c3010 highway engineering

7/25/2019 C3010 Highway Engineering

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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Name : Azman Bin Hasan

Address : Civil Engineering Department

Politeknik Kuching Sarawak

Km 22, alan !atang,

"#$%$ Kuching, Sarawak&

'elephone No& : $(2)*2(+" e-t&22#

e)mail : r.nosorus/hotmail&com

0uali1ications : Sc& Civil Eng& 3 45'!6

!Ed 4 'echnical 6 3 45'!6

Position : Pol.technic 7ecturer

Name : Norazila Binti Abdul Aziz

Address : Civil Engineering Department

Politeknik Kuching Sarawak

Km 22, alan !atang,

"#$%$ Kuching, Sarawak&

'elephone No& : $(2)*2(+" e-t&22#

e)mail : /hotmail&com

0uali1ications : Diploma Civil Eng& And Education 45'!6

Position : Pol.technic 7ecturer

1

BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS


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What Do You Think Of This Module?

'itle o1 !odule: 88888888888888888888888 !odule Code : 88888888888

Student9s Name: 88888888888888888888888 egistration No& : 88888888888

Course: 888888888888888888888888888888888888

!odule ;riters: 888888888888888888888888888888

Please use the 1ollowing scale 1or .our evaluation:

* Strongl. Agree# Agree2 Disagree< Strongl. Disagree

Instruction: Please on the space provided&

No Ho! much do "ou a#ree !ith the follo!in# statements? $%A&'

A& =>!A' < 2 # *< 'he pages are organi?ed in an interesting manner&

2 'he 1ont si?e makes it eas. 1or me to read the module&

#'he si?e and t.pes o1 pictures and charts used are suita@le 1orthe input&

* 'he pictures and charts are eas. to read and understand&

% 'he ta@les used are well)organised and eas. to understand&

'he arrangement o1 the nput makes it eas. 1or me to 1ollow&

+ All the instructions are displa.ed clearl.&& C>N'EN'S < 2 # *

( understand all the o@Bectives clearl.&

" understand the ideas conve.ed&


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CURRICULUM GRID

The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by

Malaysian Polytechnics.

No. TOPIC UNIT Total

Hours

1 Introduction Of Highway

Engineering

1

( H!

Hours

2 Planning Techni"ue and

Pre#$onstruction %oad

&or'

2

( H!

( H!

Hours

Pa)ement Material

*

( H !

+

( H ! Hours

*$onstruction Of ,le-ible

Pa)ement

( H ! Hours

+

$onstruction Of %igid

$oncrete Pa)ement

/

( H ! Hours

0rainage

( H ! Hours

/Traffic $ontrol nd

%oad ,urnitures

3

( H !

14

( H ! Hours

5asic $haracteristic

%oad 6ystems

11

( 2 H !

12

( 2 H !

1

( H !/ Hours

3,le-ible Pa)ement

0esign

1*

( H ! Hours

14 %oad Maintenance1+

( * H !* Hours



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UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.4 Introduction1.1 History of Highway Engineering

1.2 $haracteristic of 6ome Im7ortant Early %oads

UNIT 2 PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONTRUCTION

ROAD WOR! " Part 1 #

2.4 cti)ities of Planning Techni"ue and Pre#$onstruction %oad &or'

2.1 6ite In)estigation

2.2 6ur)ey &or' and 6etting Out

UNIT $ PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONTRUCTION

ROAD WOR! " Part 2 #

.4 Introduction

.1 Earth &or' O7eration

.2 6ide 6lo7e O7eration

UNIT % PA&EMENT MATERIAL " Part 1 #

*.4 Introduction

*.1 6oil nd Its $haracteristic

*.2 Effect of Moisture on The Performance of 6oils

*. Effect of 0ensity on The Performance of 6oils

*.* %oad ggregate

UNIT ' PA&EMENT MATERIAL " Part 2 #

+.4 Introduction

+.1 ,unction of 5ituminous Material

+.2 0efinitions

+. 6ources of 5ituminous 5inder

+.* Pa)ing s7halt

UNIT ( CONTRUCTION OF FLE)I*LE PA&EMENT " Part 1 #.4 Introduction

.1 6tructure of ,le-ible Pa)ement

.2 ,unctions of ,le-ible Pa)ement

. ,le-ible Pa)ement $onstruction Process

.* Material Pre7aration for ,le-ible Pa)ement %oad 6urface

*



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UNIT + CONTRUCTION OF RIGID,CONCRETE PA&EMENT

/.4 Introduction

/.1 d)antages and 0isad)antages of $oncrete %oads

/.2 $lassification of $ement $oncrete %oads

/. 6tructure of $ement $oncrete %oads/.* $onstruction 6te7 of $ement $oncrete 6lab Pa)ement

/.+ 8oint in $ement $oncrete %oads

UNIT DRAINAGE

.4 Introduction

.1 Effect of Im7ro7er 0rainage

.2 Highway 0rainage %e"uirement

. 6urface 0rainage.

.* 6ide 0itches for 6urface 0rainage.+ 0rainage 6ystem

UNIT TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURE " Part 1 #

3.4 Introduction

3.1 Traffic $ontrol 0e)ice

3.2 Pur7ose of Traffic $ontrol 0e)ice

3. $haracteristic of Traffic $ontrol 0e)ice

3.* Traffic 6ign

3.+ %oad Mar'ing

UNIT 1/ TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURE " Part 2 #

14.4 Introduction

14.1 %easons for 9ongitudinal 0elineation

14.2 Ty7es of 0elineator

14. %oad 6tud

12.1 0elineators

12.2 6ign 5oard

UNIT 11 *AIC CHARACTERITIC ROAD YTEM " Part 1 #

11.4 Introduction

11.1 %oad 6ystem $haracteristic

11.2 Im7ortant $haracteristic of 0ri)ers

11.1 Influential ,actor

11.2 :ehicle $haracteristic

+



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11. :ehicle O7erating $haracteristic

11.* cceleration and 0eceleration

11.+

UNIT 12 *AIC CHARACTERITIC ROAD YTEM " Part 2 #

12.4 Introduction12.1 Term of :olume ,low

12.2 Traffic :olume $haracteristic

11.1 $alculation for Traffic :olume

UNIT 1$ *AIC CHARACTERITIC ROAD YTEM " Part $ #

1.4 Introduction

1.1 67eed

1.2 67eed Measurement Method

1. 67ot 67eed 0ata nalysis1.* 0efinition of 0ensity

1.+ $alculation of 0ensity

UNIT 1% FLE)I*LE PA&EMENT DEIGN

1*.4 Introduction

1*.1 ,actors ,or 0esign

1*.2 ,le-ible Pa)ement 0esign Method ;

0esign


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MODULE GUIDELINE

To achie)e ma-imum benefits in using this module? students must follow the instructionscarefully and com7lete all the acti)ities.

1. This module is di)ided into 1/ units.

2. Each 7age is numbered according to the sub@ect code? unit and 7age number

C$/1/ , UNIT 1 ,

6ub@ect


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nswers to the "uestions in the acti)ity section are gi)en here

ELF-AEMENT

6elf#assessment e)aluates your understanding of each unit.

FEED*AC! OF ELF-AEMENT

This section contains answers to the acti)ities in the self#

assessment.

1. Bou ha)e to follow the units in se"uence.2. Bou may 7roceed to the ne-t unit after successfully com7leting the unit

and you are confident of your achie)ement.



