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TRANSCRIPT
CERAMICS AS A CREATIVE MEDIUM PGR
SIXTH AID SS¥SIfH GrRABE POfIM
APPROVED?
i X a j i v P r o f e s s o r
i&& P r o f e s s o r C^^AaV--- S*H.
D i r e c t o r of fcfa© D « p a r ( ^ j i f c o f ' A r t
Dean o f t h e Gradua te S c h o o l
CERAMICS AS 4 CREATIVE MEDIUM FOR
SIXES AMD mmsm &mm mmm
THESIS
Presented. to the Graduate Council of the
Horth Texas State College la Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For tho Degree of
MASKER OF ARTS
2 1 1 8 6 1
Alex L. Pickens, B, A.
Dallas, Texas
August# 1952
211861
TABXiE OF CONTESTS
Page liiSf m ILLUSTRATIONS *v
Chapter I. XHfRODUCflOU 1
fh© Importance of Clay as a Cmttrt Medium
Statement of the Problem Scope of the Problem Procedure
xx* rasTXHG OP Q m m m m f i m $ m m m m
Hand-sculpture Technique Evaluation of Hand-sculpture fechnique Thumb-press Technique Evaluation of Thumb-press Technique Coll Technique Evaluation of Coll Teohnlque Slab Technique Evaluatl on of slab Tachniqi e Sooop-out Technique Evaluation of Seoop-out Technique <Sravity«pull Technique Evaluation of Osavitjr-jmll Technique Paper-eosre Technique Evaluation of Paper-core Technique Molding and Casting Techniques Evaluation of Molding and Casting Techniques
XXX. TBSTXMG <F A M GSHAilllff TECHNIQUES . . . 23
Staaped-irapreasion Technique Svaluation of Stamped-lrapres si on Technique Incised-line Technique Evaluation of Xnclsed-llne Technique Oraffito Technique Evaluation of Graffito technique Slip-trail Technique Evaluation of Sllp»trail Technique Slip-painting Technique Svaluati on of Slip-painting Technique Wax-resist Technique Evaluation of Wax-real at Technique
ill
Chapter Pag®
I ? . M M GLAZING MT> FIRIHG TSCBIXQtOSa 31
fllagtng TfdulfWi SnlatUoB «f Experiments witb 03*slag
Techniques Kiln Evaluation. of Experimenting w£Hi Kiln Op»n&l«i
SB1IMABX ABB Q W G W M m S * . 38
S6®sti^Sso®
mMULmmf.m . . . . . . .
iv
LIST QW XLC08TSATZGV3
Figure Pag®
1. Clay far Hand Semlpttarej Seventh Grade * . • « %
2. Hand-sculptured Fi©»es| Seventh Q m M * »
Thumb-press Boirl under Construction; Seventh Ored® . . .
Thumb-press Bowl Completed! Seventh dirnde
£• Clay Rolled for Pefetery Base; Sixth Grade
6* Base Cut and Plaeed on a Bat; Sixth Grade
?• Building a Wall by th® Coil Teohniqpei Sixth Grade . .
6
6 ?
a
a
8. Pottery Made by the Coil Teohaiqaei Sixth and Seventh Grades . . . . . . . . . . . • 9
9« Sculpture by the Coil Technique; m x tt* Grade 9
10* Gutting Parts tm a Rectangular Box| Seventh
Grade 10
11* Pressing Clay into a Seam; Seventh Grad® * . . 11
It* Sqpare Bowl Made by the Slab Teehaiqu®; Seventh Grade . . . . . . . 11
13* Tile Made by the Slab Technique! Sixth Grade • 11
14* Covered Box Made by the Slab Technique! Sevan th Grade 13
15* Scoop-out Bwl under Gtmatrmtionj Sixth
Grade . . 13
16. Seoop-out Bael Completed; Sixth Grade » » * . llf.
!?• Sculpture, Solid Mae«; Seventh Grade lif
Figaro ?*g®
18. HolXowiag SoXld*4Ua« SouXpturo; Sownth, Grado . . . . . . 34
19* Gravitypull Plate vuodor Scau#feraeti<mi Sixth Ctrado . . . . . . . . 16
20* Gravity-pull ?lato« Caqplotod; Sixth Orado « . . 17
21« ?apor-ooro Soulpturo, Boginningi Sovfath Grada 17
22 • Papor imatttrt for Sculptural Soraath Ctrada . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
231 Papar-eora Soulptura* C asplotad; Sevanth
Ondt . . 18
Slip Casting Pottery* Saranth Gtoade . . . . . 20
£>• Slip*oast BcwX| Seventh. Orada . . . . . . . . 2X
26. Exterior of Kiln . . . . . . . . . . 35
27* Xatariw of KiXn %$
CHAPfSR X
IHTROWCflOS
the Importance of Clay as a Creative Medium
Clay 1ms been, recognised as an important creative medium
f » use with children sine# about 1837» Zt was M«4vioh
Froebel, founder of the kindergarten, who, observing the
delight of children in playing in mud, dough, putty, and wax,
recognized the potential value of clay modeling and s&de it
of greatest use in education.1
Although the importance of elay as a creative medium
2»s been admitted since the early part of the nineteenth
century, its use in elementary sohools has not been wide*
spread* Stela is hard to understand since clay is one of the
Must easily procured of all Materials* Often clay deposits
of excellent quality nay be found locally, this clay the
children may dig, refine, and use In the classroom* Where
clay Is locally unobtainable on creek banks or In road cuts.
