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Van Geelen, Tess, Longton, Guy, Sukumar, Pragadesh, Raya, Ramisa,Lim, Kien, Desoe, Grace, & Archbold, Caitlin(2017)Submission to the Australian Law Reform Commission Inquiry into Indige-nous Incarceration Rates.The Light Bulb Exchange, Australia.

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SubmissiontotheAustralianLawReformCommissionInquiryintoIndigenousIncarcerationRatesJuly2017AUTHORS

TessVanGeelenGuyLongtonPragadeshSukumarRamisaRayaKienLimGraceDesoeCaitlinArchboldFORINFORMATIONCONTACTTess.vangeelen@gmail.com

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TheLightBulbExchangeisastudentthinktankbasedinBrisbane,Australia.We produce research and policy recommendations for state and federalgovernment.Wetacklecomplexandemergingissuesthatarepronetounder-reporting or misunderstanding in the mainstream media. By providing aplatformforyoungvoicesacrossthepoliticalspectrum,weensurethatyoungpeoplehaveasayintheissuesthatwillimpactthem.Weareindependentandnotaffiliatedwithanypoliticalagenda.Theopinionswe publish are those of our authors – our editorial input extends only todemandingthehigheststandardofresearchandacademicintegrity.Wearecommittedtoexploringallangles,andfocusingonoutcomesandevidence,notideology.ThisreportwaspreparedbyateamofundergraduatestudentsaspartofapolicyfellowshipwithTheLightBulbExchange.SpecialthanksareowedtoDrHope Johnson, lecturer at Queensland University of Technology, for heradviceandencouragement.

This work is free to reproduce and share, in accordance with a CreativeCommonsLicense.

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Contents

EXECUTIVESUMMARY 3

1.0SYSTEMICINJUSTICE 6

2.0MANDATORYSENTENCING 13

3.0DEALINGWITHCHILDOFFENDERS 18

4.0CIRCLESENTENCING 23

5.0CONSULTATIONANDRESPECTFORINDIGENOUSSELF-DETERMINATION 27

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ExecutiveSummaryAnyreferenceto‘Indigenouspeoples’inthisreportincludes‘FirstNationspeoples’.Theongoing social injustices facedby IndigenousAustralians compriseoneof thegreatesttragediesandfailuresofsuccessiveAustraliangovernments.Whilecommendingtheeffortsofmanyindividualsandinstitutionsovertheyearsinaddressingthisissue,includingtheAttorney-Generalincallingforthisinquiry,wewanttohighlightthatthisareahasbeenconsistentlyandseverelyunder-resourcedbothinafiscalandculturallyappropriatecontext.Australiahasbeenbuilt on the blood, sweat and tears of our Indigenous peoples. Our hospitals and publicinfrastructurehavebeenfundedbywagesowedtounpaidIndigenousworkers.1Andyet,FirstNationspeoplestodayarestillnottheprimaryagentsbehindmanyofthepoliciesthataffectthem.Whenanycommunityinourcountrysuffers,nomatterthesizeoftheirpopulation,theentirecountrysuffers.Equally,whenanycommunityprospers,theentirenationprospers.Vibrant,healthycommunitiesfostereconomicgrowth,meaningfuldemocraticparticipation,andsafe,culturally-flourishingpublicspacesandinstitutions.Indigenouscommunitiesoffertheoldestand some of the richest cultural traditions in this country. The empowerment of thesecommunitiesshouldbeapriorityforallAustralians.It should be noted that what constitutes ‘culturally-appropriate’ or ‘cultural-competency’remains a point of debate. Further exploration is needed into how these methods aremeasured,inordertoensureitisnotinreferencetoEuro-centricnorms.Asastartingpoint,‘culturally-appropriate’methodsneedtobedevelopedinthecontextofanelevatedlevelofself-determination, and involve an appropriate education on historical policies andcontemporaryimpactsofthishistory.Accordingly,weofferthefollowingrecommendations:

SystemicInjustice

1 The Australian government should commission an investigation into alternatives topunitive criminal sentences, with a specific focus on rehabilitative programs thatincorporate specific cultural rights of Indigenous peoples, based upon soundknowledge of those historically discriminatory policies and practices, and withAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander legal professionals and executives leading thework.

1RosalindKidd,TrusteesonTrial:RecoveringtheStolenWages(AboriginalStudiesPress,2006).

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2 The Australian Government should develop sentencing guidelines to streamlinepractices between courts of different levels, which take into account the specificcircumstanceofIndigenousoffending.

3 TheMagistracyandJudiciaryshouldberequiredtoundertakemandatoryprofessionaltraininginculturalcompetencyandmulti-dayculturalimmersions.

4 State and federal criminal codes should be revised to de-criminalise non-violentoffenceswheretheunderlyingcauseisahealthorsocialissue,includingmentalhealthproblems,cognitivedisability,addiction,orhomelessness.Governmentsshoulddesignresponsesthatfocusonrehabilitation,medicaltreatmentandsocialsupportservices,rather than punitivemeasures. These responses should be designed in conjunctionwithexistingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderspecialtyservices.

5 The Australian Government should provide and expand funding for rehabilitative,culturally appropriate alternatives to traditional courts, such as drug, alcohol andmentalhealthcourts,ordiversionaryprograms.

MandatorySentencingandJusticeReinvestment

6 Mandatorysentencinglawsshouldberepealedinallstatesandterritories.

7 Fundingshouldbereallocatedawayfromcorrectionalservicesandpolicingtoprovidejusticereinvestmentprogramsthattargetpoverty,education,housing,healthcareandpublicamenities.

8 MandatorysentencingprovisionsintheCriminalLawAmendment(HomeBurglaryandotherOffences)Act2015(WA)shouldberepealed.

9 State and territory governments should reallocate funding from incarceration ofjuveniles toprovenand long-termcommunitydiversionaryprograms that recognisethecollectiveculturalrightsofIndigenousjuvenilesprovidedbyarticle3(1)oftheCRC.

CircleSentencing

10 StateandterritorygovernmentsshouldprovidefundingtoimplementorexpandCircleSentencingcourtsystemsineachjurisdiction,inconsultationwiththelocalIndigenouscommunity, in order to provide appropriate, culturally sensitive, and effectivealternativestothemainstreamcriminaljusticeprocess.

11 AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoples,especiallyElders,shouldtakethecentralpositionindesigning,implementingandmonitoringtheseprograms.

12 All alternative sentencing programs should include fair, impartial and appropriately

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informed third-partymonitoringandevaluation,which shouldbe ledby Indigenouspeoples.Monitoringandevaluationsystemsshouldincludeaccessibleandanonymousfeedbackopportunitiesforparticipants.

13 All staff involved with the design, implementation and monitoring of alternativesentencingprogramsshouldberequiredtoundertakeadequateculturalcompetencytraining.

ConsultationandSelf-Determination

14 Policy decisions should be made in partnership with Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslanderorganisationsandlegalservices,withahumanrights-basedapproach.

15 TheAustraliangovernmentshouldamendtheHumanRights(ParliamentaryScrutiny)Act2011(Cth)toincludearecognitionoftherelevanceofUNDRIP,andreviewexistinglegislation,policiesandprogramstoensureconformitywiththeprinciplesofUNDRIP.

16 In relation to the right of self-determination, a justice reinvestment approach toaddressthesocial factorswhich influencecrimemaybebeneficial if thereareclearaimsandbalancedinvolvementfromgovernment,AboriginalandTorresStraitexperts(includinglegalprofessionals)andthecommunity.

17 State and federal governments should provide more opportunities for Indigenousindividualsandcommunitiestoparticipateindecision-making,includingtheplanning,implementation and evaluation of Indigenous programs. Governments should alsocontinue toprogressconsultations regardingconstitutional recognition anda treatyagreementwithIndigenouscommunities.

18 State and federal governments should promote maintenance and knowledge ofIndigenouscultures,whilealsosupportingIndigenouseducationprogramsamongthenon-Indigenouspopulationaswell.

19 Governments should increase funding and investment in local community-basedemploymentopportunitiesandtrainingprograms,andsupportAboriginalandTorresStrait Islander tertiary students, in order to increase the number of Aboriginal andTorresStraitIslanderprofessionals.

20 Financial support should be given to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peakprofessionalbodiestosupporttheworktheyarealreadydoing.AboriginalandTorresStrait Islander peoples are the highest consumers of justice services, whichmakesjusticereinvestmentasoundfiscalinvestment.FundingshouldalsobeprovidedforanindependentmonitoringbodythatincludesAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderlegalprofessionals.