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GENERAL AIM

This module is 7re7ared for students in the third semester ( 0i7loma ! and fourthsemester ( certificate ! who are following the $ertificate0i7loma 7rogrammes in

Malaysian Polytechnics. It aims to e-7ose students to the Highway Engineering conce7t

in each unit and to lead them towards self#directed learning or with guidance from their

lecturers.

PREREQUIITE !ILL AND !NOWLEDGE

The 7rere"uisite for this module is at least a 7ass in module 51441? 52441? $1441 and

$2441

GENERAL O*0ECTI&E

t the end of this module? students should be able to A

1. understand the de)elo7ment and trans7ortation system in Malaysia.2. state methods? 7rocedures and techni"ues about road 7lanning and 7re#

construction wor'.

. define materials used in road construction.

*. understand fundamental conce7ts in road structures.+. e-7lain the drainage and ground water le)el

. list and define the road furniture and traffic control e"ui7ments./. describe the differences between fle-ible 7a)ement and rigidconcrete

7a)ement

. recogni>e the characteristics of road systems

3. determine the traffic flow? s7eed? density and analysis14. calculate the design of fle-ible 7a)ement

11. understand general items about road maintenance

TEACHING AID AND REOURCE NEEDED

1. $alculator.

2. 8=% 6tandard for 8=% %oad Pa)ement 0esign.

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REFERENCE

1. %oad &or' ; Theory and Practical? &ignall and P.6 =endric'.

2. Highway Engineering ( :olume 1 C 2 !? OD,laherty.

. 5itumen in %oad 6urfacing? 6hell.

*. s7halt $oncrete? 6hell.

+. 5ritish 6tandard.

. %oad ote 23 and 1? T%%9.

/. Pengenalan Pembinaan 8alan %aya? 5erbitumen? Meor Othman Ham>ah 0an

9ain#lain? 05P.

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Introduction of Hi hwaHighway Engineering C3010 / UNIT1/

INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAYENGINEERING

OBJECTIVES

General Objective

To understand the development and transportation system in Malaysia.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit you should be able to :-

state the construction structure used in transportation system.

identify the related profession in the road construction development.

describe the history of road development.

describe the road category. identify the related agencies involved in road construction.

1

UNIT 1



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!"Intr#$%cti#n

For rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a good

system of transportation is very essential. Transportation system comprises of

good network of roads, railways, well developed water ways and airways.

Airways and water ways although help to some etent in transportation within the

country, but they are the modes of transport mainly with foreign country.

!ailways and highways also to some etent help in transport with foreign

countries but their main concern is within the country itself.

2

IN&UT

CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURE FORTRANS&ORTATION



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!"! Different '#$es #f transp#rtati#n

Man has always been curious for new inventions. "n the early days

of civili#ation it was thought that the movement of any human being can

be on the earth only. $o one thought of flying in air or cruising in large-

oceans.

Modes of transportation can be classified as follows :

a. roadways or highwaysb. railways

c. water ways

d. airways

The science which covers designing, maintenance and operation of

the roads, for convenience of the road traffic, is called highway

engineering. The science dealing with planning, designing, operation and

maintenance of railway track, wagons, coaches, locomotives, is called

railway engineering.

3

%eeing birds flying, man must have

thought of flying and that may probably be

the starting point of modern aeronautics.

%imilarly, seeing fishes cruising in the sea

or river, man must have thought of rowing

in water, and that may probably be a

starting point in the development of water

ways and designing of ships and boats.



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%imilarly planning, designing, operation, control and maintenance

of water ways, airways and their connected machinery are respectively

called harbour engineering and airport engineering.

&esides the above stated four ma'or modes of transportation, fluids

are mainly transported through pipes. &elt conveyors, cable cars,

monorails are some other minor systems of transportation, but they are

used for specific purposes. (ooking to the transport characteristic of each

type of transportation system, it can easily be appreciated that roads and

railways are economical and easy for internal transportation, while airways

and waterways are main economical for transportation with foreign

countries. Airways are gaining importance even in internal movement

these days, because they cause saving in time of travel.

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!"!( R#a$ transp#rt c)aracteristics

)hile going to railway station, harbour or airport, roads is the first

mode which is going to lead you to these places. *ence it can be said that

out of all types of transport systems, road is the nearest to the man.

+haracteristics of road transport are given as follows :

a. !oads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock

carts, carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and

lorries, etc. They are eually useful for pedestrians also.

b. !oads can lead to any remote place.

c. "nvestment on road transport by government is

comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also

cheaper than rail-track, docks, harbours and airports.

d. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the

vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to

another according to the reuirements.

e. (ocal communication among villages, villages and towns

is only possible through roads.

f. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case ofrailways or airways.

g. !oad transport is the only mode of transport that offers

itself for the service of whole community alike.

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! HISTORY OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Traces of early roads have been found since the recorded history of the

man kind. The first and oldest mode of travel obviously was foot path. &efore

invention of wheel, people used to move on foot, thus creating foot paths. Men

and material must have been transported either on backs of men or animals.

The historical road development can be divided in to the following era :

arly &asic roads

!oman roads

Modern roads

!! Earl* r#a$s

After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be

the popular mode of transport for uite a long time. This necessitated in

providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was

discovered in Mesopotamia at about /011 &.+. Archeological findings

street were paved in Mohan'odaro at about /011 &.+.

There are signs of pucca roads were used during the construction

of "llahun pyramids in gypt between /111 - 2011 &.+. This would be due

to the transportation of huge limestone blocks.

!!( R#'an r#a$s

"n the ancient !ome era, more intensive system of roads was

developed. The road radiating in many directions from !ome. %ome of

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those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction. Many of the

!oman roads are still in eistence even after 2111 years. !omans were

considered to be the pioneers in road construction. )ith the fall of !oman

mpire, the road building techniue became a lost art.

!!+ ,#$ern r#a$s

"n eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads

again began to develop. Mr. 3ierre Tresauet developed an improved

method of construction in 4567 in France. At the time when Mr. 3ierre

Tresauet was busy in developing his road construction method, Mr. 8ohn

Metcalf was engaged in his development in ngland. Metcalf constructed

about 291 m road in northern region of ngland. %ince Metcalf was blind,

his work was not recorded and thus got lost.

Telford and Macadam were the pioneers in road development in

ngland. Telford believed in using heavy foundation stones over the soil

sub-grade, while Macadam advocated the use of compacted crushed

aggregate layer at the bottom. Macadam;s method of road construction isstill in used and is named after his name.

!( CHARACTERISTIC OF SO,E I,&ORTANT EAR-Y ROADS

"mportant early roads include:

a. !oman roads construction

b. Treseuet roads construction

c. Metcalf;s roads construction

d. Telford;s roads construction

e. Macadam roads construction

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!(! R#'an r#a$s

!oman;s developed very elaborate system of roads mainly for the

purpose of military movement. They constructed in all about one lakh

kilometers of road, etending in whole of their empire. An "mportant road

constructed by !omans in /42 &.+ called Appian way is still in eistence

in !ome.

The main characteristics of !oman roads were as follows:

4. They weary very thick. Total thickness of the road varied

from about 1.5 m to as much as 4.2 m.

2. They were straight, without any regard for gradient. 3robable

reason for straightness may be their main use for army.

/. !oads were not built on soft soil formations but on hard

stratum reached after ecavation.