It is usually inexpensive at eeramio supply companies or at
3r90ft3»
^io wXXX ip iipcs l lo Mi# plikiitpJL# qu&Xlfcy
^ cia2T is rare. In this period of physical development,
*Kate Douglas Wlggln and Hora Archibald Smith, Froebel*s
between eleven and fourteen |®itrs of age—which seme authors
have called a "period of repression in ehil&ren** point** 2
i&g* —the natural approach to creative activity la through
the manipulation of materials*
the m & of ©lay with children approaching adolescsnoe
ia of special significance* Here* better than with any
other material* the teacher ®ay provide a gradual transition
between an unconscious and a conscious approaclx to ffaree-
dimenslonal expression.^
Statement of the Problem
In view of tee fact that elay has not been used so ex-
tensively or wisely in elenentary art education as the
generally recognized importance of the material seems to
justify* the purpose of this study is to explore the possi-
bilities of clay as a creative medium and to determine
whieh of the many ceramic techniques are most suitable for
us# by pupils in the upper elanantary pmdes*
3cope of the Problem
The observations and re@s«e«Miatlona aade in this study
are the result of experimental on carried m frora 1950 to
1$>2» with the participation of $00 sixth- and seventh-grade
pupils in five elementary schools of Dallas* Texas* Much of
%yrll Burt, Mental and Scholastic feats*, pp# 319-322*
^Viktor Lowenfeld, Creative and Mental GrmMi, p. 109.
the work described was don© at Lisbon Elementary Stiiool,
where th® writer is an art tMudur} bub in order to broaden
the scope of the study, work being done is four other Dallas
schools was Included.
Procedure
Chapter X introduces the svbjeet* states lta
and defines Hie limitation of the study.
Chapter XI presents andeiraluates th® construction
techniques used to til® experiments.
Chapter XXX records and evaluates the •xperlments in-
volving applied ornament techniques*
Chapter X? presents tba basic glaze formula which was
used in th® study and records and evaluates the methods used
for applying th© glaze to bisque-fired intra* Th© firing
teehnlipies employed are also discussed*
Chapter V suBasarizea the work and presents conclusions
gathered front th© experirontaticm completed in the course of
stu ly.
Photographs supplement th© written record.
CHAPTER II
TESTING OF COMSTRUCTIOB TECHNIQUES
In schools where clay is used as a creative medium
with pupils in the upper elementary grades* construction
techniques vary widely from the simplest method of creating
hollow form to the most Intricate casting techniques. It
seemed advisable, therefore, to perform some experiments to
determine the relative effectiveness of the techniques
commonly used* Eight construction techniques were chosen:
hand sculpture, thumb press, coil, slab, scoop out, gravity
pull, paper core, and molding and casting.
Hand-sculpture Technique
In this experiment each pupil
is given a portion of clay, with
time and freedom to explore its
plastic quality (Figure 1) •"*" The
clay is manipulated in the hands
until it assumes tactile and
visual qualities pleasing to the
child* Often the sculpture as-
sumes a familiar appearance, an
Fig. 1.—Clay for hand sculpture; seventh grade*
"Photographs by Harold Welborn, age 13.
Pig* 2.—Hand-sculptured figures; seventh grade#
animal or human figure (figure 2);
occasionally a non-objective form
emerges which pleases its creator
for personal reasons* No addi-
tional clay is added to the origi-
nal mass; however* portions are
sometimes pulled out to produce
irregular contours.
y
Evaluation of Hand-sculptur e Technique
Hand-sculpture proved to be a valuable creative ex-
perience for all sixth- and seventh-grade pupils tested.
It provided an outlet for emotional tension which accumulates
in the formal classroom, ^hile actual manipulation was
taking place, an excellent opportunity was provided for a
discussion of the properties and uses of clay and the plan-
ning of other projects. The manipulation of the material
and the emotion spent in the creation of forms seemed com-
pletely satisfactory. Little regard for the completed ob-
ject was evidenced. In most cases the clay was returned to
the clay jar to be used in another experiment. Occasionally
a pupil wished to preserve his work,and some pieces were
used later in firing and glazing experiments.
Fig. 3 • —Thumb -press bowl tinier con-struct!on; seventh grade.
Thumb-press Technique
Perhaps the simplest method
or creating hollow form from clay
Is the thumb-press technique, some-
times called the pinch method.
A lump of clay 1s wedged until it
is free of air bubbles and then
formed Into a sphere* Next a
depression is made with the thumb,
and a slow, even pressing of the
clay continues until the wall is
of the desirable thickness
(Figure 3)• It is important to continue working progress-
ively around the ball of clay, keeping the top as level as
possible at all times, until the eos$»leted form is achieved.
Evaluation of Thumb-press Technique
When the thumb-press technique
was used by pupils in the sixth and
seventh grades, very aatis fact cry
results were evident. They learned
the process quickly and discovered
that the clay wall ha4 to be about
three eights of an Inch thick to dry
without cracking. Small bowls, cups,
and ash trays were easily constructed
Fig. 4.--Thumb-press bowl completed; seventh grade.
r
Each pupil who experimented, with this technique made an
object which was well formed and functional (Figure If).
Great satisfaction was expressed by the pupils,and many
made several pieces by this method before they were ready
to experiment with another technique*
x f '
Coll Technique
The coil technique requires wedged clay and simple
equipment which is readily available. In making pottery by
the coll method, a small plaster bat, which can be made by
pouring plaster of Paris into a small pie tin and allowing
it to harden, is needed.
The wedged clay is placed on a
cloth and flanked by strips of wood
about one-half inch thick. A roll-
ing pin is used to roll the clay
into a flattened mass of even thick*
ness, controlled by the height of %
the wooden strips which serve as
runners for the rolling pin (Fig-
ure 5). Once the clay has been
rolled out, a disc is cut from it
to serve as the base for the hollow form (Figure 6). This
base is placed on a plaster bat to facilitate handling# and
a "rope'1 of clay is coiled around on the base to begin the
wall of the vessel (Figure 7)* Next, other ropes are wound
Fig. 5.—Clay rolled for pottery base; sixth grade.