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1.0SYSTEMICINJUSTICEFollowingtheRecommendationsoftheRoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustodyhanded down in 1991 all state and territory governments in Australia claimed to beimplementingtherecommendationsoftheinquiry.Sincethattime,however,boththenumberof Indigenous deaths in custody, and the number of incarcerated Indigenous people hascontinued to rise. At that time, Indigenous Australianswere eight timesmore likely to beincarcerated than non-indigenous Australians.2 Today it is almost 15 times more likely.3Critically, this increase in Indigenous incarceration exceeds the increase in the crime rate.Theremustbeotherfactorsatplaytoexplainthesedisproportionatelyincreasingfigures.4ThedisproportionaterateofIndigenousincarcerationisanationaltragedy.AreviewofexistingliteratureandstudiesshowthatcertainaspectsofthecriminaljusticesystemaretiltedagainstAustralia’sIndigenouspeoples.Thissectionwillexploreissuesincludingtheover-policingofIndigenouspopulationsandthecriminalisationofhealthproblems,arguingthatthesepoliciesand practices have contributed to the disproportionate and growing rate of IndigenousincarcerationinAustralia.

Indigenouspeopleshaveahighlyproblematicrelationshipwiththecriminaljusticesystem.ByaddressingthekeydriversofoverpolicingandcriminalisationofhealthandsocialissuesthedisproportionaterateofIndigenousincarcerationcanbegintobeaddressed.CurrentlytherearetiltsinthecriminaljusticesystemwhichdisproportionatelyaffectIndigenouspeoplesastheyaremorelikelytobetargetedbythepolice,morelikelytobeexposedtothesystemicbiasofthecriminaljusticesystem.Increasinglyincarcerationisbeingusedasamethodtotreat

2StephenGray,‘Scoringtheintervention:failgradesonclosingthegap,humanrights’(2016)8(23)IndigenousLawBulletin10,12-13.3Ibid.4PatrickDodson,’25Yearsonfromroyalcommissionintoaboriginaldeathsincustodyrecommendations’(2016)8(23)IndigenousLawBulletin24,24-25.

TheAustraliangovernmentshouldcommissionaninvestigationintoalternativestopunitivecriminalsentences,withaspecificfocusonrehabilitativeprogramsthatincorporatespecificculturalrightsofIndigenouspeoples,baseduponsoundknowledgeofthosehistoricallydiscriminatorypoliciesandpractices,andwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderlegalprofessionalsandexecutivesleadingthework.

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healthandsocialproblems.Moreover,thishasleftindigenouspeoplewhointeractwiththecriminaljusticesystemfeelinghopeless.Controlandself-determinationneedtoberestored.While the rates of Indigenous incarceration have worsened over the last 26 years, muchthoughtandefforthasgone into findingways to reverse thisdisturbing trend.Shifting thefocustowardsinitiativesthataddressthekeydriversofIndigenousincarcerationshouldformpart of a new approach. Part of the solution to reduce over policing and high rates ofincarcerationistofocusofrehabilitationratherthancriminalisationofcertainissues.Targetintervention initiatives are one such way in which we can make inroads into reducingIndigenous incarceration rates. These initiatives need to place Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslanderpeoplesinthedrivingseatatthestrategicpolicyanddevelopmentlevel,notjustinservicedelivery.SystemicbiasinthejusticesystemThereisapersistentfeelingamongIndigenouscommunitiesandlegalexpertsalikethatpolicetreat Indigenouspeopledifferently. Indigenous legalexpertsagree.5Thesepolicies increasethelikelihoodthatIndigenouspeopleswillbeexposedtothecriminaljusticesystem.6Contactwiththecriminaljusticesystemshouldn’tbe‘normalised’foranypopulation.7Ifincarcerationis intendedtodetercrime,thenthisnormalisationasa ‘factof life’ isaclear failureofthisobjectiveandindicatesaweaknessinthejusticesystem.8EmpiricalresearchhasshownthatpolicearelesslikelytocautionIndigenouspeoplesandaremorelikelytoreferthemdirectlytocourt.9Offencesthatdonotposeathreattopublicsafetyshouldnotbedealtwithinthisway.Thisisoneopportunitytoreducethenormalisationoftheinteractionwithmainstreamsystems, including the criminal justice system that Indigenous people report. Further,outcomesofthecriminaljusticesystemmaybeskewedbyevaluativeandreportingmethodsthatarenotculturallyappropriateorsensitivetoissuessuchasgratuitousconcurrence.Itshouldbenotedtheconceptofwhatis‘publicsafety’shouldbeexplored.Thejusticesystemandpolicecomprisenon-IndigenouspeoplesmakingcallsonIndigenousbehaviourthatmaybemisunderstood as a threat to public safety. Adequate police training that goes beyondculturalliaisonofficersshouldbearequirementforallpoliceofficers.

5InterviewwithLindaRyleLLB,PresidentoftheIndigenousLawyersAssociationQueensland(TelephoneInterview,18August2017).6TheSenateFinanceandPublicAdministrationReferencesCommittee,‘AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderexperienceoflawenforcementandjusticeservices’October2016,70.7HouseStandingCommitteeonAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderAffairs,‘Doingtime–Timefordoing:Indigenousyouthinthecriminaljusticesystem.Canberra:ParliamentofAustralia’(2011).8Ibid.9Snowball,L,‘DiversionofIndigenousjuvenileoffenders’(2008)AIC,Canberra.

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Institutionalracismandsystematicbiasmaybedifficulttodemonstrate,yetfiguresshowthatIndigenous peoples are more likely to be imprisoned when compared to non-Indigenouspeople.10TheFederalCourtacknowledgedthiswhendecidingonpolicetacticsafterthePalmIslandriots.11AconsequenceofthisbiasisthefeelingofhopelessnessthatIndigenouspeopleshave when they interact with the criminal justice system.12 In interviews with prisoners,parolees, individuals pre-trial and during trail, Indigenous respondents voiced an alarmingsenseofhopelessnesswhichpervades their interactionswith the criminal justice system.13Whilecausationcanbedifficulttofirmlyestablish,supportforthisargumentcanbefoundinthe disproportionate rate of Indigenous incarceration as opposed to non-Indigenousincarceration.Our justicesystemshouldn’t leavethosewho interactwith it feelinghopeless.Weneedtofundamentallyre-examinethemannerinwhichthecriminaljusticesystemoperates–amovetoaholisticapproachcouldbebeneficialtoreducingtheratesofindigenousincarceration.

...someoftheblackinmatesjustwon’taskforhelp.Becausethey’reusedtonotgettingit.Custodialmanager,ruralprisonI’vegivenupontryingtogetsomelegalactionwhileI’minjail.It’sjusttoohard.Itjustdrainsyouofallthatgetupandgo.Dean,sentencedprisoneronprotection,35+years,AboriginalBythetimeitallgetsintocourtandeverythingtheyjustwanttogetitoveranddonewith.Sowhetherthey’reguiltyornot,they’llgo,‘GuiltyyourHonour.’justtogetitoveranddonewith.Langdon,sentencedinmate,maximumsecurity,35+years,Aboriginal

SentencingdisparitiesAnumberof studieshave investigated thedisparity that exists in sentencing courts for anIndigenousoffender.TheoutcomesvarydependingontheCourt.Atastatelevel,highercourts(i.e.DistrictandSupreme)weredeterminedtohavenosignificantlevelofdifferencebetweenIndigenous peoples and non-indigenous offenders in receiving custodial sentences.14 The10WottonvQueensland(No5)[2016]FCA1457.11Ibid.12AnneGrunseit,SuzieForell&EmilyMcCarron,‘TakingJusticeIntoCustody:TheLegalNeedsofPrisoners’(2008)LawandJusticeFoundationofNewSouthWales30,140-142.13Ibid.14CatherineBondandSamanthaJefferies,‘DifferentialSentencingofIndigenousOffenders:Whatdoestheresearchtellus?’(2013)8(7)IndigenousLawBulletin15,17-18.

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evidenceindicatesthatHigherCourtswerelikelytotakeintoaccountanoffender’sIndigenousheritageandonthisbasis,agreaterdegreeofleniencywasaffordedtothem–foroffencescommittedundersimilarcircumstances.15Thesamecannotbesaidforlowercourts.StudiesoflowercourtssuggestthatimprisonmentisamorelikelyoutcomeforIndigenouspeoplewhohaveoffendedthanfornon-Indigenouspeople. A contributing factor to this discrepancy is a lack of consideration of gratuitousconcurrence and themisunderstanding this causes in the provision of evidence.16 Furtherinvestigationisneededtofullyunderstandthecontributingfactorstohighersentencingrates.

De-criminalisationofhealthandsocialissues

Thecriminal justice systemhasproven itself capableofdealingwithoffenderswhoposeathreat topublic safety. It isnotdesigned toactas the front lineof treatment for issuesofmentalhealthandaddiction.Theincreasingcriminalizationofhealthandsocialissuesdrivesincarceration rateshigher, for communities thathavehigher incidentsof health and socialissuesitwillinevitablyleadtohigherratesofincarcerationinthesepopulations.Particularhealth issuesdrive imprisonmentrates,notablymentalhealthconditions,alcoholandotherdruguse,substanceabusedisordersandcognitivedisabilities.Themannerinwhich

15Ibid.16InterviewwithLindaRyleLLB,PresidentIndigenousLawyersAssociation(TelephoneInterview,18August2017);DianaEades,AboriginalEnglishinthecourts:ahandbook(Dept.ofJustice&Attorney-General&Dept.ofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderPolicyandDevelopment,2000).