,et)#$ #f c#nstr%cti#n f#r R#'an r#a$s

First of all loose soil was used to be removed from the site of the

road and a trench, eual to width of carriage way ecavated to depth so

that hard stratum is reached. At the bottom of the trench one or two layers

of large stones were laid in lime mortar. The thickness of this foundation

layer ranged from 41 < 21 cm. =ver this, 20 < 71 cm thick layer of lime

concrete with large si#e broken stone aggregate was laid. Another layer

again 20 to 71 cm of lime concrete but using comparatively small si#e

broken stone aggregate was laid over the previously laid layer. (astly 41

to 40 cm thick dressed large stone blocks, set in lime mortar were used as

wearing course. %eeing thickness of the road, it is obvious that these

roads must be very strong, but they cannot prove economical, when

compared with modern design methods.

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!(!( Tresa.%et/s r#a$s

Mr. 3ierre Tresauet was inspector general of roads in France from

4550 to 45>0. *e developed an improved method of road construction.

The main feature of his work was that the thickness of the road was about

/1 cm. *e also made consideration of sub-grade moisture and drainage

from the surface. *e also emphasi#ed the need for continuous

maintenance of road to keep it in good shape. At the time of $apoleon,

uite elaborate road system was developed in France mainly for use of

military adventures.

,et)#$ #f c#nstr%cti#n f#r Tresa.%et/s r#a$s

=n the prepared sub-grade a layer of large foundation stones was

laid, keeping all the stones on edge. At the edges of the road, a large si#e

stone was laid length wise to give lateral support to the foundation layer.

The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with stoneaggregate of smaller si#e. +ompacted thickness of this layer was about >

cm. (astly the top wearing course was laid of walnut si#ed stones and

compacted to a thickness of about 0 cm. A cross slope of about 4 in 70

was used to be developed in the road surfaced by ad'usting thickness

mainly in top and intermediate layers. (astly, shoulders were also given

suitable cross slope, away from the edges of carriage way.

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!(!0 1#)n ,etcalf r#a$s 23345"6

*e was working in ngland at the time when Tresauet was busy in

France. *e eperimented road construction with a graded miture of earth

and gravel. %ince Mr. Metcalf was blind, his work could not be recorded.

&ut it is believed that he was following the procedure outlined by !obert

3hilips in 45/5. !obert 3hilips method consisted of laying gravel layer

upon a well drained and dried sub-grade. ?ravel layer was used to be

compacted in due course of time, by the action of the traffic using road.

Metcalf constructed about 291 m of road in northern parts of ngland.

Telf#r$ r#a$s 237345+06

Thomas Telford was %cottish road engineer and founder of the

institution of civil engineers. *e used big si#e stones in foundation wearing

from 45 < 22 cm to develop a firm base. *e also provided cross drains

under foundation layer to keep the sub-grade in dry condition. *e

proposed provision of cross drains at intervals of about 91 m. Total

thickness of road advocated by him was about /> cm.

C#nstr%cti#n ,et)#$ f#r Telf#r$ r#a$s

A level sub-grade which may be on embankment or cutting was

prepared in the reuired width. Telford adopted 9 mm width of the road.

=n the prepared sub-grade a layer of large si#e stone boulders, varying in

si#e from 45 cm near the edges to a maimum si#e of about 22 cm at the

centre of the width of the road was laid. (aying of the stones was done by

packing. &y using smaller si#e stone near the edges and larger si#e near

centre, a cross slope, of 4 in 70 in road surface was developed. The

interstices in this boulder foundation layer were filled with smaller stones

and chippings and properly compacted.

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$ow central width of about 0.0 m @ 4>; of road was covered with

intermediate coating consisting of two layers. The compacted thickness of

first layer was about 41 cm and consisted of 6.0 cm si#e stone aggregate.

The compacted thickness of second layer was about 0 cm and consisted

of about 7 cm si#e stone. These layers were used to be rammed initially,

but allowed to be compacted under traffic. $o water was sprinkled during

compaction. =nly rain water was used to help compaction and

consolidation of these layers.

=ver the intermediate coat, 7 cm thick gravel layer was used to act

as blinding and wearing layer. The finished surface used to have a cross

slope of 4 in 70. The remaining width of the foundation left untreated by

intermediate coats @two layers, on either side, was treated by lime

concrete. (ime was mied with broken stone aggregate about 41-40 cm

si#e to prepare lime concrete, to be laid on either side of the road. This

treatment provided lateral stability to the road structure.

!(!7 ,aca$a' R#a$s 2 37845+5 6

*e, for the first time put forward entirely new concept of road

construction in 4>25. *e was a %cottish engineer and was surveyor

general of roads in ngland. "mportant characteristic of his concept are as

follows:

"t was he who for the first time recogni#ed the importance of sub-

grade compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage

he recommended suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.

"t was he who reali#ed for the first time that heavy foundation

stones are not at all necessary. "f sub-grade is prepared properly

and kept well drained it can be very well bear the traffic load

transmitted to it through foundation layer, having smaller

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compacted thickness of small si#e broken stones. *e was of the

opinion that a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can

sustain mush heavier load than a thick layer of big si#e stones.

%i#e of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided

according to reuirements of stability under the effect of vehicles.

,et)#$ #f C#nstr%cti#n f#r ,aca$a' r#a$s

%ub-grade was prepared and compacted to the reuired

width of the road. 3repared sub-grade was given the same camber,

as to given to the finished road surface. +onstruction of road

according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,

foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.

Foundation layer was 41 cm thick @compacted and was made from

0 cm si#e aggregate. "ntermediate layer was also 41 cm thick

@compacted but made from aggregate passing 71 mm sieve.

(astly, wearing surface was made 0 cm thick @compacted using

aggregate passing 21 mm sieve. +ross slope of finished surface

was kept as 4 in /6.

"n those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough

compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be

achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that net layer

could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly

compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on

modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of the

world, though with certain modifications.

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!+ C#'paris#n 9et:een ,aca$a' an$ Telf#r$ R#a$s

a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.

b. "n the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept hori#ontal due

to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. "n the case of

Macadam construction sub-grade was given 4 in /6 cross slope. This

aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.

c. (arge si#e stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. %i#e of

stone varied from 45 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the road.

"n the case of Macadam roads 0 cm was the maimum si#e of the

aggregate used for foundation layer.

d. +ross slope in Telford using smaller si#e stones at the edges and large

si#e stones at the centre of the width-developed roads. Thicknesses of

subseuent intermediate and surfacing layers, is kept constant for the

full width of the road. "n Macadam roads, reuired camber was given to

the sub-grade itself and all the subseuent layers of aggregate

including foundation layer of uniform thickness for the whole of the

width of the road.

e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundationlayer, two layers of intermediate coat and 7 cm thick wearing top layer.

Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers each of 4/

cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 0 cm thick surfacing

layer.

f. "n Telford roads, camber given was 4 in 70 while in Macadam it was 4

in /6.

g. Telford;s foundation layer, being of larger si#ed stones, behaved like

semi fleible road but Macadam;s base was yielding type and hence

Macadam roads behaved like fully fleible roads.

h. Total thickness of road structure was about 71 cm in case of Telford

but only about 20 cm in case of Macadam.

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TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING&F=! B=C +=$T"$C )"T* T* $DT

"$3CTE.

