official, and

permanent. It is the joining of two people in a bond that putatively lasts until death, but inpractice is increasingly cut short by divorce. Regarded as a psychological relationship, marriageis a highly complex structure made up of a whole series of subjective and objective factors,mostly of a very heterogeneous nature.Attachment Styles

Some researchers study the influence of childhood attachment styles on adultrelationships. Many researchers believe that as adults, people relate to their partners in the sameway that they related to their caretakers in infancy.Cultural Similarities and Differences

There are both similarities and differences among cultures in romantic attraction.Researchers have found that people in many different cultures place a high value on mutualattraction between partners and the kindness, intelligence, emotional stability, dependability, andgood health of partners.


Social Psychology II Page 9







Social Psychology II Page 9








However, people in different cultures place a different value on romantic love within amarriage. People in individualistic cultures often believe romantic love is a prerequisite formarriage. In many collectivist cultures, people often consider it acceptable for family membersor third parties to arrange marriages.Evolutionary Perspectives

Evolutionary psychologists speculate that the tendency to be attracted to physicallyattractive people is adaptive. Many cultures value particular aspects of physical attractiveness,such as facial symmetry and a small waist-to-hip ratio. Evolutionary psychologists point out thatfacial symmetry can be an indicator of good health, since many developmental abnormalitiestend to produce facial asymmetries. A small waist-to-hip ratio, which produces an “hourglass”figure, indicates high reproductive potential.

As predicted by the parental investment theory, men tend to be more interested in theirpartners’ youthfulness and physical attractiveness. Evolutionary psychologists think that this isbecause these characteristics indicate that women will be able to reproduce successfully.Women, on the other hand, tend to value partners’ social status, wealth, and ambition, becausethese are characteristics of men who can successfully provide for offspring.



MODULE 2 –GROUPS AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Social psychologists consider a group to be composed of two or more people who interact anddepend on each other in some way. Examples of groups include a baseball team, an Internetlistserv, a college psychology class, and a cult.Features of GroupsGroups usually have the following features:

Norms that determine appropriate behavior Roles that are assigned to people that determine what behaviors and responsibilities people

should take on A communication structure that determines who talks to whom within the group A power structure that determines how much authority and influence group members have

Example: A college psychology class has norms, such as when people should arrive for class.The professor’s role includes teaching, inviting discussion, and administering exams. Thestudents’ role is to attend class, listen to lectures, read materials, and pose questions. Thecommunication structure of the class demands that students listen without talking to each otherwhile the professor lectures. The power structure gives the professor more authority than any ofthe students. Some students also may have more authority and influence than other students,such as those who are more familiar with the class material.Productivity in GroupsResearch shows that productivity tends to decline when a group of people are working on a tasktogether. This happens for two reasons: insufficient coordination and social loafing.Insufficient CoordinationWhen many people work on a task, their efforts may not be sufficiently coordinated. Severalpeople may end up doing the same portion of the task, and some portions of the task may beneglected.Group Decision-MakingMembers of a group are often required to make decisions together. Three concepts related togroup decision-making are groupthink, group polarization, and minority influence.

GroupthinkGroupthink is the tendency for a close-knit group to emphasize consensus at the expense ofcritical thinking and rational decision-making. In a groupthink situation, group members squashdissent, exert pressure to conform, suppress information from outside the group, and focusselectively on information that agrees with the group’s point of view.Groupthink is more likely to occur when groups have certain characteristics:

High cohesiveness. Group cohesiveness is the strength of the liking and commitmentgroup members have toward each other and to the group.

Isolation from outside influences A strong leader



The intent to reach a major decisionGroup PolarizationThe dominant point of view in a group often tends to be strengthened to a more extreme positionafter a group discussion, a phenomenon called group polarization. When a group starts out witha dominant view that is relatively risky, the group is likely to come to a consensus that is evenriskier. This phenomenon is calledrisky shift .Minority InfluenceA committed minority viewpoint can change the majority opinion in a group. Group membersare more likely to be influenced by a minority opinion when the minority holds the opinionfirmly.DeindividuationWhen people are in a large group that makes them feel aroused and anonymous, they mayexperience deindividuation. When people become deindividuated, they lose their inhibitionsand their sense of responsibility and are not self-conscious about their behavior. Deindividuationis a major reason for the violence that sometimes happens in mobs.Social FacilitationIn some circumstances, individuals perform better when other people are present. Thisphenomenon is called social facilitation. Social facilitation is more likely to occur on easy tasks.On difficult tasks, people are likely to perform worse in the presence of others.

Social LoafingSocial loafing, which contributes to declines in the productivity of a group, is the reduced effortpeople invest in a task when they are working with other people. Diffusion ofresponsibility contributes to social loafing. A person does not feel as responsible for working ona task if several others are also present, since responsibility is distributed among all thosepresent.Social loafing is particularly likely to happen in the following circumstances:

When the group is large When it is difficult to evaluate individual contributions to a task When people expect their coworkers to pick up the slack

Conformity

Conformity is the process of giving in to real or imagined pressure from a group. In the 1950s,the psychologist Solomon Asch did a famous study that demonstrated that people often conform.Asch’s Conformity StudyAsch recruited male undergraduate subjects for the study and told them that he was doingresearch on visual perception. He placed each subject in a room with six accomplices. Thesubject thought that the six were also subjects. The seven people were then given a series of easytasks. In each task, they looked at two cards, one with a single line on it and the other with threelines of different lengths. The people were asked to decide which line on the second card was the



same length as the line on the first card. On the first two tasks, the accomplices announced thecorrect answer to the group, as did the subject. On the next twelve tasks, the accomplices pickeda line on the second card that was clearly a wrong answer. When put in this situation, more thanone-third of the subjects conformed to the choices made by their group.Factors that Influence ConformityAsch and other researchers have found that many factors influence conformity:

Group size: Asch found that group size influenced whether subjects conformed. Thebigger the group, the more people conformed, up to a certain point. After group sizereached a certain limit, conformity didn’t increase any further.