2 TheAustralianGovernmentshoulddevelopsentencingguidelinestostreamlinepracticesbetweencourtsofdifferentlevels,whichtakeintoaccountthespecificcircumstanceofIndigenousoffending.

3 TheMagistracyandJudiciaryshouldberequiredtoundertakemandatoryprofessionaltraininginculturalcompetencyandmulti-dayculturalimmersions.

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wedealwiththeseissuescanonlybecharacterisedasanoverreaction.17Addictioncanactasanencouragementtotheft, robberyandviolentcrimes.Theseoffencescanbeseriousandshouldbetreatedaccordingly,butratesofrecidivismdemonstratethatthecriminal justiceresponse doesn’t seem to be working. The underlying causative behaviour should beaddressedratherthanmerelyseekingtopunishtheoffendingbehaviour.Theresponseto-datehasnotadequatelyprovidedforFirstNationsinvolvementinthedevelopmentsolutions.A Queensland examination of mental illness in incarcerated Indigenous peoples revealshockingfigures–73%ofIndigenousmenand86%ofIndigenouswomenhavesomeformofmental illness18 –when compared to non-indigenous (20%).19While just one example thisstatistic is representativeofnation figures. It providesevidence that currently the criminaljusticesystemisbeingusedtodealwithproblemswhichwouldbemoreappropriatelydealtwithbyhealthcareservices.ThetreatmentofhealthissuesbythecriminaljusticesystemisjustonemoreexampleofoverpolicingthatplaguesAustralia’sindigenouspeoples.

Casestudy:AboriginalJusticeinCanadaA promising approach to reduce recidivism rates is to provide greater support for self-determination. The Canadian Aboriginal Justice Strategy (AJS) is a flexible program whichallowscommunitiestotailorinitiativestotheirownneedsaslongastheymeetasetcriteriaandarerigorouslyanalysed.Themajorityoftheseprogramsarediversionaryinnature(about80%).20Thecommunitybasedprogramsemergedasanalternativetothemainstreamjusticesystemandencourageresolutionofconflictsinaculturallysensitivemanner.

17Ibid.18AnnaTreloar,‘Mentalhealthillnessrifeinprison’(August2012)20(2)AustralianNursingJournal34,35.19EdwardHeffernan,‘PrevalenceofmentalillnessamongAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleinQueenslandprisons’(2012)197(1)MedicalJournalofAustralia37.20EvaluationDivision,‘AboriginalJusticeStrategyevaluation:finalreport.OfficeofStrategicPlanningandPerformanceManagement,DepartmentofJustice,Canada,www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cp-pm/eval/rep-rap/11/ajs-sja/ajs-sja.pdf.AccessedMarch2017.

4 Stateandfederalcriminalcodesshouldberevisedtode-criminalisenon-violentoffenceswheretheunderlyingcauseisahealthorsocialissue,includingmentalhealthproblems,cognitivedisability,addiction,orhomelessness.Governmentsshoulddesignresponsesthatfocusonrehabilitation,medicaltreatmentandsocialsupportservices,ratherthanpunitivemeasures.TheseresponsesshouldbedesignedinconjunctionwithexistingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderspecialtyservices.

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VehiclesthroughwhichthishasbeenachievedincludethedevelopmentofcommunityElders’advisorypanelsandcirclesentencinginitiatives.21Over8years,theCanadianDepartmentofJustice evaluated the re-offending patterns of 3361 participants who took part in the AJSinitiatives, compared to 885whoparticipated in a non-AJS initiative. The study found thatthosewhoparticipatedintheAJSinitiativeswerehalfaslikelytore-offendcomparedtothecontrolgroup.22TheCanadianexampleclearlydemonstratestheimpactthatspecialistproblemsolvingcourts,programs and initiatives – such as drug, alcohol andmental health courts – can have onreducingIndigenousincarcerationrates.RecidivismratesofIndigenouspeoplesdemonstratethatthecurrentpolicingstrategyisflawed.23Indigenousmaleprisonersare1.5timesaslikelyto have previously been incarcerated as non-Indigenous prisoners.24 The disparity inreoffending is just as evident in women, with 67 per cent of Indigenous women havingpreviouslyservedtimeinprisoncomparedto36percentofnon-Indigenouswomen.25

Programswhichareusedasanalternativetomainstreamcourtscanidentifyvulnerablepeopleforwhomtypicalresponsesofthecriminaljusticesystemmaybeineffectiveorinappropriate.Theseprogramsaimataddressingtheunderliningproblemfortheoffendingbehaviour,ratherthan punishing the symptoms. For these programs to be effective, however, Indigenousspecific voicesneed tobe centredat thedevelopment level. Including ‘black-faces’ on theCourt,withouttrulyengagingwiththeirviews,willnotbeenough.

AustralianexamplesIn Australia there are a few existing programs which are aimed at a more holistic andtherapeutic approach to treat offending behaviour. These programs provide treatment forresidents to overcome the causes that have led to (re)offending, which include addiction,intergenerationalandhistoricaltraumas,griefandloss.26RedDustisonesuchprogram,whichaimstoimprovethementalandphysicalwell-beingofIndigenouspeoples.Theseprogramsaim to treat these underlying drivers of offending behaviour by drawing on the strength,wisdomandspiritofAboriginalancestors,EldersandthelandtohealthespiritofAboriginalpeopleandstrengthening theirconnections to family,community, landandculture.27Theyprovidehopeforthoseindividualswhofeelleftoutinthecoldbythejusticesystem.

21Ibid.22Ibid.23AndrewDay,‘ReducingtheRiskofRe-OffendinginAustralianIndigenousOffenders:WhatWorksforWhom?’(2003)37(2)JournalofOffenderRehabilitation1,10.24LoranaBartels,‘SentencingofIndigenousWomen’,(2012)IndigenousJusticeClearingHouse,Brief14.25Ibid.26SophieCull,‘Theroadtohealing:identityandtheover-representationofindigenousmenintheAustraliancriminaljusticesystem’(2009)UniversityofNewSouthWales.27Ibid37.

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Forthesevaryingprogramstobeeffective,thedrivingvoicesbehindtheorganisationsneedtobeIndigenous.Wecurrentlyhavespecialisedcourtsforspecificissues,suchasDrugCourts,whichinvolveexpertsintherelevantfield.CourtsandprogramsofferingIndigenous-specificalternativesshouldsimilarlyensurethatIndigenouspeoplesandlegalprofessionalsinformthecontentandimplementationofthesealternatives.MeganDavis,aCobbleCobblewomanfromQueensland, a pro vice chancellor and professor of law at UNSW, and a member of theReferendumCouncilcommentedrecentlythatthatpublicservantsareinthedriver’sseatonIndigenousaffairs.

‘Asintheprotectionera,wearerenderedchildlikefigures,sidelinedplayersinourownlives,inaneraofnewprotectionismwhereourdisadvantagesustainsabillion-dollar industryofwhichvery littlehitsthegroundorchangesthedirectionoftheindicatorsknownasClosingtheGap.’28

28MeganDavis,‘Towalkintwoworlds’,TheMonthly(online),July2017https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2017/july/1498831200/megan-davis/walk-two-worlds.

5 TheAustralianGovernmentshouldprovideandexpandfundingforrehabilitative,culturallyappropriatealternativestotraditionalcourts,suchasdrug,alcoholandmentalhealthcourts,ordiversionaryprograms.

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2.0MANDATORYSENTENCING

MandatorysentencinginAustraliaisaproductofthe‘toughoncrime’attitudeadoptedinthemid1990’sacrossvariousstateparliaments.Itisanineffectiveformofpunishmentbecauseitencouragesrecidivism,failstorehabilitateoffenders,andremovesjudicialdiscretion.Statisticsshow that mandatory sentences have increased the incarceration rates of Indigenouspopulationstoadisproportionateextent.Thissectionwillhighlighttheweaknessofmandatorysentencing, with a focus on the regimes adopted in Western Australia and the NorthernTerritory. This section endorses community-based solutions such as justice reinvestment,whichincludeFirstNationspeopleandexperts,inordertotackletheunderlyingcausesbehindIndigenousincarceration.