4. Gescribe briefly the contribution of Tresauet , Metcalf, Telford and

Macadam to road improvement of a scientific nature.

2. )rite short notes on the history of:

a. arly basic roads

b. !omans roads

c. Moderns roads

/. Giscuss the comparative specifications of Telford and Macadam road

crust construction.

14

ACTI;ITY

GOOD -UC


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4. 3ioneers contributions are :

a! Tresa.%et

Geveloped an improvement method of road construction

which feature of his work was that the thickness of the road

was about /1 cm.

The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with

stone aggregate of smaller si#e and compacted thickness

of this layer was about > cm.

Top wearing course was laid of walnut si#ed stones and

compacted to a thickness of about 0 cm.

A cross slope of about 4 in 70 was used to be developed in

the road surfaced by ad'usting thickness mainly in top and

intermediate layers.

b! ,etcalf

perimented road construction with a graded miture of

earth and gravel.

Method consisted of laying gravel upon a well drained and

dried sub-grade. "t used to be compacted in due course of

time, by the action of the traffic using road.

15

FEED9AC< ONACTI;ITY



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c! Telf#r$

Csed big si#ed stones in foundation wearing from 45-22 cm

to develop a firm base

3rovided cross drains under foundation layer to keep the

sub-grade in dry condition

(evel sub-grade on embankment or cutting was prepared in

the reuired width.

$! ,aca$a'

Csing entirely new concept of road construction.

!ecogni#ed the importance of sub-grade compaction and

drainage

Csing a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can

sustain much heavier load than a thick layer of big si#e

stones

%i#e of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was

decided according to reuirements of stability under the

effect of vehicles.

2.

a! Earl* r#a$s!

After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be

popular mode of transport for uite a long time. This necessitated

providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was

discovered in Mesopotamia at about /011 &.+. Archeologicalfindings in Mohan'odaro indicate that about /011 &.+ %treet was

paved.

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b! R#'ans r#a$s!

"n the ancient !ome era, more intensive system of roads was

developed. The roads radiating in many directions from !ome.

%ome of those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction.

Many of the !oman roads are still in eistence even after 2111

years. !omans were considered to be the pioneers in road

construction. )ith the fall of !oman mpire, the road building

techniue became a lost art.

c! ,#$ern r#a$s!

"n eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads

again began to develop. Mr. 3ierre Tresauet developed an

improved method of construction in 4567 in France. At the time

when Mr. 3ierre Tresauet was busy in developing his road

construction method, Mr. 8ohn Metcalf was engaged in his

development in ngland. Metcalf constructed about 291 m road in

northern region of ngland. Telford and Macadam were the

pioneers in road development in ngland. Telford believed in using

heavy foundation stones over the soil sub-grade, while Macadamadvocated the use of compacted crushed aggregate layer at the

bottom. Macadam;s method of road construction is still in use and

is named after his name.

/. +omparison between Telford roads and Macadams roads are :

a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.

b. "n the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept hori#ontal

due to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. "n the case of

Macadam construction sub-grade was given 4 in /6 cross slope.

This aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.

c. (arge si#e stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. %i#e of

stone varied from 45 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the

17



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road. "n the case of Macadam roads 0 cm was the maimum si#e of

the aggregate used for foundation layer.

d. +ross slope in Telford roads was developed by using smaller si#e

stones at the edges and large si#e stones at the centre of the width.

Thicknesses of subseuent intermediate and surfacing layers, is

kept constant for the full width of the road. "n Macadam roads,

reuired camber was given to the sub-grade itself and all the

subseuent layers of aggregate including foundation layer of

uniform thickness for the whole of the width of the road.

e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation

layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 7 cm thick wearing top

layer. Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers

each of 4/ cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 0 cm

thick surfacing layer.

f. "n Telford roads, camber given was 4 in 70 while in Macadam it

was 4 in /6.

g. Telford;s foundation layer, being of larger si#ed stones, behaved

like semi fleible road but Macadam;s base was yielding type and

hence Macadam roads behaved like fully fleible roads.h. Total thickness of road structure was about 71 cm in case of

Telford but only about 20 cm in case of Macadam.

18



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4. Gescribe brie the characteristic of road transport..

2. Gescribe the method of construction for Macadam roads.

/. +lassify the modes of transportation used in Malaysia.

19

Huestion



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4. The characteristics of road transport are as follows :

i. !oads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock carts,

carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and lorries, etc.

They are eually useful for pedestrians also.

ii. !oads can lead to any remote place.

iii. "nvestment on road transport by government is

comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also cheaper

than rail-track, docks, harbors and airports.

iv. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the

vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to

another according to the reuirements.

v. (ocal communication among villages, villages and towns is

only possible through roads.

vi. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of

railways or airways.

vii. !oad transport is the only mode of transport that offers itself

for the service of whole community alike.

2. Method of +onstruction for Macadam roads

20

Answer



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%ub-grade was prepared and compacted to the reuired

width of the road. 3repared sub-grade was given the same camber,

as to given to the finished road surface. +onstruction of road

according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,

foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.

Foundation layer was 41 cm thick @compacted and was made from

0 cm si#e aggregate. "ntermediate layer was also 41 cm thick

@compacted but made from aggregate passing 71 mm sieve.

(astly, wearing surface was made 0 cm thick @compacted using

aggregate passing 21 mm sieve. +ross slope of finished surface

was kept as 4 in /6.

"n those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough

compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be

achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that net layer

could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly

compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on

modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of theworld, though with certain modifications.

/. Modes of transportation can be classified as follows:

a. roadways or highways

b. railways

c. water ways

d. airways

21



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TECHNIQE IN PLANNING AND PRE-

CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD WORKHighway Engineering C3010 / UNIT2

i

TECHNIQUE IN PLANNING AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

OF ROADWORK

OBJECTIVES

General Objectie

To understand the planning activities and all pre-construction works

S!eci"ic Objectie#


describe the planning objective.

state the procedures to identify a new road. state the procedures for site investigation describe the method of site exploration.

describe the survey works.

UNIT $



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TECHNIQUE IN PLANNING AND

PRE-CONSTRUCTION

ROADWORKS

$%& TECHNIQUES IN PLANNING AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

ROADWORK%

A construction of a new road must under go an extensive planning,

accurate land surveying and economic planning.

$%&%' Plannin( Re)*ire+ent#

A modern highway construction would include:-

. A collection of a tabulated information on the existing transportation

facilities in the area.

!. The determination of the general inter-relation of all branches of the

transportation system and their effect on each other.

". The determination of the ade#uacy or otherwise of the existing

facilities as per present needs and the improvement and extension

of these facilities for anticipated future needs for a certain period.

$. %ethods of financing the projects and the duration of the

construction.

&. An estimation of construction and maintenance.



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Any highway planning study can be sub-divided into :-

. 'oad inventory study.

!. Traffic studies.

". (conomic planning studies.

$. )inancial planning studies.

$%&%$ Pre!arati,n an Plannin( Sc.e+e ," a Ne/ R,a%

*lanning expertise, evaluation on survey work, knowledge

on geology and experience on civil engineering area are essentially

needed in constructing of a new road. The traffic needs, the

purpose on planning at certain route and approximate cost thus

become very vital information to be considered before constructing

a new road.

The synopsis of procedures that is used for identifying,

planning and constructing a new road are listed in the followingpage. +owever, not all new roads follow these procedures. ome of

the procedures are valid for certain terms and conditions only.

elow is set of procedure that is used for identifying,

planning and constructing a new road. The procedures are

. /dentify the problem in traffic congestion, accident and

environment by making a research on transportation and

problematic areas.

!. /dentify the maintenance and new construction work needed.

". /dentify the organi0ation and %inistries that are responsible with

the construction work such as 12', T3 etc.



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$. 4ollect the information for briefing.

&. *repare the following plans: -

a. Topography plan.

b. 5sage land plan.

c. 6eology plan.

d. Agriculture area plan.

e. 7omestic plan.

f. Traffic flow plan.

g. Town 4onsult planning document.

8. 7raw a temporary layout sketch and include related

suggestion.

9. 6et information on

a. 1unctions.

b. 'iver and drainage.

c. urvey information.

d. The latest traffic data.

e. 6round evel.

;. *repare a detailed layout with consideration to environmentalimpact.

9. %ake a valuation.

10. 4hoose the best road to be constructed. +owever, the

alternative road should be e#ually prepared in the planning.

.3egotiate with other related group such as :-

a. %inistry of cience and (nvironment.

b. %inistry of Transportation.

c.


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".Analy0e the problems faced by the public.

$.*repare the preliminary report based on the above information

and submit it to the planning division.

&.the identified road?.

b. tart planning the alternative roads.

c. tart purchasing the important materials.

9.6et the information from the public on the suggested road and

the other roads involved. et a panel that consists of external

lawyers and other professionals to conduct a survey.

;.ubmit the report to the respective %inistry and wait for the

approval.

@.*repare the financial report based on the cost benefit analysis

to determine the advantages will bring to the public.!=.Advertise a tender notice and the selected contractor will then

need to prepare and submit the #uotation of the contract plan

and document.

!.Accept the tender and start the construction work.

There are " stages in planning the construction of a new road :-

. tage - *repare a preliminary report.

!. tage ! - ubmit the preliminary report.

". tage " - )inali0e the report.



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$%&%0 Sta(e '- Pre!arin( a !reli+inar1 re!,rt%

/n this stage, it includes all the preliminary reports and

information that are received during the ensuing stage >refer to

!.=.!, *rocedure $?. They are: -

a. Traffic surveying work.

b. (valuation on the information and planning. 4onsider

suggestion if there is another useful choice.

c. 7esign using 8 : mile scale.

d. udget of the construction and its advantages.

e. /dentify the certain road.

f. 'eport on the alternative road, which includes the

topography, geology and traffic flow, soil consuming and

historical places.

g. Bbtain cooperation from the related group such as town

council and state government.

h. /f the project is over budgeted the ministry must be informand no further work shall be proceed.

$%&%2 Sta(e $ - S*b+ittin( t.e !reli+inar1 re!,rt%

/n the preliminary report, it explains about the proposal and its

alternatives of the identified project. /t then is submitted to the

person in-charged to obtain permission. +owever, the following

#uestions need to be considered.

a. Are the suggestions fulfilled the planning needs at the

national level.

b. Are the advantages acceptedC



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c. Are the suggested solution accepted in term of

political or environmental aspect.


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$%&%5 T.e c,ntent ," t.e Preli+inar1 Re!,rt

The preliminary report which includes the plan must contain the

following aspects:-

a. The existence situation E which is on physical shape and

scheme objective of the existence road.

b. The traffic situation E based on the latest data >not more

than " years?. A report should include content the total of

traffic user.

c. The alternative roads, which include the costing,

advantages and the environmental impact.

d. 'oad classification E identify the road classification that is

to be built highway or ordinary road.

e. 3egotiation on the report and the result.

f. udget the total of roadwork cost, bridges work and

earthwork approximately !=F from the previous budget.

The cost report should comprise the following:'oadwork:-

- ite clearing cost.

- (arthwork cost.

- *avement construction and road shoulder work

cost.

- 'oad furniture work.

- )acilities service work.

- 4ontingency stretch cost.

g. Galuation is to see the economical aspect of the project.



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h. (nclosed plans E plan with 8: mile scale is used for

new scheme. )or the city or village area a bigger scale is

used. *lan must show the following:-

a. The plan of the approved alternative roads.

b. The type of junction and its location.

Avoid using the existence plan. eside the, the activities

which would be included in the planning and pre-

construction road work are as follow:

. ite investigation.

!. urvey works and setting out.

". ite clearing and top soil deletions.

$. (arth works.



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TEST 6OUR UNDERSTANDING()B'( HB5 4B3T/35(


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. The objective of planning is to provide a highway system which

would give maximum transportation facilities at a minimum cost.

!. The other activities in planning and pre-construction roadworks be

as follows :

. ite investigation.

!. urvey works and setting out.

". ite clearing and top soil deletions.

$. (arth works.

FEED8ACK ON

Answer



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$%' SITE IN7ESTIGATION

'oad structures are the structure which is supported by the ground.

The interaction between the structure and the soil beneath it is complex,

and therefore knowledge of the site and soil condition is important.

$%'%' Pr,ce*re# ," t.e ine#ti(ati,n

$%'%'%' C,+!act #ite#

/n the case of compact sites for road structure, the

investigation re#uires deep and closely speed borings. The

actual number and position of borings depend on the types

of structure and nature of sites. +owever, the number of

bore hole should be such as to given a clear picture of all

significant variations in the soil over the site, and the depth

of such bore hole should be such as to reach all strata

likely to influence the stability of the works.

$%'%'%$ 9et., ," #ite e:!l,rati,n


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!. %edium to large scale works E borings up to "=m

deep

". Gery large scale works E a combination of deep

boring, pits and insitu examination from heading and

shafts.

/t must be noted that the above is only guide: the

detailed methods of exploration would depend on the types

of the construction and the site involved.

a% Trial !it#

This is the cheapest form of exploration in shallow

depth above " m deep the cost increases rapidly compared

with boring. The main advantage is that soils and rocks can

be exposed and examined insitu. This method shows

changes in strata much more clearly than by boring. The pits

are dug out either by local labour or by a small tractormounted excavator. The plan si0e of a pits depends on

method of excavation, but approximately .! x .! m and

should be dug at distances !=m apart in either direction.

*roblem occurs in water bearing soils, particularly

sands, and therefore the economies of shoring and pumping

pits may outweigh the savings gained against specialist

borings. /n dry condition these pits are particularly valuable

since they allow hand cut sample to be taken, thereby

minimi0ing the disturbance of the sample and maximi0ing

the condition for accurate testing. 7eeper trial pits maybe

used for investigation of rock fissures or to explore layer of



45/320



weak rock which cannot be removed intact in normal boring

operations. uch deep pits are costly to construct and would

be used only a large scale exploration. Trial pits are the best

method of exploring back filled areas and side overlain by

variable natural deposit.

b% 8,rin(#

All boring should be should be spaced sufficiently

closed together to prevent false deduction concerning the

uniformity of hori0ontal strata. The deeps of boring will be

determined by the type of loading involved but account must

be taken of any slope in the strata and variation in their

thickness. /n particular, when boring through glacial

deposits, care must be exercised to insure that borders are

not mistaken for bedrock.

There are three main factors which govern the depthof exploration:

. The depth to which the soil is to be significantly stressed.

!. The depth to which weathering is likely to affect the soil.

". The depth at which impermeable strata occur.

c% Wa#. 8,rin(#%

The soil is loosened and removes from the bore hole

by mean of a strong jet of water or drilling mud. The li#uid is

jetted through a steel tube which is work up and down the

hole. The li#uid disintegrates the soil and carries it up the

annular space between the tube and casing.


46/320



the advantage that the soil is not disturbed by blows of a tool

or shell, but it is limited to soil which do not contain boulders

or large gravels. %ud such as bentonite, allows boring to be

carried out without linings is non-cohesive soils. The soil in it

settled-out state can be dried and use for identification

purposes.

$%$ SUR7E6 WORK AND SETTING OUT

$%$%' Preli+inar1 S*re1

The preliminary survey consist in running a accurate

traverse line, usually called the ase ine along the route already

recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to

obtain sufficient data for final location. imilar traverses may also

be run along the secondary routes, if any. The preliminary survey

shall help gather all the physical information which might affect the

final location of the highway. The traverse being an JBpen one,

adjustment cannot be made as in the case of closed traverse sothat in order to ensure some standard of accuracy, certain

precaution especially in the measurement of angels and chaining,

etc., are necessary.

After establishing the ase ine, important topographical

features may also be recorded. These features include swamps,

lakes and any other features which affect the final location and

design of the highway. All the information collected by preliminary

survey work is used in preparing a map, often called the basic plan

or *reliminary urvey *lan.



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The next step after recording all the available details on the

basic plan is to locate the center line of the proposed highway on it.

A number of trial lines are drawn on the plan, avoiding valuable

property, obstruction and difficult areas such as water-logged

areas, etc. +aving thus selected the center-line on the plan, the

next step consist in transferring on to the field.

$%$%$ Settin( O*t

The first task is to establish a ase ine from which the

whole of the road can be set out. The position of this line must be

clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time.

etting out was done by plotting the construction boundaries after

being referred from the previous survey on *reliminary urvey *lan

and ase ine.


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TEST 6OUR UNDERSTANDING()B'( HB5 4B3T/35(


49/320



. a. Trial pits

b. orings

!. There are three main factors which govern the depth of

exploration:

. The depth to which the soil is to be significantly

stressed.

!. The depth to which weathering is likely to affect

the soil.

". The depth at which impermeable strata occur.

FEED8ACK ON

Answer



50/320



.


51/320



The procedures to identify a new road include:-

!a. Preli+inar1 S*re1

The preliminary survey consist in running a accurate

traverse line, usually called the ase ine along the route already

recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to

obtain sufficient data for final location. imilar traverses may alsobe run along the secondary routes, if any. The preliminary survey

shall help gather all the physical information which might affect the

final location of the highway. The traverse being an JBpen one,

adjustment cannot be made as in the case of closed traverse so

that in order to ensure some standard of accuracy, certain

precaution especially in the measurement of angels and chaining,

etc., are necessary.

After establishing the ase ine, important topographical

features may also be recorded. These features include swamps,

lakes and any other features which affect the final location and

design of the highway. All the information collected by preliminary

Answer



52/320



survey work is used in preparing a map, often called the basic plan

or *reliminary urvey *lan.

The next step after recording all the available details on the

basic plan is to locate the center line of the proposed highway on it.

A number of trial lines are drawn on the plan, avoiding valuable

property, obstruction and difficult areas such as water-logged

areas, etc. +aving thus selected the center-line on the plan, the

next step consist in transferring on to the field.

!b. Settin( O*t

The first task is to establish a ase ine from which the

whole of the road can be set out. The position of this line must be

clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time.

etting out was done by plotting the construction boundaries after

being referred from the previous survey on *reliminary urvey *lan

and ase ine.


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pits are the best method of exploring back filled areas and side

overlain by variable natural deposit.



54/320

THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND

PRE-CONSTRUCTION ROAD WORKHighway Engineering C3010 / UNIT3

THE TECHNIQUE OF PLANNING AND PRE-

CONSTRUCTION ROAD WORK

( Part 2 )

OBJECTIVES

General Obe!t"#e

To understand the earth work operation and its problems occurred.

S$e!"%"! Obe!t"#e&


describe the earth work operation.

state the highway machinery state the types of slope. state the problem and its solutions. describe the method of slope protection.

UNIT '



55/320



PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-

CONSTRUCTION

ROAD WORK ( Part 2 )

'* INTRODUCTION

The sub-grade soil is prepared by bringing it to the desired grade andcamber and by compacting adequately. The sub-grade may be either in

embankment or in excavation, depending on the topography and the finalied

vertical alignment of the road to be constructed.

'+ EARTH WORH OPERATION

The earth work quantities are estimated based on longitudinal and transverse

section along the alignment of the road. !n order to reduce the cost of

construction, it is necessary to plan the movement of materials from cuts to the

nearest fills. !t is necessary to decide the limits of economical haul and lift. !t is

advantageous to plot a mass haul diagram to compute the haulage details. The

swelling and shrinkage factor may also be considered in the excavation and

compaction of earth.

INPUT



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'++ E,!a#at"n

"xcavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth

including rock from its original position, transporting and dumping it as a fill or

spoil bank. The excavation or cutting may be needed in soil, soft rock or even in

hard rock, before preparing the sub-grade. The selection of excavation

equipment and the cost analysis is made based on the stiffness of the materials

to be excavated.

"arth excavation work may be divided as excavation or cutting, grading

and compaction. The depth of the excavation is decided, among other factors, on

requirement of vertical profile of the road. The slope to be provided is governed

by the type of soil including stratification, if any, and the depth of the cutting. The

stability computations may help in arriving at maximum permissible slope for the

complex problems. #owever highway cuts much flatter slopes are preferred from

other considerations including aesthetics construction of side drains also require

excavations along road side.

a E,!a#at"n e./"$0ent

The excavation equipment commonly used in highway pro$ects includes

bull doers, scrapers, power shovels, draglines, clamshells and hoes. #owever,

in small pro$ects excavation is carried out manually using hand tools.

The machines that used are:-

" 1/ll 3er an &!ra$er

%ull doer and scraper may be used for shallow excavation work

and for hauling the earth for relatively short distances. %ull doer is

considered to be versatile machine for many construction pro$ects as it



57/320



may be used for clearing site. !t can used for opening up pilot roads,

moving earth for short haul distances of about &''m and also in several

other $obs. (craper is considered as one of the useful earth-moving

equipment as it is self operating - it can dig, haul and discharge the

material in uniformly thick layers. #owever scrapers are not capable of

digging very stiff material.

)igure *.&: %ull doer

"" P4er &5#el

+ower shovel used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except

rock and to load it into wagons. +ower shovels may be mounted on

crawler tracks and so they can move at low speeds. )igure *. shows the

operation and basic parts of a power shovel, these including the mounting,

cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line. The power shovel can

effectively operate the excavate earth from a lower level where it stands

and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.



58/320



""" Dra6l"ne

ragline is used to excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearly

banks or to load into wagons. ragline may also be mounted on crawler. !t

can operate on natural ground while excavating from a pit with the bucket,

thus it is not necessary for the dragline to go into the pit in order to

excavate. The basic parts and operation of a dragline are shown in figure

*.*. The bucket is thrown out from the dragline on the top of the earth tobe excavated and then pulled back towards the base of the machine.

