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PEOPLE'S AND DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH BADJI MOKHTAR UNIVERSITY OF ANNABA Faculty of Letters,Humanities and Social Sciences Doctoral School of English Module : Contrastive Linguistics A Contrastive Analysis Between English and Spanish (Definite and Indefinite Articles) PREPARED BY : SUPERVISOR : Aounali Walid Prof.Nacira Hocine 2010 - 2009 : YEAR C MI E ACD

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PEOPLE'S AND DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFICRESEARCH

BADJI MOKHTAR UNIVERSITY OF ANNABA

Faculty of Letters,Humanities and Social Sciences

Doctoral School of English

Module : Contrastive Linguistics

A Contrastive AnalysisBetween English and Spanish

(Definite and Indefinite Articles)

PREPARED BY : SUPERVISOR :Aounali Walid Prof.Nacira Hocine

2010-2009:YEARCMIEACD

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CONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………2

:iclestArndefiniteI Definite andEnglish:IartP

3.........................................................................Indefinite Articles)I

4...........................................................................Definite Articles)II

5...............................................................................Zero Articles)III

:sicletArndefiniteI Definite andSpanish:IIartP

6.………………………………………………Indefinite Articles)I

8...………………………………………………Definite Articles)II

Spanish-Contrastive Analysis between English:PartIII

:sarticleSpanish-ies between EnglishitThe similar

-Definite Articles……………….. 11-Indefinite Articles…………….. 11

:rticlesaSpanish-lishifferences between EngThe d

-Gender ………………………….12….…….13 -Number…………..

-Usage...........................................14Conclusion…………………………………….....18

REFERENCES………………………………….....19

Corpus I: An English Short Story………....20

Corpus II: A Spanish novel,Chapter one…23

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Introduction :

The Branch of the Indo-European languages family comprises of a

subgroup of the Latin language which include French, Italian, Spanish,

Portuguese, and Romanian,as we know the Latin-based Languages are

more inflected than English,so problems of gender and plurality arise.

This corpus-based paper aims at establishing differences and similarities

between English and Spanish,wherein I shall undertake a brief description

the articles of both languages, since the majority of English learners

face difficulties in understanding and translating into Spanish,by means

of such methods like contrastive analysis we are going to investigate the

problems that will appear by establishing and explaining in details the

means and ways of using these articles and showing the similarities and

the discrepancies among the thre two languages concerning the syntactic

functions of the articles.

I hope that through this paper we will be able to understand better the

syntactic functions of the definite and indefinite articles of both languages.

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:IartP

English indefinite and definite Articles

:an/asrticleAndefiniteIheT-I: Form-1

The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or avowel with a consonant sound:

-Dressed in a simple white shift dress.1

-A one-way street.2The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)or words beginning with a mute h:

3-Find an interesting life and new dreams. 4-Sitting for an hour at one of the many bars on the resort.

:Use-2A is used before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there ismore than than one) when it is mentioned for the first time and represents noparticular person or thing:

5-Lisa let out a sigh that was filled with pain and regret.A is used before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of

a class of things : 6-She felt like meeting a long lost friend.A is used with a noun complement. This includes names of professions:

7-As a freelance photographer.A is used in certain expressions of quantity:

8-A lot can change in just a few years.

The form an is used in an individual letters spoken with a vowel sound:.ded him as an SOS for helpWhen she nee-9

a/an is the same for all gendersand number:The indefinite articlesTwo girls and a boy of course. 10-

A loose flowing cotton dress. 11-

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:he Definite articleT-II

: Form-1

The is the same for singular and plural and for all genders

.usbandhherfromndrawhtiwhadeshhstmonngiwollofthehroughtllA-21

.efiyond beleblufitbeauwaseaclpThe-13

.thingsthoseofenotusjwastiidsahadrdoctoThe-14

:Use-2

The definite article ( the ) is used:

When the object or group of objects is unique or considered to be known to

denote the specificity of the noun.

Lisa gazed out over the Caribbean Sea.- 15

Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a

second time:

.beachthenogernstratonandendirftoslglonameetingliketelShe f-16

Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:

17- Sipping the local cocktails they began to talk.

Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular

thing:

.The man stood watching from the edge of the palm trees18-

Before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns,

and only:

19- For the first time in months she didn't feel alone.

the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands,

chains of mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, region:

20- Staying in a five star resort on the Caribbean island of the Dominican

Republic.

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:Zero Articles-III

Omission of ``a/an``A/an is omitted before plural nouns and uncountable nouns

.She told him of things that had been locked deep inside her 21-

Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective:

22- First pleasantries, their hotels, the quality of food and friendliness of

the locals.

Omission of ``the``

The definite article``the`` is omitted:

Before names of places except as shown above, or before names of people

23- But how could she when she couldn't even look James in the eye.

After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective

24- They mirrored each other's actions and spoke directly into each

other's eyes.

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Part II:

Spanish Definite and Indefinite Articles

In Spanish, the indefinite article has four forms (un,una, unas,and unos)depending on whether the noun is masculine, feminine, singular or plural.

Articles standing alone have little meaning; when used with a noun theycan indicate whether the noun refers to a specific one or ones of its type orwhether it refers to its type in general. In Spanish, the articles also specifythe noun's gender

I-The Indefinite Articles:The indefinite article Un is used in the case of a masculine singular:

25- Spanish: Ella y un hombre moreno. English: She and a dark-complected man.26- Spanish:Mi madre vino a darme un negrito muy bonito.English: My mother came to give me a pretty black toy.