InWA,section46(3)oftheYoungOffendersAct1994containsspecialprovisionsrelatingtorepeat offenders, defined as persons who have served at least two previous periods ofdetentionandwhohaveahighlikelihoodofre-offendingwithinashortperiodofreleasefromdetention.29IntheNT,sections53AH-AMoftheJuvenileJusticeAct1983(NT)providefora'punitiveworkorder'asasentencingoptionwiththeministerdeterminingthesortofworkwhichcanbedesignatedaspartofapunitiveworkorder.30InbothWAandNT,repeatoffendersaretargeted.Sections53AE-AGoftheJuvenileJusticeAct1983 (NT)providemandatoryimprisonmentofyoungpeoplefoundguiltyofmorethanonepropertyoffence.31Theseprovisionsapplyregardlessofhowminorthesecondpropertyoffence.s401(4)oftheCriminalCode(WA)providemandatorysentencesforrepeatpropertyoffences('threestrikesandyou'rein'legislation).32Mandatorysentencesareineffectivebecauseoftheirhighcostsanddisproportionateeffecton Indigenous populations.On 30 June 2016, the rate of imprisonment for Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander peoples (prisoners per 100,000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderpopulation) increased from 2,253 at 30 June 2015 to 2,346.33 However, non-Indigenous

29YoungOffendersAct1994(WA)s46(3).30JuvenileJusticeAct1983(NT)ss53AH-AM.31JuvenileJusticeAct1983(NT)ss53AE-AG.32CriminalCodeActCompilationAct1913(WA)s401(4).33AustralianBureauofStatistics,PrisonersInAustralia2016,availableat<http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4517.0~2016~Main%20Features~Imprisonment%20rates~12>.

6 Mandatorysentencinglawsshouldberepealedinallstatesandterritories.

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imprisonment rate increased from 146 to 154 prisoners per 100,000 non-Indigenouspopulation. The highest rate was in Western Australia (3,997), followed by the NorthernTerritory(2,914)per100,000AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpopulation.34Additionally,mandatorysentencesarehighlycostly.ThediagrambelowdepictstheaggregatecostofimprisonmentinAustralia.NotethatthecostofimprisonmentinAustraliacontinuestorise,up26percentfrom$3billionin2010/11to$3.8billionin2014/15.35

Ithasbeenobservedthatmandatorysentencesarealargecontributortotheseincreasedratesofincarceration.TheChiefMagistrateoftheNorthernTerritoryprovidedevidencetotheLegalandConstitutionalAffairsReferencesCommitteethatincarcerationratesincreasedasaresultoftheimpositionofmandatorysentencingintheNorthernTerritoryfrom1997to2001.36Henotedthatthe imprisonmentratewas50percenthigherduringthisperiodthanfollowingrepealofthelaws.Non-custodialorderssuchashome-detentionandcommunityworkwerealmostunusedforpropertyoffencesduringthemandatorysentencingera.37

34Ibid.35AustralianInstituteofCriminology,Chapter7:CriminalJusticeResource,availableat<http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/facts/1-20/2012/7_resources.html>.36ParliamentofAustralia,ThedriversbehindthegrowthintheAustralianimprisonmentrate,availableat<http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Legal_and_Constitutional_Affairs/Completed_inquiries/2010-13/justicereinvestment/report/c02>.37Seealso,ArieFreiberg,‘ExplainingIncreasesinImprisonmentRates’(Paperpresentedat3rdNationalOutlookSymposiumonCrimeinAustralia,MappingtheBoundariesofAustralia’sCriminalJusticeSystem,Canberra,22-23March1998).

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However,mandatory sentenceswere reintroduced in2013aspartof the ‘toughoncrime’regimeforseriousassaultsandrepeatoffenders.Onceagain,theChiefMagistratepresentedevidence that these changes led to a significant increase in imprisonment, whichdisproportionatelyaffected Indigenouspopulations. The legislationdiscussedhere is still inforcetoday.Repealingmandatorysentencinglaws

• Section46(3)oftheYoungOffendersAct1994• Sections53AH-AMoftheJuvenileJusticeAct1983(NT)• Sections53AE-AGoftheJuvenileJusticeAct1983(NT)• Sections401(4)oftheCriminalCode1913(WA)

Therelevantactsshouldberepealedonthebasisthata)mandatorysentencingisinconsistentwith the principle of proportionality, and b) it is inconsistentwith Australia’s internationalhumanrightsobligations.Thiswillbediscussedfurtherinsection4.0below.Thekeybehindmandatorysentencesistheremovalofjudicialdiscretion.Thisisatoddswiththeprincipleofproportionality,whichrequiresthatthepenaltyimposedbeproportionaltotheoffenceinquestion.TheHighCourtofAustraliahasobserved:

…therearemanyconflictingandcontradictoryelementswhichbearuponsentencinganoffender.Attributingaparticularweighttosomefactors,whileleavingthesignificanceofallotherfactorssubstantiallyunaltered,maybequitewrong…[T]hetaskofthesentenceistotakeaccountofalloftherelevantfactorsandtoarriveatasingleresultwhichtakesdueaccountofthemall.38

An illustrationof this iswhen JamieWurramara, a 22-year-old adult,was sentenced to 12monthsinprisonforwalkingintoanopenshedwithhisfriendstoeatbiscuitsduetohunger.Thepresidingjudgeexpresseddeepsympathiesforthedefendant,butwasboundbystatutetoimposetheheavypunishment.39Thisencroachesupontheindependenceofthejudiciaryandisrepugnanttothenotionoffairnessinjustice.JusticereinvestmentasanalternativetomandatorysentencingJustice reinvestment iscentredaroundthedevelopmentofpolicies to tackle thedriversofcrimeinspecificcommunities.Inotherwords,solutionsaretailoredtothelocalissueswhich

38WongvR(2001)207CLR584,at[611]perGaudron,Gummow,andHayneJJ.39CreativeSpirits,MandatorySentencing,availableat<https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/law/mandatory-sentencing#axzz4jMeXqq6g>.

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cause high incarceration rates. These issuesmay consist of poor educational background,unemploymentorunderemployment,homelessness,ormerelychangesinjusticepolicies.Bytacklingtheseissues,justicereinvestmentisn'tjustaboutindividualoffenders,butalsoaboutprovidingabenefittothewidercommunitythatoffendersexistin.Thecoreprincipleofjusticereinvestment is that these facilities are funded by a reallocation of money which wouldotherwisebespentoncorrectionalservices.

There are four steps necessary for the implementation of justice reinvestment:demographic/justicemappingandanalysisofdata;developmentofoptions;implementation;and evaluation.40 The first step is obtaining justice data which is extrapolated by cross-referencing against indicators of gaps in available services to help identify the underlyingcausesofcrimeinthesecommunities.41Thesecondstepintheprocessischoosingtherelevantoptionwhichwouldreduceincarceration.42Programsandservicesaregenerallyfocusedonpoverty, education, housing, healthcare and public amenities. The third step is theimplementationofthedevisedprogramintotherespectivecommunities.Thisstepshouldbeundertakenwith the advice of Indigenous Elders alongwith the cooperation, support andresourcing(asopposedtocontrol)ofalllevelsofgovernment.Itisimportanttonotethataone-size-fits-all approach is not appropriate. Justice reinvestment should be based on thespecificdriversofcrimeandthe'communityassets'ofthatcommunity.Finally,thelaststepisevaluating the progress of the implemented program. This step is crucial to the processbecausethenatureofjusticereinvestmentisdynamic.Theservicesprovidedshouldbespecificto target the main drivers of crime, and should recognise that these can shift overtime.Evaluationsshouldalsobeundertakentodeterminethesustainabilityoftheprogramanditseffectiveness.Justice reinvestment is not without challenges. Implementation of justice reinvestment inAustraliarequiresmulti-partisansupportfromalllevelsofgovernmentandtheapprovalofamajorityofpartieswithineach levelof government.Multi-partisan support isnecessary to

40Commonwealth,SenateLegalandConstitutionalReferencesCommittee,ValueofajusticereinvestmentapproachtocriminaljusticeinAustralia(2013)45.41Ibid,46.42Ibid.

7 Fundingshouldbereallocatedawayfromcorrectionalservicesandpolicingtoprovidejusticereinvestmentprogramsthattargetpoverty,education,housing,healthcareandpublicamenities.

17

ensurelongtermcommitmenttotheimplementationofprogramsandservices.43Inthepast,funding of programs has reflected the election cycle, however, for a justice reinvestmentapproach to achieve its long-term goals successive governmentswill need to commit to acontinuousfundingmodel.Anotherchallengeposedisthat justicereinvestmentmaybeviewedas‘softoncrime’.The‘toughoncrime’attitudewasthereasonwhymandatorysentenceswereintroducedinthefirstplace.Ashiftinattitudeisneededregardinglowlevelcrime,especiallynon-violentcrime.Toughpunishmentsaffectvulnerablepopulations,anddonotnecessarilypreventrecidivism.Itisrecommendedthatgreaterexpenditurebefunnelledtocommissionedinvestigations,andpublicawarenesscampaignstohighlightthedetrimentofharshpunishments.Thebenefitsofjusticereinvestmentgreatlyoutweighthesepotentialchallenges.Thistypeofcommunity-based solution should be preferred over punitive punishments likemandatorysentencingbecauseofitsineffectivenessincostandreducingratesofcrime.Targetingtherootofcommunityproblemsbenefitsoffendersandthecommunityalike.