Group unanimity: Asch also found that subjects were much more likely to conform whena group agreed unanimously. If even one other person in the group disagreed with thegroup, a subject was much less likely to conform. This was true even when the otherdissenter disagreed with the subject as well as the group.

Researchers have found that conformity also increases when: A person feels incompetent or insecure The person admires the group The group can see how the person behaves

Reasons for ConformingPeople have many reasons for conforming:

They want to be accepted by the group, or they fear rejection by the group. In this case, thegroup is exerting normative social influence.

The group provides them with information. In this case, the group isexerting informational social influence.

They want a material or social reward, such as a pay raise or votes. They admire the group and want to be like other group members.

OBEDIENCEObedience is compliance with commands given by an authority figure. In the 1960s, the socialpsychologist Stanley Milgram did a famous research study called the obedience study. Itshowed that people have a strong tendency to comply with authority figures.

Milgram’s Obedience StudyMilgram told his forty male volunteer research subjects that they were participating in a studyabout the effects of punishment on learning. He assigned each of the subjects to the role ofteacher. Each subject was told that his task was to help another subject like himself learn a list ofword pairs. Each time the learner made a mistake, the teacher was to give the learner an electricshock by flipping a switch. The teacher was told to increase the shock level each time the learnermade a mistake, until a dangerous shock level was reached.Throughout the course of the experiment, the experimenter firmly commanded the teachers tofollow the instructions they had been given. In reality, the learner was not an experiment subject



but Milgram’s accomplice, and he never actually received an electric shock. However, hepretended to be in pain when shocks were administered.Prior to the study, forty psychiatrists that Milgram consulted told him that fewer than 1 percentof subjects would administer what they thought were dangerous shocks to the learner. However,Milgram found that two-thirds of the teachers did administer even the highest level of shock,despite believing that the learner was suffering great pain and distress. Milgram believed that theteachers had acted in this way because they were pressured to do so by an authority figure.Factors That Increase ObedienceMilgram found that subjects were more likely to obey in some circumstances than others.Obedience was highest when:

Commands were given by an authority figure rather than another volunteer The experiments were done at a prestigious institution The authority figure was present in the room with the subject The learner was in another room The subject did not see other subjects disobeying commands

In everyday situations, people obey orders because they want to get rewards, because they wantto avoid the negative consequences of disobeying, and because they believe an authority islegitimate. In more extreme situations, people obey even when they are required to violate theirown values or commit crimes. Researchers think several factors cause people to carry obedienceto extremes:

People justify their behavior by assigning responsibility to the authority rather thanthemselves.

People define the behavior that’s expected of them as routine. People don’t want to be rude or offend the authority. People obey easy commands first and then feel compelled to obey more and more difficult

commands. This process is called entrapment, and it illustrates the foot-in-the-doorphenomenon.

COMPLIANCECompliance refers to changing one's behavior due to the request or direction of another person. Itis going along with the group or changing a behavior to fit in with the group, while stilldisagreeing with the group. Unlike obedience, in which the other individual is in a position ofauthority, compliance does not rely upon being in a position of power or authority over others.Techniques Used to Gain ComplianceCompliance is a major topic of interest within the field of consumer psychology. This specialtyarea focuses on the psychology of consumer behavior, including how sellers can influencebuyers and persuade them to purchase goods and services. Marketers often rely on a number ofdifferent strategies to obtain compliance from consumers.Some of these techniques include:

The "Door-in-the-Face" Technique .In this approach, marketers start by asking for a large commitment. When the other



person refuses, they then make a smaller and more reasonable request. For example,imagine that a business owner asks you to make a large investment in a new businessopportunity. After you decline the request, the business owner asks if you could at leastmake a small product purchase to help him out. After refusing the first offer, you mightfeel compelled to comply with his second appeal.

The "Foot-in-the-Door" Technique .In this approach, marketers start by asking for and obtaining a small commitment. Onceyou have already complied with the first request, you are more likely to also comply witha second, larger request. For example, your co-worker asks if you fill in for him for a day.After you say yes, he then asks if you could just continue to fill in for the rest of theweek.

The "That's-Not-All" Technique .Have you ever found yourself watching a television infomercial? Once a product hasbeen pitched, the seller then adds an additional offer before the potential purchaser hasmade a decision. "That's not all," the salesperson might suggest, "If you buy a set ofwidgets now, we'll throw in an extra widget for free!" The goal is to make the offer asappealing as possible.

The "Lowball" Technique .This strategy involves getting a person to make a commitment and then raising the termsor stakes of that commitment. For example, a salesperson might get you to agree to buy aparticular cell phone plan at a low price before adding on a number of hidden fees thatthen make the plan much more costly.

IngratiationThis approach involves gaining approval from the target in order to gain theircompliance. Strategies such as flattering the target or presenting oneself in a way thatappeals to the individual are often used in this approach.

ReciprocityPeople are more likely to comply if they feel that the other person has already donesomething for them. We have been socialized to believe that if people extend a kindnessto us, then we should return the favor. Researchers have found that the reciprocityeffect is so strong that it can work even when the initial favor is uninvited or comes fromsomeone we do not like.

Factors That Influence Compliance People are more likely to comply when they believe that they share something in

common with the person making the request. When group affiliation is important to people, they are more likely to comply with social

pressure. For example, if a college student places a great deal of importance on belongingto a college fraternity, they are more likely to go along with the group's requests even if itgoes against their own beliefs or wishes.



The likelihood of compliance increases with the number of people present. If only one ortwo people are present, a person might buck the group opinion and refuse to comply.

Being in the immediate presence of a group makes compliance more likely.LEADERSHIP

As interest in the psychology of leadership has increased over the last 100 years, anumber of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how andwhy certain people become great leaders.