8
around s p i r a l l y u n t i l a wal l of
de s i r ed he igh t I s obtained* The
c lay i s u sua l l y r o l l e d i n t o even
ropes of about t h r ee e i g h t s of
an inch i n diameter and long J . —
enough t o go around t h e base
once* These c o l l s a re Joined
by rubbing t h e i nne r and ou te r
sur faces* I n t h i s manner a
P i g . 6•—Base cut and placed on a b a t ; s i x t h grade*
seamless wal l i s b u i l t * F l a t
s t r i p s cut from the c l a y
ishich has been f l a t t e n e d i n
the manner used f o r c o n s t r u c t -
ing the base may be s u b s t i -
t u t ed f o r c lay ropes•
Sculpture i s made by the
c o l l technique In a manner
s i m i l a r t o t h a t desc r ibed f o r
making po t te ry* For scu lp tu re
a base i s unnecessary and c o i l s a r e made t h i c k e r than f o r
po t te ry*
Evaluat ion of Coi l Technique ^
The c o i l technique i s a po in t of depar tu re i n many
schools which use c l a y as a c r e a t i v e medium i n t he a r t p ro -
gram# but the w r i t e r ' s experiments i n d i c a t e t h a t most p u p i l s -
Fig* 7•—Building a wall by t h e c o i l technique; s i x t h grade*
Fig. 8.—Pottery made by the coil tech-nique! sixth and seventh grades*
even in the upper elementary
grades--are frustrated with the
coil method of constructing
pottery. Approximately 10 per
cent of the pupils who worfeed
with this method were able to
master the coll technique for
pottery construction to a degree
which was satisfying to them, /
Their pieces were well made and
of good form (Figure 8). The
remaining 90 per cent were
frustrated, and after sev-
eral attempts, threw their
clay back into the clay Jar.
In view of this high percent-
age of failure, it would seem
that the coil technique for
making pottery is unsuitable
for upper elementary pupils,
Sculpture made by the coll
technique offered considerably more freedom than did the
use of this method in making pottery. It was not necessary
to roll ropes of clay to a consistent evenness since the
Inside of the sculpture would be hidden. The ropes were
usually rolled thicker for sculpture than for pottery.
Fig. 9.—Sculpture made by the coll technique; sixth grade.
10
Sculpture built by this method grew quickly, and much spon-
taneity was evident in the finished piece (Figure 9) •
Usually, sculpture built by the coil technique was large and
uncluttered with superfluous detail*
This evidence tends to show that the coil technique
should be used, for the most part, in making sculpture
rather than pottery at the upper elementary grade level*
J Slab Technique
To create an object by the
slab technique, it is first nec-
essary to roll a mass of clay to
an even thickness (see page ?)•
Once this mass of clay has been
rolled, paper patterns of the
parts of the contemplated form
are placed oki the clay and cut
out* (Figure 10). The various
parts of the object are then joined with slip, and small
ropes of clay are pressed into the seams on the inside for
additional support (Figure 11)* This process is usually
employed in making rectangular ceramic containers* It is
suitable for boxes, ash trays, bowls, or vases (Figure 12)*
Tiles may be made by the slab technique* They are
cut from a sheet of clay as described above and ornamented
in any manner which is suitable to the material* Care must
be taken to prevent warping* This is usually done by
Fig* 10.—Cutting parts for a rectangular box; seventh grade*
x
11
Fig. 11*---Pressing clay into a seam; seventh grade#
Pig# 12.—Square bcwrl made by the slab technique; seventh grade.
scooping out part of the central area on the under side of
the tile, leaving ridges for support (Figure 13).
Pig. 13.—file made by the slab technique? seventh grade.
Evaluation of Slab Technique
The slab technique presents several problems which the
writer1s experiments proved were too difficult for pupils
12
la the upper elementary grades* The most important of
these was the comer seam which bad to be prep®*lj joined
to prevent ©racking in firings moreover* the problem of
uarplug was an ever-present mm while experiments with the
slab technique were in progress*
Aside from the technical problems which had to be
suwaounted 1a experimenting with this teehnl^pe* construct*
ing a *«pare or rectangular object from clay seemed in
opposition to the plasticity of the material* Wood or
metal weald seem to be more suitable materials for the
execution of these shapes*
In the beginning most sixth- and seventh-grade pupils
showed great interest in using the slab technique to'
ereate boxes for particular uses—for example, eigarette
or candy botes with coders* This interest seemed to stem
from a desire to duplieate boxes whieh the pwplls had at
home or whieh they had seen in shops •
Despite many ambitious beginnings# most of the projects
were abandoned before they were completed. Only about 10
per coat of the pupils completed their boxes| however,
those finished were well made and had errors whieh were
functional (Figure lit).
files were easily made by the slab technique* but few
pupils were able to recognise any value la making tiles*
Many bad never seen a tile, while others connected tile
making only with a previous study ot Holland* After
13
photographs of Egyptian brick
designs and several contemporary
tiles had been shown to the
pupils* some well-made tiles
were produced*
The results obtained in-
dicate that tiles are easily
made by pupils of upper ele-
mentary grades, but that since
it seems difficult to motivate
Pig. lif.—Covered beat made by the slab technique; seventh grade*
the activity, some other project in clay is mere desirable*
Scoop-out Technique
The scoop-out technique re-
quires a lump of wedged clay and
a simple tool which will serve
as a scoop* Either pottery or
sculpture may be made by this %
method*
To use this technique in
making pottery, the pupil must
be able to visualize the form
upside down* The object to be
created is built in this position of a solid mass of clay
(Figure 15)* Once the desired shape has been achieved, the
clay is allowed to dry to a leather hardness* The solid
Fig. 15*—Scoop-out bowl under construe tion; sixth grade*
11*
form is then turned upright
and the inside is scooped out
until the walls are of the de-
sired thickness (Figure 16).
Sculpture is produced in
a similar manner by this tech-
nique (Figure 17 )• When the
form is leather dry, it is cut
apart and scooped out (Figure
18). The cut surfaces are then
coated with slip and adjacent parts are pressed back to-
gether* The sculpture is then allowed to become bone dry
before it is fired.
Fig. 16 •-Scoop-out bowl couple ted; sixth grade.
Fig. 1? • —Sculpture » solid mass; seventh grade.
Fig* 18.—Hollowing solid-mass sculpture; seventh grade.
1
1$
Evaluation of S@oep*«»t Technique
Interesting results were obtained by the yrpi.fr when
this technique was used in the sixth and seventh glides*
Seolptain was produced easily and successfully by a majority
of the pupils who I the experiment. She process of
cutting a piece of semlpttwe tpu*t» hollowing it, and re-
joining the parts* provided an excellent opportunity foa?
discussing; the correct thickness of a clay mil fm satis »
factory firing, The various we® of slip were also dis*
cussed*
A free form vas more easily produced by this method
than was a symmetrical pottery form. The pleees produced
brought about an interesting discussion of functional shapes
for pottery and a better understanding of the plastio quality
of clay*
She many successful experiments with this construction
technique by pupils in the upper elementary grades indicated
that it is one of the most suitable techniques for pottery
and sculpture at Hits level.
Sravitypull technique y
Gravity pull is a siaple technique which requires a
lump of wedged day, a piece of thin curtain fabric--scrim
or net# a knife* and some thumb tacks. Shallow bowls and
plates may be made by this construction method.
16
A piece of scrim Is stretched on a flat surface, and
the lump of clay is placed thereon arid rolled fco an even
thickness of about 3/3 inch (see Page 7) . From this clay
a rectangle, circle, or free
form Is cut, dependent upon
the finished form desired.
The excess clay is removed from
the scrim# The scrim, with the
clay resting on it, is then
carefully placed over an open
box* The clay is adjusted
over the opening until it
slopes evenly and assumes the
desired depth* The scrim is
then tacked around the box with thumb tacks, and the clay
is allowed to remain in position until it is thoroughly dry
(Figure 19).
Fig* 19 •—Gravity-pull plate under construc-tion; sixth grade.
Evaluation of Gravity-pull Technique
When the gravity-pull technique was used in the sixth
and seventh grades, the pupils found it a simple way to
construct plates and shallow bowls (Figure 20). The experi-
ment required little equipment and preparation by the pupils.
Both round and rectangular objects were produced quickly
and easily, with few failures*
1?
Pig. 20.— Gravity-pull plates completed; sixth grade.
Tills experiment had several
desirable outcomes, chief among
them being the enjoyment of suc-
cess on the part of most pupils.
Also, sua opportunity was provided
to discuss the weight of clay and
the law of gravity which causes
the clay to be pulled downward
into the box.
Paper-core Technique
The paper-core technique,
suitable only for sculpture, re-
quires more preparation than do
other techniques which have been
discussed. To build a standing
figure by this method,x it is
necessary to use two l/fy inch
dowel rods about 12 inches
long. These are embedded in a
lump of clay so that they will
stand upright (Figure 21).
Around these rods an armature of newspaper is> built which
suggests the contemplated form. Upon the armature, clay
is worked until the desired fom is obtained and the walls
of the piece are approximately 3/8 inch thick (Figure 22).
Fig. 21.—Paper-core sculpture, beginning; seventh grade.
18
When the piece of sculpture
is finished and thoroughly
dry, the dowel rods are care-
fully removed* The newspaper
which is left inside the
sculpture will be burned out
during the bisque firing
without damaging the clay. Fig# 22.— Paper arma-ture for sculpture; seventh grade.
t Evaluation of Paper-core Technique
fjhe paper-core technique
seems to be suitable for sculpture
making in the tipper elementary
grades. It proved to be an in-
teresting and challenging tech-
nique to pupils engaged in the
activity. By using the dowel rods
and paper* it was possible for
the pupils to build tall pieces
of sculpture which could not
have been easily constructed
from an unsupported and solid mass of clay (Figure 23) •
Leaving the newspaper inside the completed sculpture
provoked many questions about firing techniques* which
added to the pupils* understanding of the use of the kiln.
Fig. 23•-Paper-core sculpture, com-pleted; seventh grade.
19
Fn» Obaeifatiom of the experiments involving thl#
technique* the writer observed that it was on© of the most
popular of all construction techniques introduced. It
proved to 'be a simpl© and successful way to produce ceramic
in the upper elementary gntei. fhe alia of the
sculpture gave the pupils an. a 4 M feeling of accomplish*
Molding and Casting twhnlyig
Fop this experlnent# sis le molding and easting tech*
4 f i f l l k « B , « . t m r d>*ornfc a r ^ i f e . i l g w r a ,*W n r n i r i n n iwhuTI»i j a J v i iM T i m " l i d * M J d f e ^ * * y i t I * -afrrif rftr t t r f f i r f i i
©ACIJWItEl W13XCX1 JEPIS'CI'mL 3P- ft CIsT M «yL.JUL
used. Jewelry and tiles were made in preaa adUs# and
pottery was made by alip casting in a coe-pi»oe mold,
f# make a mold for eaating or pressing clay, it is
first necessary to m&k® a clay modal of the fora to be oast*
When the modal is completed, it must be examined to aa-
eertain tim kind of mold most suitable for duplicating the
object* If the piece to b« caat bag no undercuts* a one-
piece mold will be satisfactory. More eosaplleated objects
require more caiplex molds.
Molds are made tt*m plaster of Paris which baa been
mixed with water. Tim correct proportion car piaster and
water—2 3/k pounds of plaster to a quart of water^—caaat
be need if Use mold la to be absorbent and firm. An im-
proper Mixture results in poor absorption and crumbling.
^obn B. Kenny, J ge acrolete Boole Potter? Making. p* 06.
20
v
Pig. 21+.— Slip casting pottery; seventh grade*
To cons timet a mold, the
clay model Is placed face down
Inside a cardboard box which is
approximately an inch larger than
the clay object an all sides#
Liquid plaster is then poured
over the clay object very slowly
to avoid bubbles, until the box
is rilled* When the plaster
hardens# the cardboard and clay
are removed. When the mold is thoroughly dry, it is ready
to be used (Figure 2if).
Ceramic tiles and jewelry may be made in molds cast
from clay models* Rather soft clay is pressed firmly into
the molds so that it takes the form of the depression.
When the clay dries thoroughly, it will shrink away from
the sides of the mold so that it can be removed easily*
Pottery may be cast by pouring slip of the consistency
of thick cream into a dry mold* The water in the clay is i
pulled into the absorbent plaster and a residual wall is
deposited and built up around the plaster mold* * When the
wall is of the desired thickness, the excess slip is poured
out* When the bowl is dry, it is removed froto. the mold*
21
Evaluation of Molding and Casting Techniques
Duplicating an original clay object was an important
experience for sixth- and seventh-grade pupils. The con-
struction of molds required careful preparation by the
teacher and pupils, but the results of the experiments in-
dicated that the preliminary planning and preparation were
not only intrinsically valuable but also assured a success-
ful outcome. These construction techniques provided ex-
cellent and logical opportunities for discussion of
commercial methods used in producing tableware, industrial
ceramics, and plumbing fixtures* Various types of ceramics
were examined, and an effort was made by the pupils to
identify the type of clay which had been used in each in-
stance*
Many pieces of jewelry pro-
duced In press molds had charm
and individuality. The tiles %
made by this method dried evenly
and showed less tendency to warp
than did the original model*
The small bowls cast made suit-
Fig* 25 • -Slip-cast bowl; seventh grade*
" - i - -glaze-test pieces (Figure 2$)*
22
Obsenrafclon® by the wj?it©f dmring fch©s® expert-
ladloatod tibsffc ob leots eould be w«»<3» in on©-x>i©e© PIwJiPTs WPP fpr Upr HP^pF w * w w a * Jfir^jpr ^Pr5, t|>F Wr SIPWIPW- JBf VSK pP- ^WF
mold* Tfirjr M t l i f f t e t e r l l j by pupi ls In th* s ix th «od seventh
grades. MoMiag end e&sfclag wmm found t o be la&evestiag
r>d vaXtublo e onstHrao ticoi Itsdtodl^pes f o r uso wlfcfe pupils •'
of t h i s grade l e v e l .
CHAPTER H I
mfuiG of applied mmmmr fscsixspis
Bt art rooms where mpper-sl«ffi^ti^y»®6hoGl pupils rait
with clay* applied tMta&qMMi are maud extensively.
These decorative treatments range from a simple incised
linear design to elaborate stssell end rubber stamp m t *
mentation* It seemed consistent witfc other experiments
recorded In this study* therefore, to select same of the
applied mastsl techniques used generally by ceramists
and teachers* and test thea for use by sixth- sad seventh-
grade pupils. Six techniques wore choseni stamped impres-
sic®,, incised lias, graffito, slip trail, slip painting,
and wax resist.
Staaped-impressi on Technique
Impressing a design into wet clay is perhaps the
simplest and most primitive of all applied ornament tech-
aiipes# It requires a slapls object with tactile quality,
sash as a twig* pebble, *bsll# m leaf. An applied design
is made by Impressing the chosen object into the wet clay
and repeating this ispresslon if a repeated pattern is
desired*
23
SiraltiatlGa of staiapad-Saipression fochnitpio
toh m'&iwt&m was evidenced fey tfeft popl la who pe*~
foraed M B ©aperiiasat. Many in t a ina t ing twigs end pobblaa
wer® f o w l on t t e playgponad* m m m t l si© l i s were brought
f *o t hcos©* and a coarso straw mat produced a w p l o t y of
t ox tu ra i af f e e t a when proaaad i n t o th© wot ©lay* teall
bowls, ash t r a y s , and t i l s® mm embellished by tt&8 teei*-
alqae with great success.
fiie atupe&»iqpro8Sifln teohnl<pe p w l W exeol leat
oppartunit ie* f o r discussing s u i t a b i l i t y of
t o fc r*» and i t promoted i n t e r e s t 1A experimenting with.
other appl ied toohaiqpea*
Xnels®d*lime Technique
To apply a s inc ised Una design t o a po t te ry ob jec t ,
i t i s mmmmfj tm the a lay t o b&emm l e a the r dry, When
i t i a £a t h i s condition# a laoe t any pointed to@l may b« used
t o out l i n e s i n t o i t * A planned design may be drawn on tta»
then 1 noised* or the ahqpe of the object may sug-
goat ornamentation ^faddb ©an be inc ised f r e e l y and d i r e c t l y .
Evaluation of Xaslaed-llne Techniquo
The inc ised- l ine technique f o r ornamenting pot tery l a
mod fre<ja«ntly i n the tipper el€s&entary grades# I t was
observed In experiments ooratiieted t ha t a major i ty of pup i l s
who created a c lay object expressed a desire t o saw® i t i n
m
1M pottery* W<M& often out with a pocket knife ,
oenpaaa point , or sa i l* TJaraally tfao dealgn waa not planned
provlouuily* bat out dii?e<5tly into th© clay. In saa© S»»
stances thin spontaneous oraaaamtaticai proved mcG&mf&l,
utiile i s others i t resulted in m^erfluoas decoration.
l a sculpture, the mse of incised Ha* m s confined fee
Hi® indication of m t u r a l l s t i c f a c i a l f ea tu res , ha i r , m
textural pattern.
Graffi to fedtoiqp#
3&® g ra f f i t o technique r e t i r e s a clay ohject to nMoti
a colored s l ip or an engobe has boast applied* and simple,
shazpaned tool# which may bo used fo r scratching or cutting
a design i a leather-hard clay. Ste s l i p or engobe covering
usually contrasts i n color with the clay fro®. which the <to-
J*@t was mde. iSkm th® clay i s leather diy# th# desired
design or pattesf* la scratelied M M% thrombi th© colored
outer surface* c l o s i n g the color of the clay body i n Hie
scratched l ines .
Evaluation of Graff i to technique
the groffit© teciwiipe prored an i n tona t i ng and
satisfactory metfeod of ornwae&tlag pottery f o r pupils with
persistence and patleneef l e ave r* mny tiio experimented
with i t war® disappointed with th© resul t s obtained*
26
fhe straining »d necessary in preparing *
satiafaetery slip prcnrea trebles®®® to * majority «* the
girl# teated* and Is® about 50 par a«*t «T the boya who
performed the experiment.
Scratching * &m%m through tbo slip wa# completed
satisfactorily, one© the slip toad been applied.
The resnlts seeued to indleate that the technical
skill neeeaaary to apply slip m engobe smoothly makes this
a dlffiemlt problem for pmpila in the tipper elementary
grades, fhis teehniqn© prorad satisfactory in tm instances
Hid same unsuitable for us# at tfcia level.
Hip-trail Technique
To apply * alip-tarailed deaiga on a piaoa of pottery*
a nail bnlb-type (aar) syringe ia needed* Slip* which
tea been mijsad to thiek cresm consietaney, ia pulled by
saotioa into the bulb of the syringe* 4 trailed lis© may
then be applied to a leather-dry pot by slight, constant
pressure on the slip-filled bulb.
Qvm arable or &m tragacanth ia often mixed with alip
to bo need for trailing. Tbis produces mora riseidity
and causes Hie alip to adhere to the leather-dry surface
more readily*
27
Evaluation of Slip«trail Technique
W » alip**trail method Is often used t>y eeramiste to
pr©<tii&» subtle ornamentation on pottery# 1% is em of the
a««t desirable of all applied m a m t teehnitnea fr<aa the
potter'e viewpoint • fhe teehni<p© is diffieult to master*
tfpper~el«aenta*y«»a©h©ol pupils who tried -Hi* slip**
tnil method of ornamentation ejEperleiieed difficulty in
squeezing tli© bulb of the syringe with a sufficiently
staat pressure to produce a smoothly flowing lint* After
srneh experimentation on brown paper* the pupils attempted
to produce linear designs set their pottery* Only about 10
per ©eat «Jf those who tested the technique were able to
control the flow of the slip fresa the springe to the degree
necessary for prodding smooth Hues.
the preparation of the slip proved troublesome and
frustrating to the pupils and vas finally completed by the
teacher.
*his evidence indicates that the elip-trail technique
is mot suitable for use in the upper elementary grades.
Slip»palnting feohnicpe
Slip «feioh has been mixed to the consistency of thick
©ream n y be painted m leatl»r«dry elsy. A soft Israeli is
repaired* and the slip oust he viscuo os if it is to alters
28
t—&LXj to IHm partially #r? svfkM* The addition of
vegetable pass will prodmee this desired viaooaity.
Svaloati ©u of yt i. TioTMa 1 nfointT Technioue
the alip-paiiiftiiig w®Wm& of oanQGoatntiiig pottery mm®&
wmf familiar t@ upper*el©iaemtary»s©hoal pupils. Chinese
brushes were used for application of the slip to the pottery
aad these proved vory interesting to the pupils #i© used
then. Basigas were brushed freely and many mm well suited
t# the' forms* Ho great difficulty was encountered to this
eaeperiment, although some of the ptipils who tested the
Method found painting with slip a m difficult than painting
with tampers,
la this experiment, as in. others recorded* the prepara-
tion of aMp'of sultablle consistency constituted the greatest
problem*
ffcia experiment provoked {jueatiomj about Chinese
bmatiaa, painting, and pottery. The pupils brought awwal
piecea of oriental porcelain to elass for examination.
She excellent results of this technique observed by
the winter se^ied to indicate that the slip-painting method
e£ applying ornament to pofctery can be used easily by sixth-
and seventh-grade pupils* provided that the slip is prepared
fcy the teacher or by oh® of the awe skillful pupils.
99
Wax-resist Technique
Tm wax-resist teobmiqa© for applying ©smatasatafeion on
pottery requires either a stick @1" eold mac or hot beeswax
«• ptxmffia and & bristle brash#
f# « pattern by this method it is neoaas&ry to
apply the wax m a place of bisqiie~fired ware* If tie ism
is to be bmshed ©is. It mmt first be heated; if bsrashwork
la not retired* a stick of oold mx» auch aa a wax erayoa*
say ba used successfully, Glass la Ite applied to the
bisque ware and the piece la gl©st~flred. fhe glaze will
not to the pattern mad# by the application of wax.
Evaluation of Wax-resist feehnicpe
Interesting results war® observed Mi®© M s technique
was used by sixth- and seventh-grad© pnplls. In the begin"*
siing it prored difficult for tins to understand that glaaa
would not flow across Unas made If wax, sine© the wax vosM
welt when fired la the Mia* When this was explained satis-
factorily* the eaqpjeriaent continued*
the first pupils aii# t as tad tMs method used melted
paraffin and brushed their pattern, am white bisque ware*
this w«hita on white" proved difficult for the pupils to
follow* Thosa wtto triad the experiment later used colored
wax crayons or added colored erayois to the melted paraffin
in order mot to lose sight of the pattern*
30
MwMmm resulting tvm th* axp®rim©mt indicated tbat
whil« th* wwc-roaiat technique sight be uaed with upp«r~ ihM» ima Mil "iii nftrtfi -Mv » jiib. ~frftr> "ninf! nl Jv JaL gifr tiiii iiMiMi iti iain i <m wtfi MM- .jh rftif ™ ftfiifhi JSk -itr-fr- nfrnate —*'- dL* «nt mm
dMisatift r pupil#* owQi1 applied. stsiMii ^ooiu<|Wf t@st©«
ar© more oenslvt^ntly successful.
CHtFTSR If
MxmimmtMa mm ah&zma mw wmim Tmmmms
X» many elementary aehoola where elay Is vmA in UM
art program# glazing and firing techniques are considered
beyond the o«pt«ity of sixth- and aeventh-grade pupils.
In suoh situations* glase is applied by the tM<dwrr the
pupil having little choice of color, ami the kiln is stacked
and fired by the teacher. As a result the pupils haw
little opportunity to experience clay as a creative medium
fran raw state to finished object.
fho nature of this study made it seem necessary* there-
faro* to @jqp®ri»©ttfc with glaring and firing techniques and
to ascertain their suitability for use in the upper ele-
mentary grades • For the experiments recorded* a basic glass©
was chosen by the writer sad compounded by the pupils.
Coloring agents wire added to the glaze to produce daairod
colors# and various laefchoda of applying glaze were tested.
She kiln m a stacked* fired* and drawn by the pupils.
(Hazing Techniques
For experimentation with glazing* a load-base glaze
was selected. This ohoio* was dependent upon simple in-
gredients, low-firing maturity* and proven i»«nlts. The
31
32
glaze, which is glossy and transparent, sutures between
Cone ©6 and 0 m 02. It is eoaposad of the following in-
gredients*
Whit# lead I42 WWBm Whiting %5 grams Feldspar o0 gnosis G3*y 22 gram®., Flint {? — *
CeBtpoundlng this glaze recipe requirad that the in*
gredtanfes to® waited is put* A seal# m a supplied t m
this purpose by th© writer end the pupila were instructed
In it# use.
•• Four coloring agents# chosen on th® basis of avail-
ability, oast* and oolor prodded, ware selected by the
writer for us© in tlia experimental fhe coloring agants
were cobalt, copper, iron oxide, and manganese dioxide.
They were added to the glass® recipe by tt» pupils, accord-
ing to the oolor desired,
fo perform this experiment, it was imperative that the
pupils weigh carefully the ingredients «f the basic glass
recipe* Zhese were then ground by hmd in a mortar with a
pestle. When the ingredients were thoroughly mixed, a oolor
was decided upon by each pupil. Sue correct percentage
«f coloring agent2 was then added t© his portion of the
mixture end the grinding continued. When me glass was
1 B. Eamiey, gqsplsto Book & fottei*r Making,
2Ibid.
33
tluroa(M7 ground, a solution of gun arabio and water wan
added to the dry mixture, and it was raady for application
to the bisque-flrod ware (see Page 36)*
Four methoda were M a d f or applying glass t# bisque-
fired war©: dipping# pouring, painting, and spraying.
Evaluation of lacperiaents with Glasing Techniques
Experiments with glaring technlqi©s proved mixtab3Ui
fro© several standpoints#
Wwm a discussion of glazes preceding actual experi-
mentation, ranch was learned about the properties of a glaze,
its ingredients$ mtd its color* Whan the recipe to be used
had been selected by the writer, it was thoroi^hly discussed
by the pupils, who wanted to know the properties of each
ingredient and how it would ha transformed in the Mia.
Whan tha compounding of the glaze began, there were
excellent ipaatiisia about welgit and measure, and gpaat
ea*® **» *afc®n hy those who were weighing the lsgredlaats
to have the aoala balanced perfectly*
Most pupils war# unable to understand why a "black
powder" such a# copper oxide would tiara green when it was
fired* After an attempt was xsade by the writer to ftypi
fchis process in simple tanas# tha oddas were labeled with
tags which Indicated the colors after firing.
Ho trouble was encountered by the pupils In grinding
glaze, although sase had trouble In applying It.
*
Dipping an object into glaze proved a siarple and satis*
factory method far use with pupil® of upper -elementary level,
ftmm glazed in this m,y were smooth end hud few irregu-
larities when gloat-fired.
Pouring glaze proved troublesome and frustrating to a
majority of the pupils tested# Pouring inside a bowl was
relatively satisfactory* tout pouring glaze over the outside
resulted in raany failures. Tim gloat-fired pie©© which had
been glased la this way was rough sad seemed unsatisfactory
to the pupil*
Fainting glaze on an object was the method used most
frequently by the pupils engaged In the activity, It was
generally satisfactory, although the tendency to spread fee
glass thin resulted in raany second firings*
Spraying glass with a hand sprayer proved very satis-
factory. It necessitated using glass that had been strained
free of partioles* flats process sewed troubles®®® to the
pupils# but ouee it had been accomplished* they found the
spraying easy* Gleaning the sprayer was a task* but the
gloat-fired piece was ample reward to the pupil.
*)rm the results observed* the writer concluded tbat
dipping* painting* and spraying glaze on bisque-fired ob-
jects are suitable techniques for use in the sixth and
seventh grades; that ccopoundlng a glaze, the most difficult
operation la "fee experiment * should be delegated to the
35
more skillful pupils; that all pupils seem capable of grind-
ing and applying glares; that many interesting and valuable
developmental experiences resulted from these experiments.
Kiln Operation
The kiln sfoieh was used for
firing the ware produced during
the experimentation recorded is
a Paragon Kiln# It is a top-
loading kiln and is made in
Dallas# Texas (Figure 26)* The
firing chamber measures 15 x
15 x 1? inches and has a
capacity of two cubic feet
(Figure 27) • It is a high-
fire kiln with a range up to Cone S# which is a temperature
of 2,300 degrees Fahrenheit* It was installed in the art
room at Lisbon Elementarj School %
in 1952.
For experiments in kiln opera-
tion* little was needed other than
a kiln, kiln furniture# cones# and
ware to be fired# ^
It was necessary to explain
the furniture and the operation csf
Fig. 27*—-Interior the kiln. The function of each of kiln.
Fig. 26.—Exterior of kiln.
36
part WAS discussed by the writer and questions ware asked.
by til® pupils. The purpose of posts# shelves* and e m i
was eaplained and demonstrated.
Evaluation of Experimenting with lULln Operaticm
XUa jawed to be one ©f the most interesting
activities included in the experiment*.
Every pupil was interested in what happened inside
^e kiln sad the majority helped la some way to fire the
ware Yfolch had been made.
So difficulty was incurred in stacking fee warn in the
kiln* Care was takra la selecting ware to be bisque-fired*
tm a wet pieoe algit explode and damage the contents of an
entire kila# blazed pieces were carefully placed on stilts
and isolated froa other pieces.
Placement of pyrowtrio cones in front of the peep
holes was a sore ted Job and was performed with great car© by
the pupil chosen for the assignment.
Firing usually consumed about five hours and the kila
reached Gone {%» a temperature of about 1*9%© degrees
Fahrenheit. The heat in the kiln was brought up Slowly
by using fair switches, one for each set of colls aroond the
firing chsnber. By using these switches* there was never
wore than 100 degrees variance between the temperature at
the bottom of the kiln and that near the top.
31
Drawing the kiln was an eaceitlng activity* On the day
the kila was to fee opened after a gloat-firing, may pmpile
would be waiting at the door of the art room wtiea it was .
opened In the aoming.
The writer observed that pupils in the sixth' and
seventh' grades were vitally interested in fella operation,
they shewed an understanding el" the process and exercised
great ear# in handling the kite.
The majority of jropila tested participated In this ex-
periment and this participation motivated many additional
experiments in eonatmetlon techniques.
omifii v
SUMMAIf AID COHCI^SIONS
The purpose of this study wa® to explore til® possi-
bilities of clay as a creative meditta and to determine
which oif the may ceramic techniques are xtoet suitable fop
use by pupils la the upper elementary grades, this study
did not introduce new methods but tested some of the es-
tablished oersal© techniques which are nam being used or
i*hich might be used by pupils la the sixth and seventh
grades. Tim study la based upon experimental!cm earried
ob from 19£>Q to 1952* ifith th© participation of 500 sixth-
end seventh-grade pupils In five elementary schools of
Dallas# ferns- The study records experiments with construe-
tioaa techniques* applied arnanient techniques* and glazing
and filing techniqaes.
Conclusion
As a result of the experiasnts performed 1® the course
°f this study, the wdt»r presents the following conclusions*
1* Clay Is an interesting and valuable creative medium
for use by sixth- and seventh-grade pupils*
38
39
2* Sam of Hn» construction techniques tested proved
frustrating to a majority of the pupils engaged la the
activity? experiments with the eoll m l slab techniques
resulted 3a many failures. flu the other hand, the scoop-
out* gravity-pull* paper-core* and moldlug and casting
techniques proved to be very satisfactory for use by pupils
at this level*
3* She simplest applied ornament techniques were pre-
ferred by pupils in the sixth end seventh grades* the
stajaped-iiapression and inei sad-line techniques being em-
ployed »ost frequently. The other techniques tested—
graffito, slip feral 1* slip painting* and wax resist—were
used less succeasfully.
If* dlazing and firing techniques proved to be within
the capacity of sixth* and seventh-grade pupils# fhe
weighing of glaze Ingredients and the grinding of the glaze
was done with accuracy. three glaze application techniques—
dipping* painting, and spraying—proved satisfactory* but
pouring the glaze over bisque-fired ware resulted in many
failures* fhe pouring technique* therefore* seems unsuit-
able for use at this level* stacking a kiln for firing
proved to be an Interesting activity for sixth- and seventh-
grade pupils* and once the use of cones m d switches and the
need for accuracy In the operation of the kiln had been ex-
plained* the pupils took pride in performing each step with
care to Insure a successful firing.
mw&mnmm
Books Quoted
-? Burt # Cyril, Mental and aoholaatlo Teats, Loudon, P. 3• King and Son ffigSaPp;
; Smmu/j, Jeha B., ®g. 8mM& BOSH St 28&SEE I W l K » > « Xork» Qreenberg* 1949.
'/ Loweafeld, Viktor, Greatlya and Mental arowlflu Hew York, Tim Macralllan Company, 191}.? •"
j Wlggln, Safe# Douglas, and Smith, Horn Archibald, greebaH.a Ocoapatloaa, Caafcridge, ffc® Rlveraide freaa, 1899-
Books Consulted
\ Blima, C» F., tt» Potter's Smft. How York# ». Van Nostrand, 1%7»
, Julia BmiSii* gcw to 1lake fefefeagy y d Ceramla Sculpture. Saw YdE, The Museum of Modern Art, 19^?«
Janeway, Carole, Fottarr Making for Iverrona* I«t fork, -••-J Tudor Publishing Company,' 1$5G*
.j, Koenig» J# H „ Literature Abatraefca of Ceramic Qlazea* 1 ¥1! «f in, rf iVf nfnW <Si '"f* r?¥TiT rrn * IruX X&€l©x COii#g0 wuTflNilw JrXMMI#
Leach, Bernard, A ?ofcfcar*« Book* Arts Incorporated, 1$}B«
Leach, Bernard, 4 fetter*a Portfolio, Saw York, Fittraan,
; aifWMPMifp a«*w*b mmmmm **§r *££*£*££»* Saw York, fraaaatlaatie
< • •
&* 1951.
Leeming, Joseph, Pun with Clay» Saw York, Lippineott Ccta-fa^„ W .
Read, Herbert* Education throoigh Art, Saw York# Pantheon freaa* 19^5* . . • .
1*0
41
q Said#*, M J f t t J f t f l f t , 2t Sigma Ft&llslilmg Company, 1900 •
U*# Ida V«# Coapaay, l | j
^ i—"1Tho®l«3P# Ida W.# g t o t o g with Clxr, New York, Tha Maestillan - m.