43Ibid,56.

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3.0DEALINGWITHCHILDOFFENDERSThe introduction of mandatory sentencing laws in the Northern Territory and WesternAustraliaraisedconcernsofpotentialbreachesundertheConventionoftheRightsoftheChild(CRC) with respect to Indigenous children.44 In 1999, the Senate Legal and ConstitutionalReferencesCommitteeaddressedtheissueintheInquiryintotheHumanRights(MandatorySentencing of JuvenileOffenders) Bill 1999 and concluded that, in their view, the relevantprovisionsbreachedmanypartsoftheCRC.45TheNorthernTerritorylawswerehighlightedasbeingparticularlysevere.TheCRC,signedbyAustraliainDecember1990,isimplementedindomesticlegislationonlyasa‘internationalinstrument’.46AustraliadoesnotproposetoimplementtheCRCbyenactingtheConventionasdomesticlaw;however,policiesfromtheconventionhaveinformedboththe Northern Territory47 and Western Australian48 mandatory sentencing statutes.49 TheCommitteeexpressedconcernattheenactmentoftheseprovisions,predictingthatitwouldleadtoahighrateofincarcerationforIndigenousjuveniles.50ConventionontheRightsoftheChild

Art3(1)–ThebestinterestsofthechildTheUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildestablishedthatthe‘bestinterestsprinciple’inarticle3(1)appliestochildrenwhoareinconflictwiththecriminaljusticesystemasanaccused,byensuringthat‘traditionalobjectivesofcriminaljustice,suchasrepressionorretribution,mustgivewaytorehabilitationandrestorativejusticeobjectives.’51Inparticular,theCommittee specifies Indigenous children as possessing ‘collective cultural rights’52 thatrequirespecialconsideration.

44UNGeneralAssembly,ConventionontheRightsoftheChild,20November1989,UNTS,vol.1577,p.3,availableat:http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38f0.html[accessed8June2017]45SenateLegalandConstitutionalReferencesCommittee,ParliamentofAustralia,InquiryintotheHumanRights(MandatorySentencingofJuvenileOffenders)Bill(1999).46HumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommissionAct1986(Cth)s46MB(6)(v).47CriminalCodeAct2006(NT).48WorkingwithChildren(CriminalRecordChecking)Act2004(WA).49L.M.BromfieldandP.J,Holzer(2008)Anationalapproachforchildprotection:Projectreport,AustralianInstituteofFamilyStudies:NationalChildProtectionClearinghouse,availableat<https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/sites/default/files/publication-documents/cdsmac.pdf>.50UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild(CRC),UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild:ConcludingObservations:Australia,21October1997,CRC/C/15/Add.79.51UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild(CRC),GeneralcommentNo.14(2013)ontherightofthechildtohavehisorherbestintereststakenasaprimaryconsideration(art.3,para.1),29May2013,CRC/C/GC/14.52Ibid.

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In light of this provision, theNorthAustralianAboriginal LegalAid Service (NAALAS) raisedconcernsabouttheoverrepresentationofIndigenouschildreninAustralianprisons.53Despitethe modern approach to sentencing for juveniles, which that recognises early, repeateddetentionisnotinthebestinterestsofchildren,Indigenouschildrentodayconstitute75%ofjuvenile detainees in the Northern Territory following the introduction of mandatorysentencinglaws.NAALASclaimsthattheenforceddetentioncanbeharmfulforchildrenlaterreintegratingintosociety.Likewise,theNationalChildren’sandYouthLaworganisationclaimsthatmandatorysentencingregimesdonotpermitjudicialofficerstotakeaccountofachild’sbestinterestswhensentencing.BoththeseconcernswererebuttedbytheSenateCommitteeonthebasisofbroaddefinitionsandindistinguishablecausation.TheCommitteeemphasisedthat:a)thebestinterestsofthechildaretobeonlyoneprimaryconsideration,ratherthanthesoleprimaryconsideration;b)there is no evidence that high incarceration rates are causatively related to mandatorysentences,thoughacorrelationmaybeestablished;andc)mandatorysentencinglimits,butdoesnotremove,the judicialofficer’scapacitytosentencecoherentlywiththechild’sbestinterests.However, the Committee conceded thatmandatory sentencing does ‘nothing toaddresstheunderlyingcausesofoffending,’andfoundthat‘many’provisionsoftheCRChavebeenbreachedbylegislation,particularlyintheNorthernTerritory.54

Art37(b)–DetentionorimprisonmentameasureoflastresortAccordingtotheJointStandingCommitteeonTreaties,‘minimumsentences’cancontraveneArticle37(b)oftheCRCifarbitrarydeprivationoflibertyanddetentionisusedotherthanasalastresortonly.

The inability of Courts to take into account a child’s personal circumstances under themandatory sentencing laws raised concerns of inquirers. However, Dr Robert Fitzgerald,representingtheWesternAustralianGovernment,contendedthattheCourtisabletoplacetheyoungoffenderonaconditionalrelease.Itisonlyafterfailingtocomplywiththeconditionsthatthechildrenaresubjecttothe12-monthdetention.Nonetheless,theSenateCommitteeconsidered the mandatory 12-month-detention to contravene the provision in itsexcessiveness. TheCommittee recommended, following the recommendations of the JointStandingCommittee,thattheperiodbeshortenedtoamorejustifiable28daysinstead,butthesuggestionwasignoredbytheAustralianGovernment.55

Art40.2(b)–RighttocompetenttribunalandreviewThemandatorysentencingrulesregardingtheNorthernTerritory’s‘thirdstrikeoffenders’andWesternAustralia’s ‘three strike laws’ are incompatiblewith theCRCdue to denial of any

53SenateLegalandConstitutionalReferencesCommittee,aboven41,5.60.54Ibid5.61,5.77,5.78.55Ibid5.57,5.67.

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opportunitytorevieworappealdecisions.56Thelegislationsentencesjuvenilestoaminimumof a 28-day period of detention for second convictions, with penalties escalating forsubsequentoffences.

Art40(4)–RangeofsentencingoptionsrequiredIn the report, the Senate Committee recommended diversionary programs in smallcommunitiestobeprovidedwithadequateresourcesandfunding,especiallyrelativetothatallocatedto incarceration.TheCommitteeencouragedculturallyappropriate,costeffectiveservices that focus on rehabilitating Indigenous youth, especially those overcomingaddictions.57ItfollowsthattheCommitteeagreedwiththeHumanRightsLawCommission’sassertion that the laws violate the ‘principle of proportionality’ under article 40(4) whichrequires ‘facts… and circumstances’ of the offender to be considered in sentencing.58 TheAttorney-General through SCAG was encouraged to persuade Western Australia and theNorthern Territory to repeal the mandatory sentencing laws. Unfortunately, therecommendationwasnotfollowed.59RepealingtheLegislationFollowingfurthercriticismfromtheUNCommitteeAgainstTorture in2000,60theNorthernTerritorylegislationwasrepealedin2001.TheactionwaspraisedbyDrJonas,AboriginalandSocialJusticeCommissioner,asthe‘beginningofanewrelationshipwithIndigenouspeopleintheTerritory.’61However,WesternAustralianremainstheonlystateinAustraliathatimposesmandatory termsof imprisonment forpropertyoffences. In thepast, theAttorney-Generalstated having no intention of repealing the legislation, despite concerns of its impact onIndigenous peoples. Rather, the Attorney-General sought to distinguish the law from theNorthernTerritorylegislation,byassertingthatitonlyrelatedtoseriousoffencesofburglary.62In2014,theLegislativeAssemblyofWesternAustraliapassedtheCriminalLawAmendment(HomeBurglary andOtherOffences) Bill 2014 to extend the state’smandatory sentencingregime,whichcontainssimilarcontraventionstotheCRCastheNorthernTerritorylegislationthatresultedinitsrepeal.63

56Ibid5.80.57Ibid5.82–5.85.58Ibid5.71.59Ibid5.89,5.9.60UNCommitteeAgainstTorture(CAT),ReportoftheUNCommitteeagainstTorture:Twenty-fifthSession(13-24November2000)andTwenty-sixthSession(30April-18May2001),26October2001,A/56/44.61AustralianHumanRightsCommission,CommissionwelcomesrepealofmandatorysentencinglawsinNT(October2001)<https://www.humanrights.gov.au/news/media-releases/commission-welcomes-repeal-mandatory-sentencing-laws-nt>.62AustraliaLawReformCommission,Chapter4:Lawsmandatingminimumtermsofimprisonment(‘mandatorysentencing’)andIndigenouspeople,SocialJusticeReport(2001).63CriminalLawAmendment(HomeBurglaryandOtherOffences)Bill2014(WA)ss4(a)(ii)and4(b)(ii).