THEORIES OF LEADERSHIPWhile many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eightmajor types:1. "Great Man" TheoriesHave you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view, greatleaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence,intelligence, and social skills that make them natural-born leaders.Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders areborn, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to riseto leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership wasthought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.2. Trait TheoriesSimilar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certainqualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identifyparticular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits likeextraversion, self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to greatleaders.If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possessthose qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories toexplain leadership. There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated withleadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership.3. Contingency TheoriesContingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment thatmight determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According tothis theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of thefollowers and aspects of the situation.4. Situational TheoriesSituational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situationalvariables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experiencedmember of a group, an authoritarian stylemight be most appropriate. In other instances wheregroup members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.



5. Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born.Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted inbehaviorism, this leadership theoryfocuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to thistheory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.6. Participative TheoriesParticipative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the inputof others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from groupmembers and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-makingprocess. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input ofothers.7. Management TheoriesManagement theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision,organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards andpunishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful,they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theoriesof transactional leadership.8. Relationship TheoriesRelationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connectionsformed between leaders and followers. Transformational leadersmotivate and inspire people byhelping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders arefocused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or herpotential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.TYPES OF LEADERSHIPA leadership style refers to a leader's characteristic behaviors when directing, motivating,guiding and managing groups of people. Great leaders can inspire political movements and socialchange. They can also motivate others to perform, create and innovate.Kurt Lewin's three leadership styles or behaviors, described below, influence the leader-followerrelationship, group success, group risk-taking, group problem-solving strategies, group morale,and group relations.

1. Authoritarian LeadershipAuthoritarian leaders, also referred to as autocratic leaders, are characterized as domineering.Authoritarian leaders make policies and decide appropriate division of labor from afar. They tendto be distant and aloof from their group. Authoritarian leadership is gained through punishment,threat, demands, orders, rules, and regulations. The functions of authoritarian leadership includeunilateral rule-making, task-assignment, and problem solving while the roles of authoritarianfollowers include adhering to the leader's instructions without question or comment.Authoritarian leadership is appropriate in settings with a constant stream of new employees,limited decision-making time or resources, and the need for large-scale coordination with othergroups and organizations. Authoritarian leadership is not suited to environments in which



members desire to share their opinions and participate in decision-making processes. Critics ofauthoritarian leadership argue that the leadership style leads to high member dissatisfaction, turn-over, and absenteeism (Gastil, 1994).

2. Democratic LeadershipDemocratic leaders are characterized by collective decision-making, camaraderie, active memberor follower involvement, fair praise, and restrained criticism; they facilitate collective decision-making. Democratic leaders offer their followers choices and support. Democratic leadership,also referred to as participative leadership, reflects democratic principles and processes includinginclusiveness, self-determination, and equal participation. That said, democratic leaders shouldnot be confused with those who hold elected positions of power. Democratic leaders often lackformal position and power. For example, Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948), an Indian peaceactivist and leader, was a democratic leader who lacked a formal position of power.Democratic leadership gains its authority through accountability, active participation,cooperation, and delegation of tasks and responsibilities. The functions of democratic leadershipinclude distributing responsibility within the group or organization, empowering members, andfacilitating group deliberations. The roles of democratic followers include willingness to takepersonal responsibility for the group or organization, willingness to be held accountable for theiractions and decisions, willingness to maintain their group's autonomy and freedom, willingnessto take on the role of leader as needed or appropriate, and willingness to work with their leaders.Democratic leadership is appropriate in particular settings such as an international association, ademocratic nation, a worker-owner corporation, a public university, a close-knit neighborhood,or a cooperative social group or organization. Democratic leadership is not useful or required ingroups and organizations with clearly defined and unchanging guidelines, roles, and practices.Ultimately, the role of a democratic leader is ideally shared in a group or organization.Democratic leadership is distributed and changing. Within a democratic leadership climate orenvironment, there will be multiple leaders and every member will be a leader at some pointduring their membership in the group (Gastil, 1994).

3. Laissez-Faire LeadershipLaissez-faire leaders are characterized as uninvolved with their followers and members; in fact,laissez-faire leadership is an absence of leadership style. Leaders of this style make no policies orgroup-related decisions. Instead, group members are responsible for all goals, decisions, andproblem solving. Laissez-faire leaders have very little to no authority within their grouporganization. The functions of laissez-faire leadership include trusting their members orfollowers to make appropriate decisions and bringing in highly trained and reliable members intothe group or organization. The roles of laissez-faire followers include self-monitoring, problemsolving, and producing successful end products. Laissez-faire leaders are most successful inenvironments with highly trained and self-directed followers. Laissez-faire leadership isappropriate in particular settings such as science laboratories or established companies with long-term employees. Laissez-faire leadership is not suited to environments in which the membersrequire feedback, direction, oversight, flexibility, or praise (Gastil, 1994).