)igure *.: +ower (hovel

)igure *.*: ragline



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"# Cla0&5ell

lamshell consists of a bucket of two halves or shell which is

hinged together at top. The shells may be attached to the shovel-crane

units or at the boom of a drag line. The open clam-shell bucket is thrown

on the top of the loose material to be dug and as the bucket is lift, the two

halves close en trapping the material into the bucket. )igure *./ shows the

clamshell bucket. This equipment is useful for excavation of soft to

medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground surface.

# He

#oe is an excavating equipment of the power-shovel family. #oe is

meant to excavate below the natural surface where the machine is

stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of excavation

at close range work 0see figure *.12. #oe can exert high tooth pressures

and hence can excavate stiff material which normally can not be

excavated by dragline.

)igure *./: lamshell



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The excavation equipment is selected depending on the natural of the

material, the distance, to be hauled and the method of disposal. At times the

selection may be made based on the availability also.

'+2 E0ban70ent

3hen it is required to raise line of a highway above the existing ground

level it becomes necessary to construct embankments. The grade line may

raised due to any of the following reasons:

i. to keep the sub grade above the high ground water table.

ii. to prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary

water.

iii. to maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the

vertical alignment.

The design elements in highway embankments are:

i. height

ii. fill material

iii. settlements.

)igure *.1 #oe



61/320



iv. stability of foundation, and

v. stability of slopes

a He"65t

The height of the embankments depends on the desired grade line of the

highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some

times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is

week.

b F"ll 0ater"al

4ranular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. (ilts

and clays are considered less desirable. 5rganic soils, particularly peat are

unsuitable. The best of the soils available locally is often selected with a view to

keep the lead and lift as lowers possible. At times light-weight fill material like

cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation soil is weak.

! Settle0ent

The embankment may settle after the completion of construction either

due to consolidation and settlement of the foundation or due to settlement of the

fill or due to both. !f the embankments foundation consists of compressible soil

with high moisture content, the consolidation can occur due to increase in the

load. The settlement of the fill is generally due to inadequate compaction during

construction, and hence by proper compaction this type of settlement may bealmost eliminated. 3hatever be the type of settlement, it is desired that the

settlement is almost complete before the construction of saturated. )oundation

clay, vertical sand drains are sometimes constructed. These are vertical columns

of sand installed in the compressible foundation like marshy soils in order to

decrease drainage path and thus accelerate the rate of consolidation. The



62/320



vertical sand columns may be of *' to 6' cm diameter and .1 to 6 meter

spacing, arranged in hexagonal pattern. A horiontal sand blanket, /' to 6' cm

thick is placed at the top of the drains extending across the entire width of

embankment at its bottom. This helps the water to flow out with ease.

Stab"l"t8 O% F/nat"n

3hen the embankment foundation consists of weak soil $ust beneath are

at a certain depth below in the form of a weak stratum, it is essential to consider

the stability of the foundation against a failure. This is more essential in the case

of high embankment. The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of

safety is estimated by any of the following approaches.

i. Assuming a certain failure surface such as a circular arc or

any other composite shape and analying it with (wedish circular

arc analysis or method of wedges. As the case may be.

ii. "stimating the average shear stress and strength at the

foundation layers by approximate methods and estimating the

factor of safety.iii. 7sing theoretical analysis base on elastic theory.

The factor of safety in the case of compressible soil foundation is likely to be

minimum $ust after the completion of the embankment. 8ater due to

consolidation of foundation and consequent gain in strength there will be an

increase in the foundation factor of safety. Thus it is evident that in such

compressible foundation soils, the vertical sand drains would be useful also to

increase the rate of gain in strength. %y proper design of vertical sand drains, it

is possible to limit the decrease in foundation factor of safety due to the

construction, within the allowable value.



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e Stab"l"t8 O% Sl$e&

The embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the

possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other conditions. #ence the

stability of the slope should be checked or the slope should be designed

providing minimum factor of safety of &.1. 5ften much flatter slopes are

preferred in highway embankment due to aesthetic and other reasons.

'+' Cn&tr/!t"n % e0ban70ent

The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin

layers or by hydraulic fills. The former is called rolled-earth method and is

preferred in highway embankments. "ach layer is compacted by rolling to a

satisfactory degree or to a desired density before the next layer is placed.

ompaction is carried out at optimum moisture content so as to take advantages

of maximum dry density using a specified compacting effort and equipment. The

thickness of the layers may vary between &' and *' cm depending on various

factors such as soils type, equipment, specifications etc.

The practice of dumping the earth without compacting properly and

allowing the fill to get consolidated under weather during few subsequent

seasons should be avoided as the settlement will continue for a very long period.

!f pavement is constructed before the settlement of the fill is almost complete, the

pavement is likely to become uneven and also fail later-on. ompaction of soil is

discussed separately in topic (oil ompaction.



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Lets test your understanding before we continue to

the next input. GOOD LUCK.

'+ Eart5 4r7 $erat"n !an be "#"e "nt t4 !ate6r"e& Na0e t5e4r7 b8 %"ll"n6 "n t5e !5art bel4

'2 9at!5 t5e e,!a#at"n e./"$0ent l"&te bel4 4"t5 "t& e&!r"$t"nT5en /n"te t5e 4r& "n t5e b,e& $r#"e

HOE CLAMSHELL

POWER SHOVEL BULLO!ER/SCRAPPER

RA"LINE

EARTH WORK OPERATION

ACTIVITY 3A



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9!m used for shallow excavation workand for hauling the earth for relativelyshort distances.;

9!m used primarily to excavate earth ofall classes except rock and to load itinto wagons.;

9!m used to excavate soft earth and todeposit it nearby banks or intowagons.;

9!m useful for excavation of soft tomedium materials and loose materialsat or below existing ground surface.;

9!m useful to excavate below naturalsurface.;



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'' C0$lete t5e !5art % e&"6n ele0ent& "n 5"654a8 e0ban70ent&bel4

HEIGHT

DESIGN ELE9ENTS

IN HIGHWA:E91ANK9ENTS STA1ILIT:

OF SLOPE



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'+

'2

9!m used for shallow excavation workand for hauling the earth for relativelyshort distances.;

BULLDOZER/SCRAPPER

9!m used primarily to excavate earth ofall classes except rock and to load itinto wagons.;

POWER SHOVEL

9!m used to excavate soft earth and todeposit it nearby banks or intowagons.;

9!m useful for excavation of soft tomedium materials and loose materialsat or below existing ground surface.;

9!m useful to excavate below naturalsurface.;

DRAGLINE

CLAM SHELL HOE

EARTH WORK OPERATION

E;CA


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''

HO DO !OU "#$D %H& 'C%#(#%#&)* "U$ '+&$%

%H&!* L&%) ,+OC&&D %O %H& $&-% #$,U%..

HEIGHT

DESIGN ELE9ENTSIN HIGHWA:

E91ANK9ENTS STA1ILIT:OF SLOPE

FILL9ATERIAL

SETTLE9ENTS

STA1ILIT: OFFOUNDATION



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'2 SIDE SLOPE OPERATION

There are two types of side slope in #ighway "ngineering. Alignments of

highways through hilly and rolling topography result in many cut and fill slopes of

exposed soil. #ighway construction until recently has been simply a matter of

location and design.


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)igure *.: ut slope for variable soil strata.

T8$e % &"l C/tt"n6 e$t5 &l$"n6

(olid rock &:'.* = &:'.'

>ock &:'.1 = &:&.

(and &:'.1 = &:&.'

(andy soil ' = 1 &:'.? - &:&.ompact earth 1-&' &:&.' = &:&.

(and, loose 1-&' &:&. = &:&.1

lay soil '-&' &:'.? = &:&.

lay-stone 1-&' &:&. - &:&.1

Table *.&: Table for safety slope cutting

'2++ Prble0& "n !/t &l$e

(and 4ranular >ock



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There are several problems that will be stated in cut slope.

a Lan&l"e

8and slide is a problem that always happens in the work of slope cutting. !t

is because the cut of soil influence the stability of the soil. There are a few ways

to overcome the problem.

i. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.

ii. Turfing the slope areas to maintain the soil stability

iii. #ydro @seeding is use to plant the plant on the alkali soil.

iv. %y using 4eofabric or geotextile to avoid the diffusion of ground

water.

>ock slope is dangerous because the area of cutting does not have stable

binding ability. !f the failure of stone happen, it will cause the accident and

dangerous for us. There are some methods which had being used in our country

to overcome the problems.

i. %uild the fencing along the slope areas.

ii. 7se a net.

iii. 4abion block.

b Water In%"ltrat"n

3ater infiltration in soil also influences the soil stability. (torey and soildrainage system are important. (ub-soil drains are always used to control the

flow of infiltration.

'22 E91ANK9ENT SLOPE



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(lope embankment takes place when the original soil is under the level of

new road formation to be built. "mbankment slope is built by equivalent

or different types of materials depend on soil strata.

)igure *.*: "mbankment by equivalent materials

)igure *./: "mbankment by different materials

Tables *.: of safety sloping degree in soil banking

T8$e& % 0ater"al He"65t ( 0 ) Sl$e= Hr T


73/320



6 = &1 &:&.? = &:.'

0 poorly graded sand 2 ' = &' &:&.? = &:.'

>ock' = &'

&' = '

&:&.1 = &:.'

&:&.? = &:.'

lay ' - 6 &:&.? = &:.'

'22+ Prble0& "n &l$e ban7"n6

There are several problems that are related to the embankment slope.

Lan&l"e

There are some ways to overcome the problem.

i. Turfing - +lanting the plants for slope protection

ii. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.

iii. 7se 4eofabric and geotextiles to avoid the diffusion of

ground water.

Er&"n

(oil erosion happens because of infiltration and the flow of water

run-off. To prevent the erosion, a few methods can be used:

i. +repare the drainage system to let the water flow easily.

ii. 4row plants to cover the slope surface.

ACTIVITY 3B



74/320



Lets test your understanding before we continue to

the next input. GOOD LUCK.

*./ There are two types of side slope in #ighway "ngineering. ame thetypes by filling in place below.

'> 9at!5 t5e t4 t8$e &l$e a& t5e an&4er %r0 ./e&t"n '? 4"t5 "t&e&!r"$t"n Wr"te t5e 4r& "n t5e b,e& $r#"e

'@ Na0e t5e $rble0& % t5e %%%e0ban70ent &l$e b8 %"ll"n6 t5e !5art

bel4

!ts take place when the

original soil is under the

level of new road formation

to be built.

!ts takes place when the

original soil level

higher then the

level of new road

formation to be

built.

Two types of slopesB

CCCCCCCC

CCCCCCCC



75/320



"mbankment (lope

FEEDBACK TO

ACTIVITY 3B



76/320



'?

'>

'@

The answers areC..

ut (lope"mbankment (lope

!ts take place when the

original soil is under the

level of new road formation

to be built.

"mbankment (lope

!ts takes place when the

original soil level

higher then the

level of new road

formation to be

built.ut (lope

"mbankment (lope

8andslide "rosionhttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/


77/320



HO DO !OU "#$D %H& 'C%#(#%#&)* "U$ '+&$%

%H&!* L&%) ,+OC&&D %O %H& $&-% #$,U%..



78/320



The excavation equipment commonly used in highway pro$ects. escribe

about the machine as listed below.

a. %ulldoer and scraper.

b. +ower shovel.

c. #oe.

escribe all the problems in slopes and the solution to overcome the

problem.

There are several factors that contribute to the increase of design. "xplain

briefly two factors that contribute to the increment.

Duestion * - &

Duestion * - Duestion * -

Duestion * - *



79/320



a 1/ll 3er an &!ra$er

%ull doer and scraper may be used for shallow excavation work

and for hauling the earth for relatively short distances. %ull doer is

considered to be versatile machine for many construction pro$ects as it

may be used for clearing site. !t can used for opening up pilot roads,

moving earth for short haul distances of about &''m and also in several

other $obs. (craper is considered as one of the useful earth-moving

equipment as it is self operating - it can dig, haul and discharge the

material in uniformly thick layers. #owever scrapers are not capable of

digging very stiff material.

b P4er &5#el

+ower shovel used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except

rock and to load it into wagons. +ower shovels may be mounted on

crawler tracks and so they can move at low speeds. )igure & shows the

operation and basic parts of a power shovel, these including the mounting,

cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line. The power shovel can

effectively operate the excavate earth from a lower level where it stands

and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.

Answer *.&

)igure &: +ower (hovel



80/320



! He

#oe is an excavating equipment of the power-shovel family. #oe is

meant to excavate below the natural surface where the machine is

stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of excavation

at close range work 0see figure 2. #oe can exert high tooth pressures and

hence can excavate stiff material which normally can not be excavated by

dragline.

+ Prble0& "n !/t &l$e

Answer *.

)igure : #oe



81/320



There are several problems that will be stated in cut slope.

a Lan&l"e

8and slide is a problem that always happens in the work of slope cutting. !t

is because the cut of soil influence the stability of the soil. There are a few ways

to overcome the problem.

i. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.

ii. Turfing the slope areas to maintain the soil stability

iii. #ydro @seeding is use to plant the plant on the alkali soil.

iv. %y using 4eofabric or geotextile to avoid the diffusion of ground

water.

>ock slope is dangerous because the area of cutting does not have stable

binding ability. !f the failure of stone happen, it will cause the accident and

dangerous for us. There are some methods which had being used in our country

to overcome the problems.

i. %uild the fencing along the slope areas.

ii. 7se a net.

iii. 4abion block.

# Water In%"ltrat"n



82/320



3ater infiltration in soil also influences the soil stability. (torey and soil

drainage system are important. (ub-soil drains are always used to control the

flow of infiltration.

2 Prble0& "n &l$e ban7"n6

There are several problems that will be stated in embankment slope.

Lan&l"e

There are some ways to overcome the problem.

iv. Turfing - +lanting the plants for slope protection

v. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.

vi. 7se 4eofabric and geotextiles to avoid the diffusion of

ground water.

Er&"n

(oil erosion happens because of infiltration and the flow of water

run-off. To prevent the erosion, a few methods can be used:

iii. +repare the drainage system to let the water flow easily.

iv. 4row plants to cover the slope surface.

a He"65t

Answer *.*



83/320



The height of the embankments depends on the desired grade line of the

highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some

times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is

week.

b F"ll 0ater"al

4ranular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. (ilts

and clays are considered less desirable. 5rganic soils, particularly peat are

unsuitable. The best the soils available locally is often selected with a view to

keep the lead and lift as lowers possible. At times light-weight fill material like

cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation soil is weak.



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ROADS CONSTRUCTIONMATERIALS & TESTING

Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT4

ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

OBJECTIVES

General Obje

c3010 highway engineering

Documents