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CommunitydiversionaryprogramsHighlighting the rights protected in the CRC, the Human Rights and Equal OpportunityCommissioncreatedalistofnine‘Bestpracticeprinciples’forjuvenilediversion–especiallyforIndigenousyouth–toinformalldiversionaryprogramsinAustralia.64

1 Viable alternatives to detention - A wide range of easily-accessible, culturallyappropriateandadequatelyresourcedalternativestodetention.

2 Availability–Optionsshouldbeavailableateverystageofthecriminaljusticeprocess,irrespectiveofseverityorrecurrenceoftheoption.

3 Criteria–Agenciesareboundbyestablishedcriteriainformingnon-custodialmeasures.

4 Training–Lawenforcementmustbetrainedtomeettheneedsofjuveniles.

5 Consent and participation – Consent from both child and their parents along withinformation.

6 Procedural safeguards – Respect procedural safeguards under internationalobligations,particularlyCROC.

7 Human rights safeguards – Respect further provisions under CRC that expresses achild’sfundamentalhumanrights.

8 Complaintsandreviewmechanisms–Abilitytomakeacomplaintaboutthereferralprocessandautonomyofthediversionaryprocess.

9 Monitoring–Provideindependentmonitoringofthescheme,includingcollectionandanalysisofstatisticaldata.

10 Self-determination – The right for Indigenous peoples to self-determine culturallyappropriatejusticeincriminalcontexts.

64AustraliaLawReformCommission,Bestpracticeprinciplesforthediversionofjuvenileoffenders,HumanRightsBriefNo.5(2001).

8 MandatorysentencingprovisionsintheCriminalLawAmendment(HomeBurglaryandotherOffences)Act2015(WA)shouldberepealed.

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In regards to self-determination, it is important that the approach taken is non-tokenistic.Ratherthan‘checkingthebox’byemployingIndigenouspeoplesatservicelevels,technicallycapable, tertiarytrainedFirstNationsexecutivesshouldbe includedatthedecision-makingstage.Acknowledgingthatthismaynotbeameasurethatcanbeenactedovernight,itshould,forthatveryreason,beincludedasakeyobjectiveinthesepolicies,withspecificmeasuresoutlinedforitsachievement.Using to these guidelines, the HREOC Commission investigated various community-basedmechanismsforIndigenouspeople.TheyfoundthatboththeNgungacourt(SouthAustralia)andcirclesentencing(NewSouthWales)wereamongthemostsuccessfulinitiatives.InSouthAustralia’sNgungacourt,Aboriginal traditionalcustomary law isused tosentenceAboriginaloffenderswithintheframeworkofexistinglegislation.Withinthecourtroom,theElderisabletoadvisethemagistrateaboutsanctions.PriortotheintroductionoftheNgungacourt system, court attendance for Indigenous offenders was below 50%. Since itscommencement in 1999, it has risen 80%, suggesting a viable alternative for Indigenouschildren opting for alternative sentencing options. Replicating its successful model,QueenslandhasnowimplementedaMurricourtinBrisbane.Inasimilarvein,circlesentencingconsistsofacircleofrelevantpeople,includingamagistrate,theoffender, thevictim, familymembers,andAboriginalElders. Inan informalsetting, thecircleattemptstoachieveaconsensusonthesentence,reviewtheprogressoftheoffenderorstatusofthesentence,andestablishasupportgroupfortheoffenderthatreportstotheCommunityJusticeGroup,whointurnreportstothemagistrate.TheCommissionendorsedcirclesentencingforitsexceptionalrecidivismrate,whereonlyonepersoncommittedfurtheroffencesin1999.Amorerecent2008study,however,concludedthatcirclesentencingmaynothaveanyshort-termimpactonreoffending.Nevertheless,thestudyacknowledgesthatthepotentialto‘strengtheninformalsocialcontrolsthatexistinAboriginalcommunities…mayhaveacrimevaluethatcannotbequantified.’65

65JacquelineFitzgerald,‘DoescirclesentencingreduceAboriginaloffending?’(2008)BOCSARNSWCrimeandJusticeBulletins,11.

9 StateandterritorygovernmentsshouldreallocatefundingfromtheincarcerationofjuvenilestocommunitydiversionaryprogramsthatrecognisethecollectiveculturalrightsofIndigenousjuvenilesprovidedbyarticle3(1)oftheCRC.

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4.0CIRCLESENTENCING

In 1999, the NSW Aboriginal Justice Advisory Council (AJAC) adapted the Canadian circlesentencingmodelsothat itwassuitablefortheneedsof Indigenouspeoples inNewSouthWales (NSW). The AJAC advocated an alternativemodel of sentencing that could activelyengagetheIndigenouscommunity inthesentencingprocess,reducethenumberofpeoplecomingintocontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem,andinvolvevictimsofcrimeinthejudicialprocess.The flexible framework of the model was designed to reflect the diversity of IndigenouscommunitiesinNSWandtoallowforlocalcommunitycontroloftheprocess.Specifically,themodelwasdesignedtoallowlocalIndigenouscommunitiestoadaptprocessestomeettheirownlocalculturesandexperiences.66ThiscirclesentencingmodelwasintroducedonatrialbasisinNowra,NSWin2002.Sincethen,ithasbeenimplementedintenNSWlocationswhichhavecumulativelydecidedonmorethan500sentencesinthisformat.67In 2008, a review of the Circle Sentencing Program was conducted by the Cultural andIndigenous Centre Australia (CICA). Upon CICA’s recommendations, the NSW governmentadoptedanumberofimprovementsincludinginterventionplanswhichhelpoffenderstackletheirbehaviour.AllAustralianjurisdictions,withtheexceptionofTasmania,nowoperateanIndigenous sentencing court of some type. The Victorian Koori Court has considerablesimilaritiestocirclesentencinginNSW.68ThisisaradicaljusticeschemethatbringsAustralianIndigenousoffendersfacetofacewithvictimsinthepresenceoflegalcounsel,theMagistrateandrespectedIndigenouseldersinaformaljudicialenvironment.ThisregimeaimstoallowIndigenousElderstoprovideadviceonsentencingwiththeobjectiveofestablishingarehabilitationplantobringtheoffenderbackintothecommunitywiththefollowingobjectives:

• empowerAustralianIndigenouscommunitiesinthesentencingprocessbyreducingthebarriersthatcurrentlyexistbetweencourtsandAustralianIndigenousPeoples;

• providemore relevantandmeaningful sentencingoptions forAustralian Indigenousdefendants,includingmoreeffectivecommunitysupportforthemwhenservingtheirsentences;

66Potas,I.L.,etal,CirclesentencinginNewSouthWales:areviewandevaluation.Sydney,Australia:JudicialCommissionofNewSouthWales.(8Austl.IndigenousL.Rep.2003-2004,73,75)(NB:Thisreviewwasgovernmentfunded).67TheCircleSentencingProgramhadbeenestablishedinNowra,Dubbo,Walgett,Brewarrina,Bourke,Lismore,Armidale,Kempsey,NambuccaandMountDruitt.68Fitzgerald,J.,‘DoescirclesentencingreduceAboriginaloffending?’(2008)BOCSARNSWCrimeandJusticeBulletins,11,12.

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• improve the support provided to victims of crime and promote healing andreconciliation;and

• break the cycle of recidivism -- the revolving door that has characterised therelationship of many Australian Indigenous Peoples entering the criminal justicesystem.69

Unfortunately, theseobjectiveshavenotbeen realised inQueensland,whereanumberofproblemswiththesystemhavebeennoted.Thiswillbediscussedindetailbelow.Ifthesystemcanbeimplementedeffectively,however,itpresentsanopportunitytodepartfrom traditional sentencing procedures, where the emphasis is on the punishment of theoffender,towardcommunityparticipationindecision-making,whichensuresthatthesocialdimensionsrelatingtotheoffendingbehaviourisaddressed.Thiscanhelptoreducetheratesofrecidivism.Thepresenceoftheoffender'sfamilyandmembersoftheircommunityinthecircle results inwider communityawarenessand support for theoffenderaswell asmoreaccountability for theoffenderwhileservingthesentenceandbeyond.Ratherthanmerelybeingheldaccountabletothecourtandlawenforcement,theseoffendersareaccountabletotheirwholecommunity.Circle sentencing operates on the philosophy that local Indigenous communities are bestplacedtosolvetheirownproblems.Responsibilityforreducingthelevelofviolence,substanceabuse, domestic violence and crime restswith the community itself. The process seeks toprovidesamechanismwherelocalIndigenouspeoplecanactivelytakeresponsibilityfortheirownlocalproblems,wheretheyaregivenauthoritytomakedecisionsaboutsolutionstotheirproblems, and are empowered to implement them. By empowering the community, circlesentencingcanprovideanopportunitytoraisethedignity,self-esteem,prideandintegrityofIndigenous people, a benefit not restricted solely to the Indigenous community itself butsharedbythewidercommunity.NewSouthWalesDuringthereviewandevaluationoftheCircleSentencingregimeinNSWjointlyconductedbytheJudicialCommissionofNSWandAJAC,itwasconcludedthattheCircleSentencingregimewasasuccessbecausethesurveyofparticipantsrecordedahighlevelofsatisfactionwiththeprocess.70TheCircleSentencingregimeallowedboththeoffenderandthevictimtotakeanactiverole intheprocess.Theeffectofthiswasthatoffendersmoreoftencametoacceptresponsibilityfortheiroffencesandwerepreparedtoapologisetotheirvictims.Conversely,

69Potas,I.L.aboven65,78.70Ibid,74.