The indefinite article Una is used in the case of a feminine singular: 27- Spanish: Mi padre, que Dios perdone, tenía cargo de proveer unamolienda de una aceña que está ribera de aquel rió. English: my father, God forgive him, was in charge of feeding agristmill on the shore of that river. 28- Spanish: Estando mi madre una noche en la aceña. English: One night my mother was in the mill.

Note about un and una: Most educated writers change una to un underthe same conditions where la is changed to el. Thus, it is common to seeconstructions such as these:

29- Spanish: un águila . English: An eagle

30- Spanish: un ama de casa English: A housewife.

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Although this construction is preferred by educated writers and manypublications, and thus is considered correct grammar, its usage is notuniversal. Note that in everyday spoken language, this rule is irrelevant,since there is no real difference in pronunciation between, for example,un águila and una águila.

The indefinite article Unos is used in the case of a masculine plural:

31- Spanish: Con cargo de acemilero de unos caballeros que allá fue.

English: Serving as muleteer for several noblemen there.

32- Spanish: No nos maravillemos de unos clérigos ni de unos frailes.

English: We aren't astonished at clerics or friars.

The indefinite article Unas is used in the case of a feminine plural,but the

English equivlent is found,so we us (some):

33- Spanish: Unas muchachas en la playa.

English: Some girls on the beach.

II-The definite Articles:

In Spanish, the definite article has four forms, (el,la, las,and los),

depending on whether the noun is masculine, feminine, singular or plural.

The definite article El is used in the cases of a masculine singular:

34- Spanish: De manera que con verdad me puedo decir nacido en el río.

English: In such a way can I truthfully say I was born in the river.

The definite article La is used in the cases of a masculine singular:

35- Spanish: Se vino a vivir a la ciudad, y alquiló una casilla.

English: She came to live in the city,and rented a small house.

36- Spanish: De manera que, continuando la posada y conversación.

English: In such a way, continuing the hospitality and conversation.

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El is the singular, masculine definite article (stand for for "the"), while la is

the feminine version. But there is one instance where el is used with

feminine nouns

37-Spanish: Y reían mucho el artífico.

English: And they laughed at the trick.

The substitution of el for la takes place only when it comes immediatelybefore a singular noun that begins with a stressed a- or ha-

38-Spanish: Cuando el pobreto iba a beber el agua.

English: When the poor man went to drink the water.

39- Spanish: Yo bebí el vino y comí debido el hambre.

English: I drank the wine and ate because of the hunger.

All the nouns in the former examples are feminine. If they are in plural form,las is used: 40-Spanish: Las arcas .

English: The arks.

If they are modified by adjectives that follow the noun, the regular rulesapply to the adjectives:

41-Spanish: No pensando el daño que me estaba aparejado ni queel mal ciego me sentía

English: Not thinking of the danger he had prepared for me northat the evil blind man had found me out.

If a word intervenes between the definite article and the noun, la is used:

42-Spanish: Me entraba entre las piernas del triste ciego acalentarme en la pobrecilla lumbre que teníamos.

English: I entered between the legs of the miserable blind man towarm myself by the little fire we had.

The substitution of el for la does not occur before adjectives that begin witha stressed a- or ha-, just nouns:

43-Spanish: Verdaderamente, me pareció que la agria experiencia. English: Truly, it seemed that the bitter experience

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The definite article Los is used in the cases of a masculine plural:

44- Spanish: A chacaron a mi padre ciertas sangrías mal hechas enlos costales.

English: They imputed to my father certain poorly done bleedingof the sack.

45- Spanish: Y las mantas y sábanas de los caballos hacía perdidas. English: And the horses' blankets and sheets had been lost.

The definite article Las is used in the cases of a feminine plural:

46- Spanish: De aquellos que las bestias curaban.

English: One of those who looked after the animals.

47- Spanish: De esta manera fue frecuentando las caballerizas.

English: In this way she came to be frequented by the grooms.

Another couple of rules to determine the gender of a noun: Many nounsending in ``e``are masculine and most nouns ending in“d” or “cion/sion”arefeminine

.con todo su poder,el hombre dichoComo: Spanish-84

rwith all his powe,the said manwhatAs:English

decía que Galeno no supo la,Pues en caso de medicina: Spanish-94

mitad que él para muela

Galen did not know the half of what he,doctorFor the:English

did about molars.

También él abreviaba el rezar y la mitad de la oración: Spanish-05

no acababa.

halfthenot completing,he abridged his praying,Also:English

of the oration.

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:Spanish articles-ies between EnglishitThe similar

Articles can be classified as definite or indefinite,while we have (a / an ) in English as indefinite articles, we also have un/ una/unos/ unasin Spanish.

- Dressed in a simple white shift dress.114- Ella y un hombre moreno.

In general, whenever (un or una) are used in Spanish, you need to use"a" or "an" to say the equivalent in English but not in all usages , so mainlyaccording th the gender and number of the modified noun .

.msadrenewandfeliinterestinganndFi-3.resorttheonsrbamanyhetfoeon hour atanforngittiS- 4

Also the equivalent in Spanish is cited in the following examples:.moreno hombreunElla y-25

27- Mi padre, que Dios perdone, tenía cargo de proveer una moliendade una aceña que está ribera de aquel rió. But the equivalence for the Spanish indefinite articles ''unos/unas'' isnot found and generally when the article with numerical meaning is used.we have to change it into "some, several, a few" etc in English usagebecause in English we have no indefinite articles stand alone for the pluralnouns. The English definite article (The) corresponds to the Spanish fourarticles (EL, LA, LOS, LAS) ,so it’s corresponding article will always bein accordance to the gender and number of the noun,but generally inEnglish we use only the definite article (The) for all the previous cases

13- The place was beautiful beyond belief.Spanish: La lugar era maravilloso más allá creencia.

14-The doctor had said it was just one of those things.Spanish: El doctor tenía identificación del sa era nosotros de esas cosas.

Meanwhile,in Spanish language the definite article is used also toindicate the specificity of the noun but in some extent it is different in usage 34- De manera que con verdad me puedo decir nacido en el río.

English: In such a way can I truthfully say I was born in the river. 35- Se vino a vivir a la ciudad, y alquiló una casilla.

English: She came to live in the city,and rented a small house.But the English definite article (The) is used in all cases even in pluralforms

44- A chacaron a mi padre ciertas sangrías mal hechas en los costales. English: They imputed to my father certain poorly done bleeding of thesack.

46- De aquellos que las bestias curaban.English: One of those who looked after the animals.

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The differences between English-Spanish articles :

Unlike Germanic languages family and some other Indo-Europeanlanguages,we can notice that the Romance languages and among themSpanish has no neuter nouns.But there are a few neuter pronouns, such as lo(mine) and ello(it), that are used under limited circumstances.

Gender: The basic rule is that masculine nouns go with masculine adjectivesand articles, and feminine nouns go with feminine adjectives and articles,which displays a major difference between English and Spanish articles.Such as in the example 25: Where the adjective came after the noun and went with the noun genderwhich is masculine,unlike the English language which have no gender(neuter) and the adjective precedes the noun.

25- Spanish: Ella y un hombre moreno.Literally:*She and a man dark-complected.

English: She and a dark-complected man. We have also the feminine gender which goes with feminine adjectivesand articles,like in the example 26:

26- Spanish:Mi madre vino a darme un negrito muy bonito. Literally: *My mother came to give me a black toy pretty. English: My mother came to give me a pretty black toy.

We notice again that the two adjectives follow the masculine nounwhich oblige us to use the article (un) to specify the property or the state ofthe noun. The second rule in Spanish language grammar states that if the noun hasa feminine gender,the adjective and the article follows him in gender,unlikethe English article which have no gender specifying nouns.

27- Spanish: Mi padre, que Dios perdone, tenía cargo de proveer unamolienda de una aceña que está ribera de aquel rió.

Literally: *My father,that God forgive him,was in charge of feeding agristmill that is a shore of that river.

English: my father, God forgive him, was in charge of feeding agristmill on the shore of that river.

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So,in Spanish the first and the second noun have indefinite articles,butin English the first noun is indefinite and the seconde noun has a definitearticle because it was preceded by an indefinite article which defined him.

In English, the indefinite articles are "a","an" have no gender,while inSpanish many adjectives don't have separate masculine and feminine formsbut if you use a pronoun to refer to a masculine noun or determine thegender of the noun, you use a masculine or feminine article.

Since you can't always tell by looking at a noun or knowing its meaningwhether it's masculine or feminine, most dictionaries use notations (f or m)to indicate the gender, such as many of them at dictionaries, to precedewords with an el for masculine words and a la for feminine words.Moreover,nouns that end in a are almost always feminine and nouns thatend in o are almost always masculine.

In English, the definite article is the word "the" regardless of whether thenoun it introduces femimine or masculine,and the gender of nouns doesn'tchange with the context.

.SeaCaribbeantheverooutgazedasiL:English-15Literally: *Lisa mirado fuera sobre el Caribe mar.

Spanish: Lisa mirado fuera sobre el mar del Caribe.

We can notice that the difference in gender appears when we translate theexample (15) into Spanish where the definite article (the) replaced by (el)which is a definite masculine article and the adjective comes after the noun.

19- English: For the first time in months she didn't feel alone. Literally: *Para la primera vez por mes ella no apetece solo.

Spanish: Para la vez primera por mes ella no apetece solo.

In English,the definite articles (the) has the equivalence in Spanish (la)which is suitable for the masculine gender,hence noun's gender determinesthe form of many adjectives and the article that describe the noun.

Number:

In English, the indefinite article is the words "a/an" are used only withthe singular countable nouns,but they are not used with uncountable nouns

31- Spanish: Con cargo de acemilero de unos caballeros que allá fue. Literally: *As servant of muleteer for a noblemen that was there . English: Serving as muleteer for several noblemen there.

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In the former example the indefinite article takes plural in Spanish,but inEnglish the indefinite articles have no plurality,we substitute (unos) by(several) which has the plural noun meaning. Let's consider the following example:

32- Spanish: No nos maravillemos de unos clérigos ni de unos frailes.Literally: *We aren't astonished at a clerics or at a friarsEnglish: We aren't astonished at clerics or friars.

In this example ,the Spanish indefinite article is in plural form, since inEnglish we can't use them in this case ,so we omitted them.In English,the definite article (the) is used in all cases,whether the noun isplural or singular

17-English: Sipping the local cocktails began to talk. Literally: * Sorbo los lugar cóctes ellos comenzaron a hablaré. Spanish: Sorbo los cóctes lugar ellos comenzaron a hablaré.