MODULE 3 –PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Prosocial behaviors are those intended to help other people. Prosocial behavior is characterizedby a concern about the rights, feelings and welfare of other people. Behaviors that can bedescribed as prosocial include feeling empathy and concern for others and behaving in ways tohelp or benefit other people. Daniel C. Batson explains that prosocial behaviors refer to "a broadrange of actions intended to benefit one or more people other than oneself - behaviors such ashelping, comforting, sharing and cooperation”.What Motivates Prosocial Behavior?Prosocial behavior has long posed a challenge to social scientists seeking to understand whypeople engage in helping behaviors that are beneficial to others, but costly to the individualperforming the action. In some cases, people will even put their own lives at risk in order to helpother people, even those that are complete strangers. Why would people do something thatbenefits someone else but offers no immediate benefit to the doer?Psychologists suggest that there are a number of reasons why people engage in prosocialbehavior. In many cases, such behaviors are fostered during childhood and adolescence as adultsencourage children to share, act kindly, and help others.Evolutionary psychologists often explain prosocial behaviors in terms of the principles of naturalselection.Obviously, putting your own safety in danger makes it less likely that you will survive to pass onyour own genes. However, the idea of kin selection suggests that helping members of your owngenetic family makes it more likely that your kin will survive and pass on genes to the futuregenerations.Researchers have been able to produce some evidence that people are often more likely to helpthose to whom they are closely related.The norm of reciprocity suggests that when people do something helpful for someone else, thatperson feels compelled to help out in return. Essentially, helping others means that they mighthelp us in return. This norm developed, evolutionary psychologists suggest because people whounderstood that helping others might lead to reciprocal kindness were more likely to survive andreproduce.Prosocial behaviors are often seen as being compelled by a number of factors including egoisticreasons (doing things to improve one's self-image), reciprocal benefits (doing something nice forsomeone so that they may one day return the favor), and more altruistic reasons (performingactions purely out of empathy for another individual).Situational Influences on Prosocial BehaviorCharacteristics of the situation can also have a powerful impact on whether or not people engagein prosocial actions.



The bystander effect is one of the most notable examples of how the situation can impact helpingbehaviors. The bystander effect refers to the tendency for people to become less likely to assist aperson in distress when there are a number of other people also present.For example, if you drop your purse and several items fall out on the ground, the likelihood thatsomeone will stop and help you decreases if there are many other people present. This same sortof thing can happen in cases where someone is in serious danger, such as when someone isinvolved in a car accident. In some cases, witnesses might assume that since there are so manyother people present, someone else will have surely already called for help.The tragic murder of a young woman named Kitty Genovese was what spurred much of theinterest and research on the bystander effect. In 1964, Genovese was attacked as neared herapartment on her way home from work late one night. She was stabbed and left lying on thesidewalk. She called for help and reports later indicated that many of her neighbors heard hercries yet did not call for help or attempt to interfere with the attack that lasted approximately 30minutes. A neighbor eventually called police, but Genovese died before reaching the hospital.Explanations for the Bystander EffectThere are two major factors that contribute to the bystander effect.

First, the presence of other people creates a diffusion of responsibility. Becausethere are other observers, individuals do not feel as much pressure to take action,since the responsibility to take action is thought to be shared among all of thosepresent.

The second reason is the need to behave in correct and socially acceptable ways.When other observers fail to react, individuals often take this as a signal that aresponse is not needed or not appropriate. Other researchers have found thatonlookers are less likely to intervene if the situation is ambiguous. In the case of KittyGenovese, many of the 38 witnesses reported that they believed that they werewitnessing a "lover's quarrel," and did not realize that the young woman was actuallybeing murdered.

Fear of being judged by other members of the group also plays a role. Peoplesometimes fear leaping to assistance, only to discover that their help was unwanted orunwarranted. In order to avoid being judged by other bystanders, people simply takeno action.

Steps to Provide help:Lantane and Darley have suggested that five key things must happen in order for a person to takeaction. An individual must:

1. Notice what is happening2. Interpret the event as an emergency3. Experience feelings of responsibility4. Believe that they have the skills to help5. Make a conscious choice to offer assistance



Other factors that can help people overcome the bystander effect including having a personalrelationship with the individual in need, having the skills and knowledge to provide assistance,and having empathy for those in need.Prosocial Behavior Versus AltruismAltruism is sometimes seen as a form of prosocial behavior, but some experts suggest that thereare actually different concepts. While prosocial behavior is seen as a type of helping behaviorthat ultimately confers some benefits to the self, altruism is viewed as a pure form of helpingmotivated purely out of concern for the individual in need.Others argue, however, that reciprocity actually does underlie many examples of altruism or thatpeople engage in such seemingly selfless behaviors for selfish reasons, such as to gain theacclaim of others or to feel good about themselves.Altruism involves the unselfish concern for other people. It involves doing things simply out ofa desire to help, not because you feel obligated to out of duty, loyalty, or religious reasons.Everyday life is filled with small acts of altruism, from the guy at the grocery store who kindlyholds the door open as you rush in from the parking lot to the woman who gives twenty dollarsto a homeless man.News stories often focus on grander cases of altruism, such as a man who dives into an icy riverto rescue a drowning stranger to a generous donor who gives thousands of dollars to a localcharity. While we may be all too familiar with altruism, social psychologists are interested inunderstanding why it occurs. What inspires these acts of kindness? What motivates people to risktheir own lives to save a complete stranger?Altruism is one aspect of what social psychologists refer to as prosocial behavior. Prosocialbehavior refers to any action that benefits other people, no matter what the motive or how thegiver benefits from the action. Remember, however, that pure altruism involves true selflessness.While all altruistic acts are prosocial, not all prosocial behaviors are completely altruistic. Forexample, we might help others for a variety of reasons such as guilt, obligation, duty, or even forrewards.Psychologists have suggested a number of different explanations for why altruism exists,including:Biological Reasons:Kin selection is an evolutionary theory that proposes that people are more likely to help thosewho are blood relatives because it will increase the odds of gene transmission to futuregenerations. The theory suggests that altruism towards close relatives occurs in order to ensurethe continuation of shared genes. The more closely the individuals are related, the more likelypeople are to help.Neurological Reasons:Altruism activates reward centers in the brain. Neurobiologists have found that when engaged inan altruistic act, the pleasure centers of the brain become active.



Social Norms:Society's rules, norms, and expectations can also influence whether or not people engage inaltruistic behavior. The norm of reciprocity, for example, is a social expectation in which we feelpressured to help others if they have already done something for us. For example, if your friendloaned you money for lunch a few weeks ago, you will probably feel compelled to reciprocatewhen he asks if you if he can borrow $100.He did something for you, now you feel obligated to do something in return.Cognitive Reasons:While the definition of altruism involves doing for others without reward, there may still becognitive incentives that are not obvious. For example, we might help others to relieve out owndistress or because being kind to others upholds our view of ourselves as kind, empatheticpeople.Some of the cognitive explanations:

Empathy: Researchers including Batson et al. (1981) suggest that people are more likelyto engage in altruistic behavior when they feel empathy for the person who is in distress,a suggestion known as the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Batson suggests that bothempathy and altruism are innate traits and other researchers have found that children tendto become more altruistic as their sense of empathy develops.

Helping Relieves Negative Feelings: Other experts have proposed that altruistic actshelp relieve the negative feelings created by observing someone else in distress, an ideareferred to as the negative-state relief model. Essentially, seeing another person in troublecauses us to feel upset, distressed, or uncomfortable, so helping the person in troublehelps reduce these negative feelings.

VOLUNTEERINGVolunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity where an individual or group providesservices for no financial gain. Volunteering is also renowned for skill development, and is oftenintended to promote goodness or to improve human quality of life. Volunteering may havepositive benefits for the volunteer as well as for the person or community served. It is alsointended to make contacts for possible employment. Many volunteers are specifically trained inthe areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue. Others serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a natural disaster.Snyder, Omoto and their colleagues eventually surveyed volunteers who did all kinds of othercommunity work too, as well as young, middle-aged and older volunteers.Over the years, they've identified five primary motivations for volunteering:

Values. Volunteering to satisfy personal values or humanitarian concerns. For some people thiscan have a religious component.

Community concern. Volunteering to help a particular community, such as a neighborhood orethnic group, to which you feel attached.

Esteem enhancement. Volunteering to feel better about yourself or escape other pressures. Understanding. Volunteering to gain a better understanding of other people, cultures or places.



Personal development. Volunteering to challenge yourself, meet new people and make newfriends, or further your career.

EXPLANATIONS FOR PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUREmpathy Joy HypothesisThe Empathic joy hypothesis is based on the assumption that a sight or news of emergencyevokes empathy and a feeling to have a positive influence on the needy. The helping behaviour isthus dependent on the fact that he/she would feel good if the help improves the needy person’scondition. The hypothesis is presented below :Emergency observed -> Desire to have a positive effect on victim -> Help provided as it madethe helper feel good out of a successful outcomeEmpathy-altruism hypothesisThe empathy-altruism hypothesis posits that there is dominant role of the feeling of potentialhelper’s empathy – that is aroused in an emergency situation faced by the needy – in the helpingbehaviour. According to the hypothesis, when empathy is aroused, the potential helper actuallygets a positive feeling by helping the needy. The hypothesis is presented below:Emergency observed -> Empathy aroused -> Help provided to the victim as it gave good feelingto the helperNegative-state relief modelThe negative-state relief model is based on the logic that the potential helper is in a negativemood when he/she comes across an emergency situation faced by the needy. The helper, throughthe helping behaviour attempts to manage one’s own negative mood. The hypothesis is presentedbelow: Emergency observed -> Helper with negative affect -> Help provided to reduce helper’sown negative affectGenetic determinism modelThe Genetic determinism model us based on the assumption that there is an unconscious desirein us to help people who are genetically similar to us (e.g., siblings) so that they survive. Thehypothesis is presented below:Emergency observed -> Unconscious desire to help for those genetically similar -> Helpprovided to maximize the survival of similar genes



MODULE 4 –ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

Environment is the main consideration when attempting to analyse or understand anyform of human behaviour, wherein that human physically functions. The environment is such apowerful influence in that it can change attitudes, moods or behaviour within seconds and thesechanges can have a long term negative impact on both the organization's effectiveness and anyperson's inner self perceptions, inner insecurities, behavioural conduct, functioning styles, whichare present within that environment, which also changes the holistic effective functioning of anyhuman being in the short or long term based on the intensity of the effect that the environmenthas on all individuals

Environmental Psychology deals with behavior in relation to the physical environment.The physical environment includes material objects, plants, animals and human beings.Environmental Psychology does not emphasize the interactional processes among people, whichform the subject matter of other branches of Psychology. Environmental Psychology follows thesystems approach which has become the modern approach in several branches of science. It isholistic and naturalistic and studies the adaptation of organisms to their settings. Organisms arestudied as part of the ecosystem, stressing the balance and interdependence of organisms and theenvironment. This field of science took shape during the 1960s and `Environmental Psychologyand Population' has been included as a division of the American Psychological Association.The importance of the field has increased in recent years owing to the increased concern with theenvironment resulting from the pollution problems, problems posed by population explosion,depletion of natural resources and the felt need to conserve wilderness.Concepts of Environmental Psychology

Behavioral Geography studies the cognitive maps of the individual regarding hisenvironment. It traces environmental values, meanings and preferences. Behavioral maps areprepared relating activities to surroundings. Lines to represent direction of movement, colors torepresent time spent and so on are techniques used in the preparation of such maps. Behaviormaps can be prepared for exploratory behavior, neighborhood feelings, etc. Environmentalaesthetics studies preferences in terms of aesthetic judgements. Recently attempts have beenmade to relate environmental preferences to personality characteristics, race and nationalcharacter (Hall 1976; Berry 1976).INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON BEHAVIOR

1. NOISEMost of us are very used to the sounds we hear in everyday life. Loud music, the

television, people talking on their phone, the traffic and even pets barking in the middle of thenight. All of these have become a part of the urban culture and rarely disturb us. However, whenthe sound of the television keeps you from sleeping all night or the traffic starts to give you aheadache, it stops becoming just noise and start turning into noise pollution. For many of us, theconcept of pollution is limited to nature and resources. However, noise that tends to disrupt thenatural rhythm of life makes for one solid pollutant.



Noise is described as unwanted sound, either chronic or intermittent, and can bedescribed in terms including its frequency, intensity, frequency spectrum, and shape of soundpressure through time (Burn, 2008). Decibel (dB) is the unit for measuring the intensity of sound.Our environment is such that it has become difficult to escape noise. Even electrical appliancesat home have a constant hum or beeping sound. By and large, lack of urban planning increasesthe exposure to unwanted sounds. This is why understanding noise pollution is necessary to curbit in time.Causes of Noise Pollution1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producinglarge amount of noise. Apart from that, various equipments like compressors, generators, exhaustfans, grinding mills also participate in producing big noise. Therefore, you must have seenworkers in these factories and industries wearing ear plugs to minimize the effect of noise.2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also play avital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequentfights over basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may disrupt the environment ofsociety.3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties,pub, disc or place of worship, people normally flout rules set by the local administration andcreate nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight whichmakes the condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people sellingclothes via making loud noise to attract the attention of people.4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aeroplanes flying over houses,underground trains produce heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to that. Thehigh noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the ability to hear properly.5. Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges,dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. Theseconstruction activities take place everyday as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodatemore people and to reduce traffic congestion. The down point is that these constructionequipments are too noisy.6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in ourdaily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile , mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners , washingmachine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that isproduced but it affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in a bad way.While this form of pollution may seem harmless, it in fact has far reaching consequences. Theadverse effects on the health of the environment are quite severe. Not only is the local wildlifeaffected by the pollution, humans also face a number of problems due to it.

Effects of Noise Pollution1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can causeproblems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without getting



damaged. Man made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even vehiclescan be too loud for our hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily resultin the damage of our ear drums and loss of hearing. It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds thatour ears pick up unconsciously to regulate our body’s rhythm.2. Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites,bars and even in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the occurrenceof aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and hypertension can belinked to excessive noise levels. These in turn can cause more severe and chronic health issueslater in life.3. Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead toirritation and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problemsrelated to fatigue and your performance may go down in office as well as at home. It is thereforerecommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.4. Cardiovascular Issues: Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related heartproblems are on the rise. Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood pressure andincreases heart beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow. Bringing them to a manageablelevel depends on our understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.5. Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two peopleto communicate freely. This may lead to misunderstanding and you may get difficultunderstanding the other person. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturbyour emotional balance.6. Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise pollutionsince they are more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us sincetheir survival depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react moreaggressively in households where there is constant noise.7. Stress: Noise Stress and Brain Function-Study - Stress can exacerbate a number of psychiatricdisorders, many of which are associated with the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the area of the brainunique to humans. A Yale University study looked at the effects of noise stress on brain functionin monkeys. Results indicate that stress impairs PFC cognitive function through its influence ondopamine, a key neurotransmitter that's involved in many brain disorders, including ADHD andParkinson's disease.

8. Child physical – cognitive development: noise increases stress hormones in children.TemperatureThe summer months, when temperatures soar and pedestrians flock to the shady side of thestreet, when even breathing seems to leave you sticky, is when violent crimes peak. It’s a well-known pattern, and psychologists have published vast rafts of papers investigating whether theheat, rather than any other factor, like day length, or the kids being out of school, might beresponsible. Though a clear causal effect remains elusive, the research has found that heat does



appear to boost aggression, as anyone who’s stood in a sweltering subway station with a bunchof surly looking fellow commuters can attest.Higher temperatures can bring a depressed person upDenissen et al. (2008) found that weather’s daily influence has more of an impact on a person’snegative mood, rather than helping one’s positive mood. Higher temperatures raise a person witha low mood up, while things like wind or not enough sun made a low person feel even lower.Seasonal affective disorderSeasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a very real kind of depressive disorder (technically referredto as a depressive disorder with seasonal pattern) wherein a person’s major depressive episode isconnected to a specific season. While we most commonly think of SAD affecting only people inthe fall or winter months, a minority of people also experience SAD during the spring andsummer months too.Heat (and extreme rain) brings out the worst in people.Hsiang et al. (2013) found a link between human aggression and higher temperatures. Astemperatures rose, the researchers noted that intergroup conflicts also tended to jump — by 14percent (a significant increase). The scientists also found interpersonal violence rose by 4percent.These findings held true not only for higher temperatures, but also that wet stuff that falls fromthe sky — rain. The more it rained (especially in areas where high rainfall is not expected), themore aggressive people seemed to get. However, this research could only show a correlationbetween the two. It’s not at all clear that weather causes these things to happen.Other research has confirmed this finding. For instance, researcher Marie Connolly (2013) foundthat women who were interviewed on days “with more rain and higher temperatures [reported]statistically and substantively decreasing life satisfaction, consistent with the affect results.” Ondays with lower temperatures and no rain, the same subjects reported higher life satisfaction.Suicides peak during the spring & summer.While springtime may be the season of hope for many, it’s the season of hopeless for those whoare depressed. Perhaps buoyed by the increase in daylight and warmer temperatures, researchers(Koskinen et al., 2002) found that outdoor workers were far more likely to commit suicide in thespring months than during the winter months. For indoor workers studied, suicides peaked in thesummertime.A comprehensive meta-analysis performed in 2012 (Christodoulou et al.) on the seasonality ofsuicide found a universal truth: “Studies from both the Norther and Southern hemisphere report aseasonal pattern for suicides. Thus, it seems that seasonality is observed with an increase insuicides for spring and early summer and an analogous decrease during autumn and wintermonths, that is a constant, if not a universal behavior that affects both the Norther and Southernhemisphere.”A Swedish study (Makris et al., 2013) that examined all suicides in the country from 1992 to2003 found a similar spring-summer seasonal pattern peak for suicides as well — especiallythose treated with an SSRI antidepressant.



AirAir pollution is an environmental toxicant that comprises a complex mixture of particulatematter, gases, metals and organic compounds. Particulate matter pollution is heavily implicatedin the potentiation of cardiopulmonary morbidity and mortality and remains a major modifiableglobal public health threat. Although the direct physiological effects of air pollution are ofteneasily apparent, less known is the psychological effect it has on our behaviour, and consequentlyour performance in the workplace.

Researchers at Ohio State University say that long-term exposure to air pollution can leadto physical changes in the brain, as well as learning and memory problems—evendepression.

Not only does air pollution negatively affect levels of oxygen and glucose in the blood –both of which affect self-control - it can also drain our self-control resourcespsychologically, causing a range of conditions including insomnia, feelings of anxiety oreven depression.

In a learning and memory test, mice were placed in the middle of a brightly lit arena andgiven two minutes to find an escape hole leading to a dark box where they feel morecomfortable. They were given five days of training, but the mice who breathed thepolluted air took longer to learn the location of the escape hole. They were also less likelyto remember the site of the escape hole when tested later.

In another experiment, mice exposed to the polluted air showed more depressive-likebehaviors than did the mice that breathed the filtered air. The polluted-air mice alsoshowed signs of higher levels of anxiety in one test, but not in another.

Long-term exposure to particulate matter may result in tonic up-regulation ofinflammatory markers exacerbating pre-existing neurodegenerative disorders such asAlzheimer disease.

URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOURUrban is a place based characteristics that in cooperate elements of population density, social andeconomic organization and the transformation of built environment to built environmentThe large number of variables potentially affecting the city dwellersmakes itdifficult to achieve asimple conceptualization of the effect of urban life onindividual and social behavior.Negative effects:Some negative effects of living in a city have been determinedand accounted by a Varity oftheoretical constructs for example Glass and singer(1972) have studied the influence of particularstressors e.g. noise on performanceand mental health .Adaptation theory:

Wohlwills’sadaptation theory proposes that humans function best atintermediate levels ofarousal. This latter approach accounts for negative effects of it’s by asserting that the excessivestimulation level in the urban environment produceover arousalOverload theory:



Arelated approach suggested by Milgram (1970) is that the quantity and rate ofstimulation thaturbanities are exposed to exceed their systems capacity, resultingin information over load.Behavioral constraint:Proshansky, Ittelsons, and Rivilin ( 1970) suggests that the demand of city life limit anindividual’s freedom , leading to behavioral constraints that can producethe feeling of loss ofcontrol over one’s life.Positive effects:

to the extent that the configuration of physical and social variables present in urbanenvironmentare perceived as by the individuals being outside an optimal range,displeasure, heightenedarousal and loss of control are experienced then this leadstocoping strategies designed to returnthe individual to an optimal range of: Pleasure Arousal Dominance

If these efforts are successful the individual functions without behaviordisturbance.The Urban Context The social environment:

Urban environments are more likely to see large disparities in socioeconomic status, higher ratesof crime and violence, the presence of marginalized populations (e.g., sex workers) with highrisk behaviors,and a higher prevalence of psychological stressors that accompany theincreaseddensity and diversity of cities. The physical environment:

In densely populated urban areas, there is often a lackof facilities and outdoor areas for exerciseand recreation. In addition, air quality isoften lower in urban environments which can contributeto chronic diseases suchas asthma. In the developing world, urban dwellers often live in largeslums whichlack basic sanitation and utilities such as water and electricity. Lack ofbasicinfrastructure can exacerbate rates of infectious disease and further perpetuate thecycle ofpoverty. Access to health and social service:

Persons of lower socioeconomic status andminority populations are more likely to live inurban areas and are more likely tolack health insurance. Thus, these populations face barriers tocare, receive poorerquality care, and disproportionately use emergency systems.Other commonlyrepresented populations in cities are undocumented immigrantsand transient populations. The high prevalence of individuals without health insuranceorcitizenship creates a greater burden on available systems. This often leads to vastdisparities inhealth care outcomes as well as a two-tiered health care system whereinsured individuals haveaccess to preventive and routine health care whilemarginalized populations utilize “safety - net”emergency room care.



Studies have indicated that urbanities are less afflictive towards strangers than are peoplein rural areas (McCauley, Coleman, &deFusco, 1977, Milgram, 1977; Newman &McCauley, 1977).

Urbanities tend to avoid eye contact with strangers and are less likely to reciprocatefriendly gestures than are rural dwellers. While studying prosocial behaviorseveral researches have reported that urbanities are less likely to help a stranger (Gelfand,Hartman, Walder& Page, 1973).

PERSONAL SPACEPersonalSpace is the region surrounding each person, which, if entered by another personwithout this being desired, makes one feel uncomfortable. First defined by Katz in 1937 from observations of animal behavior Applied to human behavior by the anthropologist Hall (1963) Sommer (1969) related personal space to psychology & public places

What distance is appropriate for a particular social situation depends on culture, familybackground (size, affluence and personalities) and personal preference.People may feel uncomfortable if the distance is too large (cold) or too small (intrusive).Personal Space is highly variable. Those who live in a densely populated environment tend tohave smaller Personal Space requirements. It can also be heavily affected by a person's positionin society, with a more affluent person expecting a larger personal space.Interpersonal Distance Scale (Hall, 1963) Intimate distance – 6 to 18 inches (15-45cm) .

This level of physical distance often indicates a closer relationship or greater comfortbetween individuals. It often occurs during intimate contact such as hugging, whispering, ortouching.

Personal distance – 1.5 to 4 feet (45-120cm) .Physical distance at this level usually occurs between people who are family members orclose friends. The closer the people can comfortably stand while interacting can be anindicator of the intimacy of the relationship.

Social distance – 4 to 12 feet (1,20m-3,50m) .This level of physical distance is often used with individuals who are acquaintances. Withsomeone you know fairly well, such as a co-worker you see several times a week, you mightfeel more comfortable interacting at a closer distance. In cases where you do not know theother person well, such as a postal delivery driver you only see once a month, a distance of10 to 12 feet may feel more comfortable.

Public distance – 12 to 25 feet (3,50-7,50m) .Physical distance at this level is often used in public speaking situations. Talking in front ofa class full of students or giving a presentation at work are good examples of suchsituations.



Functions of Personal Space: OverloadTheory: too many people too close cause too much stimulation Stress: Avoid the personal stressors related to being too close with someone Arousal: Having people within our personal space creates too much arousal that may be

negative Behavior Constraint: Having personal space prevents people from taking away your

personal freedom Formof NonverbalCommunication: Communicates the type of relationship you are in

depending onpersonal space distance. Provides info with how people or why peopledistance themselves

Personal & group privacy: Attempts to achieve your levels of privacy Intimacy-equilibrium model & Comfort models:Basically we want attain an optimal

level of space Ethological Models: Functions at a cognitive level but reflects evolutionary

developments. Based on whatthey learned, as well as the way people as a species evolved

TERRITORYWe all stake-out and mark our own territory-space that we consider to be private and our

own. It remains stationary, we don't carry it around with us; it is merely a geographical areawhere we assume some types of rights. An example of this would be your room. It is yourswhether you are physically there or not. Another example would be your desk in class. Teacherswho do not use assigned seating in their classrooms, find that the students in their classes willgenerally choose seats and "unwritten" seating arrangements. They feel affronted if they come toclass and find that someone is seated in "their" chairs, even though no formal assignments havebeen given.

People who have achieved a higher status are granted more personal territory and greaterprivacy. An example of this is that an employee will knock before entering the boss's office, butthe boss can walk into the employee's work area without hesitation. Sometimes people willtemporarily claim space in public situations. They may create a "territorial marker" by spreadingcoats, or books, or belongings on tables or chairs. This informs other people that the space istaken.

Studies done in public libraries have found that when a book or a personal object hasbeen left on a desk, it will hold the space for a person for about 30 minutes. If you leave-yourcoat or jacket on the back of a chair, people will stay away for about two hours. Some peopleseem to imitate birds. To claim public space, they arrange objects around themselves in much thesame fashion as a bird builds a nest. A student can claim a table or desk as his/her own byarranging a temporary nest of books and other items.

One rule of claiming space is that when a lot of space is available, you do not crowdsomeone else's space. If a person is seated at a large table and is surrounded by empty chairs, youwould be expected to choose a chair far away from the person who is already seated. If you were



to choose a chair next to the person, he/she would probably react with defensive gestures ashe/she edged away. If you were to move your chair even closer, that person would probablyleave. Although people have strong feelings about having their personal space invaded, rarelywill anyone verbally protest an invasion of that space.TYPE OF TERRITORIESType ofterritory

Explanation Examples

PrimaryUsed almost exclusively by the individual orgroup, usually in the long term.

A persons or family’sdomicile (e.g. house, flat orroom within shared premises).

SecondaryUsed regularly by the individual or group, butshared with others.

A person’s favourite seat in alibrary; a group of friends’preferred table in a canteen.

TertiaryShared spaces to which everyone has right ofaccess and use.

Parks, waiting rooms

VISUAL TERRITORYPenetrating visual territory is as uncomfortable as physical invasion. Any glance lasting

longer than three seconds is likely to be as threatening to you as someone who is standing tooclosely when walking in public. As you approach another person, that person will glance awayfrom you at a distance of a few paces, almost like a visual dimming of headlights. Strangers willmaintain eye contact at a close distance, generally speaking only when they want something suchas information, assistance, a handout, signatures on petitions, to complete a survey, etc.CROWDING

Crowding is a subjective experience that is only mildly related to the objective index,population density (Stokols, 1972), as is obvious to anyone at a good party or anyone who hasfelt crowded in another contexts by one other person. It exists in three modes (Montano&Adamopoulos, 1984): situational (such as feeling constrained or having expectations dashed), emotional (usually negative, but positive emotions can occur), and behavioral (such as activity completion or assertiveness).

Crowding is accentuated or ameliorated by personal factors (e.g., personality, expectations, attitudes, gender), social factors (e.g., the number, type, and actions of others, and attitude similarity), and physical factors (e.g., architectural features and spatial arrangements).

One potential source of stress is crowding. Environmental psychologists distinguish between thephysical measurement of density and the psychological feeling of crowding. Density is definedas the physical area available to the given number of individuals present, while crowding is thepsychological feeling of not having enough space available. Paulus (1980) concluded that whilehigh density (a large number of individuals per unit of space) is usually necessary for crowding,



it does not always produce the negative feeling of crowding. For example, at an enjoyable partyor an exciting football game, we might have high density but not perceive being crowded. On theother hand, if we are on a deserted beach and someone else comes within view, we might feelcrowded, even though the density is not high.

Crowding is a psychological phenomenon. Most people think of crowding as a negativesituation. It is usually assumed (but often unproven) that crowding automatically leads toaggression, violence, and crime. A number of studies have reported positive correlations betweenhigh density and negative social conditions, such as crime. For example, Schmitt (1966) foundthat as the density of the population increased, the crime rate, death rate, and mental-disorder ratealso increased.

Sex differences have been reported by Freedman and his colleagues, with males usuallyexperiencing more stress in high-density situations. Baum and colleagues (1981) argued thatwhen people are aware of the density level beforehand they will feel less crowded than thosewho do not know what to expect. In an urban setting, if crime is a dominant behavior, crowdingwill increase the crime level. But if positive social behaviors predominate, crowding willproduce beneficial effects.

REFERENCES:1. Baron, R. A., & Byrne, D. (2002). Social Psychology, 10th ed. New Delhi:

Pearson Education2. Myers, D. G. (2010). Social Psychology, 10th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.3. Misra, G. (1990). Applied Social Psychology in India. New Delhi: Sage

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