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victimsweremorereadytoforgivetheoffenderthanmightotherwisebethecase.Dueinlargepart to this aspect of the process, the sentences imposed by this regime were typicallyperceivedtobe‘fair’or‘veryfair’.CircleSentencinginNSWprovidedanexampleofhowtheCourtcanshareitsauthoritywiththe local Indigenous communities, and how the traditional justice system and Indigenousculturalpracticeandvaluescanbesuccessfullymerged.TheinvolvementoftheIndigenouscommunity in the sentencingprocess can fosternotonly a stronger foundationwithin theAustralianIndigenouscommunity,butalsoastrongerbondbetweentheAustralianIndigenouscommunityandtherestoftheAustralianlegalsystemandsociety.QueenslandIn Queensland, attempts have been made to include Indigenous Elders in the sentencingprocessesthroughtheMurriCourts.TheMurriCourtswerereinstatedlastyearaftertheyweredefundedin2012.However,thereinstatementoftheMurriCourtsinQueenslandhasfallenshortasitappearsnottobefocusedonreformingthesystem,butoneducatingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplesonhowtooperateinthesystemasitalreadyis.

InvolvementofEldersandCommunityGroupsWhileElderscanmakerecommendationsastotheappropriatesentence,theMagistrateisnotrequiredtofollowthesesuggestions.71EldersaretrainedbytheDepartmentofJusticeinthewaysofthesystem,ratherthancreatingspaceforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandervoicestobeheardandactedupon.Fewculturalpracticesare incorporated intheprocessandnoclear definition of what is ‘culturally-appropriate’ is given. Further, Elders and respectedpersonsareonlypaid$100perdaytheyarepartofaMurriCourtPanelandonlytwoElderswillbepaidforthesamesittingday.72Inordertoensurethesepaymentsarenottaxed,Eldersarerequiredtodeclarethisactivityasa‘hobby’.73Theremay be some circumstances whereMagistrates have to take notice of community-justice groups74 –but as theyare fundedby theDepartmentof Justice, their capacity andinvolvement is limited. One community organisation, Five Bridges, was overtaken by JohnPearsonConsulting towiden theirauspicesbut indoing so took10%of their funding.Thisimpactson thequalityof serviceprovidedby the justice-group.Lastly, therearenocheckscompletedastowhethertheEldersappointedareactuallysuitablepersons.

71QueenslandCourts,‘MurriCourtProcedureManual’(MurriCourtProcedureManualNo1.1,QueenslandCourts).72QueenslandCourts,‘MurriCourtEldersandRespectedPersonsManual’(MurriCourtEldersandRespectedPersonsManual,QueenslandMurriCourts)16.73Ibid17.74QueenslandCourts,‘MurriCourtProcedureManual’(MurriCourtProcedureManualNo1.1,QueenslandCourts).

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ProcessforDefendantsThequalityoffeedbackcurrentlybeingreceivedbydefendantsinregardstotheMurriCourtsisalsoquestionable.AquestionnaireiscompletedbythedefendantatthetimeoftheMurriCourtSentenceReport(beforetheirsentenceisreceived)togatherthedefendant’sopinionsand experiences so far.75 As they have not yet received sentence, a defendant may feelpressuredintoprovidingpositivefeedbackinthehopethiswillresultinalessersentence.SomeMagistrates have been known to automatically refer any Aboriginal or Torres StraitIslanderpersonthatcomesincontactwiththecourtstotheMurriCourt.AstheprocessintheMurriCourtisultimatelymorelengthyandarduous,thisarbitraryapproachisdiscriminatory.BynothavingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplesinthedrivingseat,theQueenslandMurriCourts,whilepositive intheory,ultimatelyresult inapaternalisticandassimilationistprocess.

75Ibid21.

10 StateandterritorygovernmentsshouldprovidefundingtoimplementorexpandCircleSentencingcourtsystemsineachjurisdiction,inconsultationwiththelocalIndigenouscommunity,inordertoprovideappropriate,culturallysensitive,andeffectivealternativestothemainstreamcriminaljusticeprocess.

11 AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoples,especiallyElders,shouldtakethecentralpositionindesigning,implementingandmonitoringtheseprograms.

12 Allalternativesentencingprogramsshouldincludefair,impartialandappropriatelyinformedthird-partymonitoringandevaluation,whichshouldbeledbyIndigenouspeoples.Monitoringandevaluationsystemsshouldincludeaccessibleandanonymousfeedbackopportunitiesforparticipants.

13 Allstaffinvolvedwiththedesign,implementationandmonitoringofalternativesentencingprogramsshouldberequiredtoundertakeadequateculturalcompetencytraining.

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5.0CONSULTATIONANDRESPECTFORINDIGENOUSSELF-DETERMINATION

Australia’shistoryofnotupholdinghumanrightsofIndigenousPeoplesisacyclicalissuethathas resulted in higher rates of imprisonment.76 Articles 1(4) and 2(2) of the InternationalConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination(CERD)requireAustraliatotake specialmeasures to ensure the adequate development and protection of Indigenouspeoples.Bothfederalandstategovernmentsshouldbedoingmoretoupholdrightsprovidedininternationalconventions.The rights to self-determination, culture and meaningful employment are protected in anumberofconventionsratifiedbyAustraliaandarelinkedtoincreasedincarcerationrates.IfIndigenous peoples are not empowered to enjoy these rights, theymay bemore likely tocommit an offence. At the same time, the historic vilification and stereotyping of manyIndigenous peoples as ‘criminals’ has contributed to the nation turning a blind eye to thesystematicviolationofIndigenouspeopleshumanrightsfordecades.TheexecutivesinpublicservicethataretaskedwithIndigenousjusticeprogramsarefrequentlyinadequatelytrainedinFirstNationsdisadvantage.Decisionsareoftenmadewithout reference to thehistoricalcontextnoranadequateunderstandinghowAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderfamilieswillbeimpacted.

Self-determinationWhileAustraliahasadoptednumerouspolicies,suchastheIndigenousAdvancementStrategy,toaddresssocio-economicdisadvantageamongIndigenouspopulations,thesepoliciesfailtoupholdtherighttoself-determination,resultinginlesseffectiveoutcomes.TheUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(UNDRIP)providesthatIndigenouspeopleshavetherighttofreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,social

76VictoriaTauli-Corpuz,‘EndofMissionStatementbytheUnitedNationsSpecialRapporteurontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,VictoriaTauli-CorpuzonhervisittoAustralia’(SpeechdeliveredatEndofMissionPressConference,UnitedNationsInformationCentreCanberra,3April2017)availableat<http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=21473&LangID=E>.

14 PolicydecisionsshouldbemadeinpartnershipwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderorganisations,withahumanrights-basedapproach.

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andculturaldevelopment.77Itprescribestherighttoautonomyorself-governmentinmattersrelating to their internal and local affairs, as well as ways and means for financing theirautonomous functions.78 Policies that don’t support these rights have less significant andsustainableoutcomes.79

TheIndigenousAdvancementStrategy(IAS)fundsprogramsforservicessuchasjobs,landandeconomy,educationandsafetyandwellbeinginordertoclosethegap.Initiatedin2014,thepolicy actually entailed a cut of 534million dollars to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderprograms.80Itrequiredcompetitivetenderbidsfromorganisationstoprovidetheseservices,around 55% of which were awarded to non-Indigenous organisations including importantservices suchas legal advocacy services.81 Thesenon-indigenousorganisationshave forcedlocalorganisations todownsizeandreduceservices theywereproviding, resulting ina lessculturallyappropriateapproach.82UNSpecialRapporteurfortherightsofIndigenouspeoplesVictoriaTauli-Corpuzsaidthisrunscontrarytoprinciplesofself-determination,underminesthekeyroleplayedbyAboriginalandTorresStrait Islanderorganisationsinprovidingservicesfortheircommunities,andreducestrustandcollaborationwiththegovernment.83Associalrightsissuesarecyclical,itisimportanttoconsiderself-determinationinthecontextofthelegalprocess.Iftherearenotculturallyappropriate and autonomous legal services available we may see rates of incarcerationcontinuetorise.

77UnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,G.A.Res.61/295,UNDocA/RES/47/1(2007),art3(‘UNDRIP’).78UNDRIP,art4.79Tauli-Corpuz,aboven70.80Ibid.81Ibid.82Ibid.83Ibid.