In Spanish,to form the plural of a noun, add an ''s'' to the end if it endsin a vowel and an ''es'' to the end if it ends in a consonant, we have theform (los) for the definite article which is masculine plural that precedes thenoun.Another example of these differnces between English and Spanish definitearticles is stated in the following example:

46- Spanish: De aquellos que las bestias curaban. Literally: *Of those the animals looked after.

English: One of those who looked after the animals.

We can assume that if the noun have numerical meaning and feminineproperty,we have to use the definite article (las).

Usage:

Sometimes Spanish seems to avoid using the indefinite articles in manyplaces while English does, like in occupations, affiliation, religion, beforeotro (other), after con (with) and sin (without), usually after tener (have)and llevar (wear)...etc here are some examples:

42-Spanish: Me entraba entre las piernas del___triste ciego acalentarme en la pobrecilla lumbre que teníamos.

Literally:*I entered between the legs of miserable blind manto warm by the little fire that we have.

English: I entered between the legs of the miserable blindman to warm myself by the little fire we had.

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In this example the definite article is used in the place (las piernas) but itis omitted before (triste ciego),but in English it maintained before bothnouns.

Here are examples that show some of the ways a noun's gender affectsthe usage of other words. Some of the examples may be moreunderstandable when we focus on the usage of articles and nouns.

con todo su poder, dichoel hombreComo: Spanish-84Literally: *As the man said,with all his power.

English : As what the man said, with all his power.

And this instance:decía que Galeno no supo la,Pues en caso de medicina: Spanish-49

mitad que él para muela.did not knowhe said that Galeno,For in case of doctor*:Literally

the half of what he did about the molars. English : For the doctor, Galen did not know the half of what hedid about molars.

If you have two or more nouns that are being described by a singleadjective, and they are of mixed genders, the masculine adjective is used. 39- Spanish: Yo bebí el vino y comí debido el hambre.

Lierally:|*I drank the wine and ate because the hunger.

English: I drank the wine and I ate because of the hunger.

The following sentence indicates one of the differences betweenSpanish and English. Whereas as English requires the word "a" before"photographer", Spanish doesn't require an equivalent word, which in thiscas (un)is unnecessary. 7-English: As a freelance photographer.

Literally: Como un fotógrafo autónomo.

Spanish: Como fotógrafo autónomo.

The words "a" and "an" are known to grammarians as indefinite articles,

and the Spanish equivalents are un (used before masculine nouns and noun

phrases) and una (feminine).Using the Spanish indefinite articles when they

aren't needed is one of the pitfalls for many beginning Spanish students

say (un fotógrafo), and it would sound as awkward (and improper) as onepossible translation into English: " As one freelance photographer."

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Generally speaking, whenever you use un or una in Spanish, you needto use "a" or "an" to say the equivalent in English. But the reverse isn't true.The appearance is that Spanish frequently "omits" the indefinite articles.Although the rules of article usage can get complex, and there are caseswhere the use of (un/una) is discretionary, here are the most common caseswhere the article shouldn't be used even though it's used in English:

29- Spanish: un águila . English: An eagle.

But the contrary is wrong where Spanish need not an article as follows:

8-English: A lot can change in just a few years.

Literally: Mucho puedo cambiar en justamente unos pocos años.

Spanish: Mucho puedo cambiar justamente en pocos años.

Before an unmodified noun after a form of ser ("to be"), especially inreference to occupation, religion, affiliation or social status (normally, if thenoun is modified, the article should be used.

49- Spanish: Pues en caso de medicina.

Literally: For the case of doctor.

English: For the doctor.

Before mil ("thousand") and cien ("hundred") we don't use articles inSpanish :

51-Spanish: Gana mil dinero por año .

English: He earns a thousand coins per year.

52-Spanish: Tiene cien años casi.

English: She is almost a hundred years old.

In exclamations using qué ("what") we don't use articles in Spanish:

53-Spanish:¡Qué lástima!

English:What a shame!

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54-Spanish: ¡Qué casa!

English:What a house!

After con ("with") and sin ("without")we don't use articles:

55-Spanish:Come con cuchara.

English:She eats with a spoon.

56-Spanish:Como escribe sin pluma.

English: As if he writes without a plume.

Frequently after forms of tener ("to have"), comprar ("to buy"), llevar("to wear") and some other verbs when generically referring to things thatpeople would normally have or use one at a time:

57-Spanish:No tengo caballo.

English:I don't have a horse.

58-Spanish: Lleva camisa.

English:He is wearing a shirt.

59-Spanish:Vamos a comprar casa.

English:We're going to buy a house.

60-Spanish:¿Tiene madre?

English:Does he have a mother?

Finally, there is one case where we don't use the indefinite article inEnglish where it's needed in Spanish:

In a series of two or more words joined by "and" ( y in Spanish). InEnglish we might say "a cat and dog," but in Spanish it must be un gato yun perro. Without the second un, the phrase would be understood asreferring to one creature.

16-English: She felt like meeting a long lost friend - not stranger onthe beach.Literally: Ella se siente como encuentro un mucho tiempo perdidoamigo y no__desconocido en la playa.

Spanish: Ella se siente como encuentro un mucho tiempo perdidoamigo y no un desconocido en la playa.

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Conclusion:

After developing and making research on this topic, I have drawn some

conclusions concerning both languages:

Unlike Germanic languages family and some other Indo-European

languages,we can notice that the Romance languages and among them

Spanish has no neuter nouns.But there are a few neuter pronouns, such

aslo (mine) and ello(it), that are used under limited circumstances.

Due to the small corpus used in this work, the present analysis may

not be comprehensive enough; however, I do believe that this investi--

gation offers a comparison of expressions which have not received

much attention in the literature before dealing with English and Spanish

definite and indefinite articles.

Likewise, further research could certainly be carried out in both general

and specific problem areas of grammar on syntactic level.

Lastly, I hope I have made a significant contribution to the

contrastive study of Spanish and English articles.

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:Refrences

Second edition,1-James D. Williams. (2005).The Teacher's Grammar

Oxford University Press.

2-Rozakis Laurie . (2003). English Grammar for the Utterly

Confused,MacGill

3- A.J. Thomason.A.V. Martinet(1986).A Practical English

Grammar,4th edition, Oxford University Press .

2010-16-01/com.tudySpanishS.www://Http-4-

Http://www.elearnspanishlanguage.com/01-16-2010 -5-

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:Corpus I

Return to Paradise

Eliza Riley

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Lisa gazed out over the Caribbean Sea, feeling the faint breeze againsther face - eyes shut, the white sand warm between her bare toes. The place wasbeautiful beyond belief, but it was still unable to ease the grief she felt as sheremembered the last time she had been here. She had married James right here on this spot three years ago to the day.Dressed in a simple white shift dress, miniature white roses attempting to tame herlong dark curls, Lisa had been happier than she had ever thought possible. Jameswas even less formal but utterly irresistible in creased summer trousers and a loosewhite cotton shirt. His dark hair slightly ruffled and his eyes full of adoration as hislooked at his bride to be. The justice of the peace had read their vows as they heldhands and laughed at the sheer joy of being young, in love and staying in a fivestar resort on the Caribbean island of the Dominican Republic. They had seen theyears blissfully stretching ahead of them, together forever. They planned theirchildren, two she said, he said four so they compromised on three (two girls and aboy of course); where they would live, the traveling they would do together - itwas all certain, so they had thought then. But that seemed such a long time ago now. A lot can change in just a few years- a lot of heartache can change a person and drive a wedge through the strongestties, break even the deepest love. Three years to the day and they had returned,though this time not for the beachside marriages the island was famous for but forone of its equally popular quickie divorces.

Lisa let out a sigh that was filled with pain and regret. What could she do butmove on,find a interesting life and new dreams? - the old one was beyond repair.How could this beautiful place, with its lush green coastline, a one-way street,eternity of azure blue sea and endless sands be a place for the agony she feltnow? The man stood watching from the edge of the palm trees. He couldn't take hiseyes of the dark-haired woman he saw standing at the water's edge, gazing out tosea as though she was waiting for something - or someone. She was beautiful, withher slim figure dressed in a loose flowing cotton dress, her crazy hair and brightblue eyes not far off the colour of the sea itself. It wasn't her looks that attracted him though; he came across many beautifulwomen in his work as a freelance photographer. It was her loneliness and intensitythat lured him. Even at some distance he was aware that she was different from anyother woman he could meet. Lisa sensed the man approaching even before she turned around. She had beenaware of him standing there staring at her and had felt strangely calm about beingobserved. She looked at him and felt the instant spark of connection she had onlyexperienced once before.

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He walked slowly towards her and they held each other's gaze. She felt likemeeting a long lost friend and not stranger on the beach.

Later, sitting for an hour at one of the many bars on the resort, sipping thelocal cocktails they began to talk. First pleasantries, their hotels, the quality offood and friendliness of the locals. Their conversation was strangely hesitant considering the naturalness andconfidence of their earlier meeting. Onlookers, however, would have detected thesubtle flirtation as they mirrored each other's actions and spoke directly into eachother's eyes. Only later, after the alcohol had had its loosening effect, did theconversation deepen. They talked of why they were here and finally, against herjudgment, Lisa opened up about her heartache of the past year and how eventshad led her back to the place where she had married the only man she believed shecould ever love. She told him of things that had been locked deep inside her, ableto tell no one. She told him how she had felt after she had lost her baby. She was six months pregnant and the happiest she had ever been when thepains had started. She was staying with her mother as James was working out oftown. He hadn't made it back in time. The doctor had said it was just one of thosethings, that they could try again. But how could she when she couldn't even lookJames in the eye. She hated him then, when she needed him as an SOS for help,for not being there, for not hurting as much as her but most of all for looking somuch like the tiny baby boy that she held for just three hours before the took himaway. All through the following months she had withdrawn from her husband,family, friends. Not wanting to recover from the pain she felt – that would havebeen a betrayal of her son. At the funeral she had refused to stand next to herhusband and the next day she had left him. Looking up, Lisa could see her pain reflected in the man's eyes. For the firsttime in months she didn't feel alone, she felt the unbearable burden begin to liftfrom her, only a bit but it was a start. She began to believe that maybe she had afuture after all and maybe it could be with this man, with his kind hazel eyes, wetwith their shared tears. They had come here to dissolve their marriage butmaybe there was hope.

Lisa stood up and took James by the hand and led him away from the bar towardsthe beach where they had made their vows to each other three years ago. Tomorrow she would cancel the divorce; tonight they would work on renewingtheir promise.

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:Corpus II

La Vida de

Lazarillo de Tormes

y de sus fortunas y adversidades

Miguel de Cervantes

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Capítulo I. El CiegoLazaro cuenta su vida y cuyo hijo fue

Capítulo II. El ClérigoComo Lazaro se asento con un Clérigo y de las cosas que con él paso

Capítulo III. El EscuderoDe como Lazaro se asento con un Escudero y de lo que le acaecio con él

Capítulo IV. El Fraile Como Lazaro se asento con un Fraile de la Merced y de lo que le acaecio con él

Capítulo V. El BulderoComo Lazaro se asento con un Buldero y de las cosas que con él paso

Capítulo VI. El Capellan Como Lazaro se asento con un Capellan y lo que con él paso

Capítulo VII. El Alguacil Como Lazaro se asento con un Alguacil y de lo que le acaecio con él

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Capítulo I: El Ciego

Cuenta Lázaro su vida y cúyo hijo fue

Pues sepa Vuestra Merced ante todas cosas que a mí llaman Lázaro deTormes, hijo de Tomé González y de Antoña Pérez, naturales de Tejares,aldea de Salamanca. Mi nacimiento fue dentro del río Tormes, por la cualcausa tomé el sobrenombre, y fue de esta manera: mi padre, que Diosperdone, tenía cargo de proveer una molienda de una aceña que estáribera de aquel rió, en la cual fue molinero más de quince años.Estando mi madre una noche en la aceña, preñada de mí, le tomó elparto y me parió allí. De manera que con verdad me puedo decirnacido en el río. Pues siendo yo niño de ocho años, achacaron a mi padre ciertassangrías mal hechas en los costales de los que allí a moler venían, por locual fue preso, y confesó, y no negó, y padeció persecución por justicia.Espero en Dios que está en la Gloria, pues el Evangelio los llamabienventurados. En este tiempo se hizo cierta armada contra moros, entrelos cuales fue mi padre, que a la sazón estaba desterrado por el desastreya dicho, con cargo de acemilero de unos caballeros que allá fue. Ycon su señor, como leal criado, feneció su vida. Mi viuda madre, como sin marido y sin abrigo se viese, determinóarrimarse a los buenos por ser uno de ellos. Se vino a vivir a la ciudad, yalquiló una casilla, y se metió a guisar de comer a ciertos estudiantes, ylavaba la ropa a ciertos mozos de caballos del Comendador de laMagdalena. De esta manera fue frecuentando las caballerizas. Ella yun hombre moreno, de aquellos que las bestias curaban, vinieron enconocimiento. Este algunas veces se venía a nuestra casa, y se iba a lamañana; otras veces de día llegaba a la puerta, en achaque de comprarhuevos y se entraba en casa. Yo, al principio de su entrada, me pesabacon él y le había miedo, viendo el color y mal gesto que tenía; mas deque vi que con su venida mejoraba el comer, le fui queriendo bien,porque siempre traía pan, pedazos de carne, y en el invierno leños, a quenos calentábamos.

De manera que, continuando la posada y conversación, mi madrevino a darme un negrito muy bonito, el cual yo brincaba y ayudaba acalentar. Y me acuerdo que estando el negro de mi padrastro trebejando

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con el mozuelo, como el niño veía a mi madre y a mí blancos, y a él no,huía de él con miedo para mi madre, y señalando con el dedo, decía:«¡Madre, coco!» Respondió él riendo: «¡Hideputa!» Yo, aunque bien muchacho, noté aquella palabra de mi hermanico, ydije entre mí: «¡Cuántos debe de haber en el mundo que huyen de otros,porque no se ven a sí mismos!» Quiso nuestra fortuna que la conversación del Zaide, que así sellamaba, llegó a oídos del mayordomo, y hecha pesquisa, se halló que lamitad por medio de la cebada, que para las bestias le daban, hurtaba.Salvados, leña, almohazas, mandiles, y las mantas y sábanas de loscaballos hacía perdidas. Cuando otra cosa no tenía, las bestiasdesherraba, y con todo esto acudía a mi madre para criar a mi hermanico.No nos maravillemos de un clérigo ni de unos frailes; porque el unohurta de los pobres y el otro de casa para sus devotas y para ayuda de otrotanto, cuando a un pobre esclavo el amor le animaba a esto. Y se le probó cuanto digo, y aun más, porque a mí, con amenazas, mepreguntaban, y como niño respondía. Descubría cuanto sabía con miedo,hasta ciertas herraduras que por mandado de mi madre a un herrero vendí. Al triste de mi padrastro azotaron y pringaron. A mi madre pusieronpena por justicia, sobre el acostumbrado centenario, que en casa delsobredicho Comendador no entrase ni al lastimado Zaide en la suyaacogiese.

Por no echar la soga tras el caldero, la triste se esforzó y cumplió lasentencia. Por evitar peligro y quitarse de malas lenguas, se fue a servir alos que al presente vivían en el mesón de la Solana. Y allí, padeciendomil importunidades, se acabó de criar mi hermanico hasta que supo andar,y a mí hasta ser buen mozuelo, que iba a los huéspedes por vino ycandelas y ¿tiene madre? por lo demás que me mandaban. En este tiempo vino a posar al mesón un ciego, el cual, pareciéndoleque yo sería para adiestrarle, me pidió a mi madre. Ella me encomendó aél diciéndole cómo era hijo de un buen hombre, el cual, por ensalzar la fehabía muerto en la de los Gelves. Ella confiaba en Dios no saldría peorhombre que mi padre, y que le rogaba me tratase bien y mirase por mí,pues era huérfano. El respondió que así lo haría, come con cuchara y queme recibía no por mozo, sino por hijo. Y así le comencé a serviry adiestrar a mi nuevo y viejo amo. Como estuvimos en Salamanca algunos días, pareciéndole a mi amoque no era la ganancia a su contento, determinó irse de allí. Y cuando noshubimos de partir yo fui a ver a mi madre, y ambos llorando,me dio su bendición dijo y tiene cien años casi*52* : Hijo, ya sé que no te veré más. Procura de ser bueno y Dios te guíe.Criado te he y con buen amo te he puesto. Válete por ti.

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Y así, me fui para mi amo, que estaba esperándome. Salimos de Salamanca, y llegando a la puente, está a la entrada de ellaun animal de piedra, que casi tiene forma de toro. El ciego me mandó quellegase cerca del animal, y allí puesto, me dijo:Lázaro, llega el oído a estetoro y oirás gran ruido dentro de él. Yo simplemente llegué, creyendoser así y, como sintió que tenía la cabeza par de la piedra, afirmó recio lamano y me dio una gran calabazada en el diablo del toro, que más de tresdías me duró el dolor cornada, y me dijo: Necio, aprende que el mozo del ciego un punto ha de saber más que eldiablo. Y rió mucho la burla que vamos a comprar casa. Me pareció que en aquel instante desperté de la simpleza en que, comoniño, dormido estaba. Dije entre mí: «Verdad dice éste, que me cumpleavivar el ojo y avisar, pues solo soy, y pensar cómo me sepa valer.» Comenzamos nuestro camino y en muy pocos días me mostrójerigonza. Como me viese de buen ingenio, se holgaba mucho y decía:«Yo oro ni plata no te lo puedo dar; mas avisos, para vivir, muchos temostraré.» Y fue así, que, después de Dios, éste me dio la vida y siendociego me alumbró y adiestró en la carrera de vivir. Huelgo de contar a Vuestra Merced estas niñerías para mostrar cuántavirtud sea saber los hombres subir siendo bajos, y dejarse bajar siendoaltos cuánto vicio. Pues tornando al bueno de mi ciego y contando sus cosas, VuestraMerced sepa que desde que Dios crió el mundo, ninguno formó másastuto ni sagaz. En su oficio era un águila: ciento y tantas oraciones sabíade coro; un tono bajo, unas muchachas en la playa; reposado y muysonable, que hacía resonar la iglesia donde rezaba; un rostro humilde ydevota, que con muy buen continente ponía cuando rezaba, sin hacergestos ni visajes con boca ni ojos como otros suelen hacer. Allende deesto, tenía otras mil formas y maneras para sacar el dinero. Decía saber oraciones para muchos y diversos efectos: para mujeresque no parían, para las que estaban de parto, para las que eran malcasadas, que sus maridos las quisiesen bien. Echaba pronósticos a laspreñadas si traían hijo o hija. Pues en caso de medicina, decía queGaleno no supo la mitad que él para muela, desmayos, males demadre. Finalmente, nadie le decía padecer alguna pasión que luego no ledecía: «Haced esto, haréis este otro, coged tal hierba, tomad tal raíz.» Conesto se andaba todo el mundo tras él, especialmente mujeres, que cuantoles decía, creían. De éstas sacaba él grandes provechos con las artes quedigo y ganaba más en un mes que cien ciegos en un año.

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Mas también quiero que sepa Vuestra Merced que, con todo lo queadquiría y tenía, jamás tan avariento ni mezquino hombre no vi. Tantoque me mataba a mí de hambre y así no me demediaba de lo necesario.Digo verdad: si con me sotileza y buenas mañas no me supiera remediar,muchas veces me finara de hambre. Mas con todo su saber y aviso lecontaminaba de tal suerte que siempre, o las más veces, me cabía lo másy mejor. Para esto le hacía burlas endiabladas, de las cuales contaréalgunas, aunque no todas a mi salvo como un águila. Él traía el pan y todas las otras cosas en un fardel de lienzo que por laboca se cerraba con una argolla de hierro y su candado y su llave, y almeter de las cosas y sacarlas, ¡qué lástima! era con tanta vigilancia y tanpor contadero, que no bastara hombre en todo el mundo hacerle menosuna migaja. Mas yo tomaba aquella laceria que él me daba, la cual enmenos de dos bocados era despachada. Después que cerraba el candado yse descuidaba,¡qué casa! pensando que yo estaba entendiendo en otrascosas. Por un poco de costura, que muchas veces de un lado del fardeldescosía y tornaba a coser, sangraba el avariento fardel, sacando no portasa pan, mas buenos pedazos, torreznos y longaniza. Y así buscabaconveniente tiempo para rehacer, no la chaza, sino la endiablada falta queel mal ciego me faltaba y un ama de casa. Todo lo que podía sisar y hurtar traía en medias blancas. Y cuando lemandaban rezar y le daban blancas, como él carecía de vista, no había elque se la daba amagado con ella, cuando yo la tenía lanzada en la boca ymedia aparejada, que por presto que él echaba la mano, ya iba de micambio aniquilada en la mitad del justo precio. Se me quejaba el malciego, porque al tiento luego conocía y sentía que no era blanca entera, ydecía: -¿Qué diablo es esto, que después que conmigo estás no me dan sinomedias blancas, y de antes una blanca y un maravedí hartas veces mepagaban? ¡En ti debe estar esta desdicha!

También él abreviaba el rezar y la mitad de la oración noacababa, porque me tenía mandado que, en yéndose el que la mandabarezar, le tirase por cabo del capuz, lleva camisa. Yo así lo hacía. Luego éltornaba a dar voces, diciendo: «¿Mandan rezar tal y tal oración?», comosuelen decir. Usaba poner cabe si un jarillo de vino cuando comíamos, y yo, muyde presto, le asía y daba un par de besos callados y le tornaba a su lugar.Mas me duró poco, que en los tragos conocía la falta, Gana mil dineropor año*51* y por reservar su vino a salvo, nunca después desamparabael jarro antes lo tenía por el asa asido. Mas no había piedra imán que asítrajese a sí como yo con una paja larga de centeno que para aquelmenester tenía hecha, no tengo caballo, la cual metiéndola en la boca del

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jarro, chupando el vino lo dejaba a buenas noches. Mas como fuese eltraidor tan astuto, pienso que me sintío, y de ende en adelante mudópropósito, y asentaba su jarro entre las piernas y le atapaba con la mano, yasí bebía seguro.

Yo bebí el vino y comí debido el hambre, moría por él. Viendo queaquel remedio de la paja no me aprovechaba ni valía, acordé en el suelodel jarro hacerle una fuentecilla y agujero sutil, y delicadamente con unamuy delgada tortilla de cera taparlo. Al tiempo de comer, fingiendo haberfrío, me entraba entre las piernas del triste ciego a calentarme en lapobrecilla lumbre que teníamos. Al calor de ella luego derretida la cera(por ser muy poca), comenzaba la fuentecilla a destilarme en la boca, lacual yo de tal manera ponía, que maldita la gota se perdía. Cuando elpobreto iba a beber el agua, no hallaba nada. Se espantaba, se maldecía,daba al diablo el jarro y el vino, no sabiendo qué podía ser. -No diréis, tío, que os lo bebo yo -decía-, pues no le quitase de lamano. Tantas vueltas y tientos dió al jarro que halló la fuente y cayó en laburla; mas así lo disimuló como si no lo hubiera sentido. Y luego otro día,teniendo yo rezumando mi jarro como solía, no pensando el daño queme estaba aparejado ni que el mal ciego me sentía, me senté comosolía. Estando recibiendo aquellos dulces tragos, mi cara puesta hacia elcielo, un poco cerrados los ojos por mejor gustar el sabroso licor, sintió eldesesperado ciego que ahora tenía tiempo de tomar de mí venganza. Contoda su fuerza, alzando con dos manos aquel dulce y amargo jarro, le dejócaer sobre mi boca, ayudándose, como el hombre dicho, con todo supoder, de manera que el pobre Lázaro, que de nada de esto se guardaba,antes, como otras veces, estaba descuidado y gozoso. Verdaderamente,me pareció que la experiencia amarga, con todo lo que en él hay, mehabía caído encima. Fue tal el golpecillo, que me desatinó y sacó de sentido. El jarrazo tangrande y las arcas, que los pedazos de él se me metieron por la cara,rompiéndomela por muchas partes, y me quebró los dientes, sin los cualeshasta hoy día me quedé. Desde aquella hora quise mal al mal ciego.Aunque me quería y regalaba y me curaba, bien vi que se había holgadodel cruel castigo. Me lavó con vino las roturas, que con los pedazos deljarro me había hecho, y sonriéndose decía: -¿Qué te parece, Lázaro? Lo que te enfermó te sana y da salud, y otrosdonaires que mi gusto no loeran y como escribe sin pluma. Ya que estuve medio bueno de mi negra trepa y cardenales,considerando que a pocos golpes tales el cruel ciego ahorraría de mí,quise yo ahorrar de él. Mas no lo hice tan presto por hacerlo más a misalvo y provecho. Y aunque yo quisiera asentar mi corazón y perdonarle

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el jarrazo, no daba lugar el maltratamiento, que el mal ciego desde allíadelante me hacía. Sin causa ni razón me hería, dándome coscorrones yrepelándome. Y si alguno le decía porqué me trataba tan mal, luegocontaba el cuento del jarro, diciendo:

-¿Pensarais que este mi mozo es algún inocente? Pues oíd si eldemonio ensayara otra tal hazaña. Santiguándose los que lo oían, decían: -¡Mira quién pensara de un muchacho tan pequeño tal ruindad!

Y reían mucho el artífico, y le decían: -Castigadlo, castigadlo, que de Dios lo hubierais. Y él, con aquello, nunca otra cosa hacía. Y en esto, yo siempre le llevaba por los peores caminos, y adrede, porhacerle mal y daño. Si había piedras, por ellas, si lodo, por lo más alto,que aunque yo no iba por lo más enjuto, me holgaba a mí de quebrar unojo por quebrar dos al que ninguno tenía. Con esto siempre con el caboalto del tiento me atentaba el colodrillo, el cual siempre traía lleno detolondrones y pelado de sus manos. Aunque yo juraba no lo hacer conmalicia, sino por no hallar mejor camino, no me aprovechaba ni me creía,mas tal era el sentido y el grandísimo entendimiento del traidor.

Y porque vea Vuestra Merced a cuánto se extendía el ingenio de esteastuto ciego, contaré un caso de muchos que con él me acaecieron, en elcual me parece dio bien a entender a su gran astucia. Cuando salimosde Salamanca, su motivo fue venir a tierra de Toledo, porque decía ser lagente más rica, aunque no muy limosnera. Se arrimaba a este refrán:«Más da el duro que el desnudo.» Y venimos a este camino por losmejores lugares. Donde hallaba buena acogida y ganancia, nosdeteníamos. Donde no, a tercero día hacíamos San Juan.