16 Inrelationtotherightofself-determination,ajusticereinvestmentapproachtoaddressthesocialfactorswhichinfluencecrimemaybebeneficialifthereareclearaimsandbalancedinvolvementfromgovernment,AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderexperts(includinglegalprofessionals)andthecommunity.

15 TheAustraliangovernmentshouldamendtheHumanRights(ParliamentaryScrutiny)Act2011(Cth)toincludearecognitionoftherelevanceofUNDRIP,andreviewexistinglegislation,policiesandprogramstoensureconformitywiththeprinciplesofUNDRIP.

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ConsultationandParticipationinDecision-MakingTherighttocollaborateindecision-makingshouldbeappliedinconjunctionwiththerighttoself-determination.Itisprotectedinarticle18ofUNDRIP:‘Indigenouspeopleshavetherightto participate in decision-making in matters which would affect their rights, throughrepresentativeschosenbythemselvesinaccordancewiththeirownprocedures,aswellastomaintainanddeveloptheirownindigenousdecisionmakinginstitutions.84Inaccordancewiththis article, the National Congress of Australia’s First Peoples was established in 2010 torepresent Australia’s Indigenous Populations and give thema political voice.However, thedefundingoftheCongressin2014suggestsalackofcommitmenttoupholdingthisright.Alack of political representative power means the domestic legal framework is notrepresentative.IfIndigenousvoicesarenotengagedwith,itwillbemuchmoredifficulttofindeffective solutions to incarceration rates. Upholding the rights to self-determination anddecision-making in Indigenous communities will lead to improved cultural awareness andrecognition.

CulturalAwarenessandRecognitionTheweaklegalrecognitionandlackofprotectionofIndigenoussocialrights,includingculturalrightsandtherighttoemployment,arealsolinkedtohighincarcerationrates.AsprescribedinUNDRIP, ‘Indigenouspeopleshavetheright topractice,developandteachtheirculturaltraditions,spiritualandreligioustraditions,customsandceremoniesandtotransmittofuturegenerationstheirhistories,languagesandtraditions.Statesshalltakeeffectiveandtransparentmeasurestoensurethisrightisprotected.’85Recognisingtheneedforculturalconnectioniskeytoachievingsustainableimprovement.86Further,recognitionandequalengagementwithAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander legal professionals is necessary for an appropriatelyinformedFirstNationsperspective.Culturalnormsand idiosyncrasiesare currently glossed

84UNDRIP,art18.85UNDRIP,art11-13.86AustralianHumanRightsCommission,TheCommunityGuidetotheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(ParagonAustralasiaGroup,2010).

17 StateandfederalgovernmentsshouldprovidemoreopportunitiesforIndigenousindividuals,legalexpertsandcommunitiestoparticipateindecision-making,includingtheplanning,implementationandevaluationofIndigenousprograms.GovernmentsshouldalsocontinuetoprogressconsultationsregardingconstitutionalrecognitionandatreatyagreementwithIndigenouscommunities.

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overintheprovisionoflegalservices.Thereisaneedforculturalandgenderfocusedprovisionoflegalservices.EvenifanAboriginalmanrepresentsanAboriginalwoman,thiscanresultinmiscommunicationsthatcanhavedetrimentaleffectsonthedefendant’scase.87Programs that protect Indigenous traditions take many different forms. For example, theInternationalReparationProgramrecognisesthetraditionofmanycommunitiestohavetheirancestors’remainsreturned.Since2001,theInternationalReparationProgramhassupportedcommunities to see the return of over 1300 ancestral remains and 1300 sacred objects.NAIDOCweek is another initiative which celebrates Indigenous achievements and culture.However,thereisstillalackofunderstandingofculturaltraditionswithinthenon-Indigenouspopulation,whichcontributestoincreasinginequality.88Employingnon-Indigenouspeoplesinprofessional roles that involve decision-making in regards to Indigenous peoples canperpetuate thismisunderstanding. There is an increasing number of Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islanderpeoples that are tertiaryqualifiedandexperts in their respective fields, andthesepeopleshouldbeplacedindecision-makingpositions.Therecognitionandcelebrationofindigenousculturecanleadtoimprovementsinanumberof critical social justice areas, such as mental health.89 For example, Indigenous peoples’connectiontolandisanessentialpartoflife,andownershipmayleadtogreaterautonomyand economic independence.90 Upholding these cultural rights can lead to a strongerconnection to community, and reduce recidivism and reoffending.91 Cultural and spiritualprogramsdeliveredauthoritativelybyFirstNationspeoplesshouldbeavailablebothinandoutofprison,especiallyinjuveniledetention,toensurethisrightisprotected.

87Forexample,seeRvKina[1993]QCA480.88JamesAnaya,SpecialRapporteur,ReportonthesituationofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsofindigenouspeoplesinAustralia,15thsession,AgendaItem3,UNDocA/HRC/15/37/Add.4(1June2010)(‘RightsofIndigenouspeoplesinAustralia’).89JensKorff,12waystoreduceAboriginalIncarcerationRates(13March2017)CreativeSpirits,availableat<https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/law/reducing-aboriginal-incarceration-rates#toc2>.90RightsofIndigenouspeoplesinAustralia,UNDocA/HRC/15/37/Add.4,p4para4-5.91JensKorff,12waystoreduceAboriginalIncarcerationRates,aboven82.

18 StateandfederalgovernmentsshouldpromotemaintenanceandknowledgeofIndigenouscultures,whilealsosupportingIndigenouseducationprogramsamongthenon-Indigenouspopulationaswell.

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EmploymentAddressingAustralianIndigenousemploymentpoliciesisalsosignificantinaddressingtheissueofrecidivism.Therighttomeaningfulworkisprotectedinarticle17ofUNDRIP,whichprovidesthat Indigenous peoples should be given the same employment rights as other people inAustralia,freefromdiscriminatoryconditionsorpolicies.92ThisrightisfurtherprotectedintheICESCR,whichstatesthatguidanceandtrainingprogramsandpoliciesshouldaimtoachieveproductive employment.93 Employment opportunity programs that aim to eliminatediscriminationandpromoteequalityhaveincreasedthenumberofIndigenouspeoplesintheAustralian Public Service.94 The Norforce program, established in 1981, is one example ofsuccessful investment in Indigenous employment.95NorforcemonitorsAustralia’s northerncoastforsuspiciousactivityand70%oftheemployeesareAboriginal.IndigenouseldersandtraditionalownersendorseNorforcebecauseitprotectscountrywhichincludestheirancestrallands.‘ToyoungAboriginalmalesthejobhelpsthemliveandbreathetheirwarriorrole.’However, there is still a large gap in unemployment rates between Indigenous and non-IndigenousAustralians.TheIndigenousemploymentratefellfrom53.8%in2008to48.4%in2014-15.96 Inruralareas,unemploymentratesare28.1%for Indigenousand2.8%forNon-Indigenouspeople.97Thislackofopportunitycouldcontributetooffendingorreoffending.Asshown in the Norforce program, autonomous employment programsmay give Indigenouspeoplesaconnection to theircommunityandcould reduce incarceration rates.Further,asnotedabove,tertiarytrained,technicallycapableAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplesshouldbeplacedintodecision-makingpositions.

92UNDRIP,art17.93InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,openedforsignature16December1966,(enteredintoforce3January1976),art6.94Tauli-Corpuz,aboven70.95JensKorff,Aboriginalemployment,jobs&careers(21March2017)CreativeSpirits,availableat<https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/economy/aboriginal-employment-jobs-careers#axzz4jh4UH9WZ>.96JobsAustralia,ClosingtheGap2017-IndigenousEmploymentRateGoingBackwards(17February2017)JobsAustralia,availableat<https://www.ja.com.au/news/closing-gap-2017-indigenous-employment-rate-going-backwards>.97Ibid.

19 Governmentsshouldincreasefundingandinvestmentinlocalcommunity-basedemploymentopportunitiesandtrainingprograms,andsupportAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandertertiarystudents,inordertoincreasethenumberofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderprofessionals.

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ThesocialandculturalrightsofIndigenouspeoplesasawholearesignificantinthediscussionofincarcerationrates.Aslongastheserightsarenotupheldtherewillbeover-representationof Indigenouspeople incustody,andwhilethisover-representationisnotaddressed,therewillbelimitedprogressinawardingtheserightsequallyandjustly.Forthisreason,AustralianstateandfederalgovernmentsneedtopaycloserattentiontothehumanrightsaspectsofalllawsandpoliciesregardingIndigenouscommunities,andinparticularinconnectionwiththecriminaljusticesystem.

20 FinancialsupportshouldbegiventoAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeakprofessionalbodiestosupporttheworktheyarealreadydoing.AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplesarethehighestconsumersofjusticeservices,whichmakesjusticereinvestmentasoundfiscalinvestment.FundingshouldalsobeprovidedforanindependentmonitoringbodythatincludesAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderlegalprofessionals.