(c) 2012 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. chapter 6 socioemotional development in early childhood...

(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chapter 6

Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

PowerPoints developed by Nicholas Greco IV, College of Lake County, Grayslake, IL


Initiative Versus Guilt

Erikson’s third stage: initiative versus guiltchildren use their perceptual, motor, cognitive,

and language skills to make things happenon their own initiative, children exuberantly

move out into a wider social worldgovernor of initiative is conscience initiative leads not only to rewards but also

guilt, which lowers self-esteem


Self-Understanding

Self-understanding -- representation of self -- the substance and content of self-conceptions

Early self-understanding involves self-recognitionYoung children think that the self can be

described by many material characteristics, such as size, shape, and color

About 4 to 5 years of age, they begin to include psychological trait and emotion terms in their own self-descriptions


Understanding Others

Young children’s theory of mind includes understanding that other people have emotions and desires

About 4 to 5 years, they begin to perceive others in terms of psychological traits

Some young children are better than others at understanding what people are feeling and what they desire


Emotional Development

Awareness of self is linked to the ability to feel an expanding range of emotions

To experience self-conscious emotions, children must be able to refer to themselves and be aware of themselves as distinct from others

Important changes in emotional development: increased ability to talk about one’s own and others’ emotions increase the number of terms they use to

describe emotions


Emotion-Coaching and Emotion-Dismissing

Parents Emotion-coaching parents monitor their

children’s emotions, view their children’s negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions

Emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions


Regulation of Emotion and Peer Relations

Emotions play a strong role in determining the success of a child’s peer relationships

Ability to modulate one’s emotions is an important skill that benefits relationships with peersmoody and emotionally negative children

experience rejection by their peerspositive children are more popular


Moral Development

Moral development -- development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other peopleFreudian theory, superego = the moral

element of personality Empathy -- responding to another person’s

feelings with an emotion that echoes the other’s feelings

(Eisenberg & others, 2009)


Moral Reasoning

Piaget (1932) theorized how thinking about moral issues was stimulatedAges 4–7: heteronomous morality -- children

think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people

7–10 years of age, children are in a transition 10 years and older: autonomous morality --

aware that rules and laws are created by people


Moral Reasoning

Because young children are heteronomous moralists, they judge the rightness or goodness of behavior by considering its consequences, not the intentions of the actor

The heteronomous thinker also believes in immanent justice -- the concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately


Moral Behavior

Behavioral and social cognitive approach -- processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior

When rewarded for behavior that is consistent with laws and social conventions, they are likely to repeat that behavior

Actions of models who behave morally are likely to be adopted


Moral Behavior

Behavioral and social cognitive researchers emphasize that what children do in one situation is often only weakly related to what they do in other situations

The totally honest child was virtually nonexistent, as was the totally dishonest child

Ability to resist temptation is closely tied to the development of self-control

(Hartshorne & May, 1928–1930; Mischel, 2004)


Gender Gender -- social and psychological

dimensions of being male or female Gender identity -- sense of being male or

female Gender roles -- sets of expectations that

prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feelpreschool children act in ways that match

their culture's gender roles and exhibit a sense of gender identity


Social Theories of Gender Social role theory -- contrasting roles of

women and men Psychoanalytic theory of gender -- Freud’s

view -- preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parentOedipus (for boys) or Electra (for girls)

complex Social cognitive theory of gender -- by

observing and imitating and through being rewarded and punished


Parental Influences on Gender Development

By action and by example, parents influence their children’s gender development cultures around the world give mothers and

fathers different rolesMothers’ Socialization Strategies -- mothers

socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons

Fathers’ Socialization Strategies -- fathers show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons’ intellectual development

(Grusec & Davidov, 2007)


Peer Influences Peers prompt the process of responding to

and modeling masculine and feminine behaviorplayground has been called “gender school”

Peers extensively reward and punish gender behaviorpeers often reject children who act in a

manner that is characteristic of the other gender

Gender molds important aspects of peer relations

(Luria & Herzog, 1985; Leaper & Friedman, 2007; Matlin, 2008)


Theories of Gender Development

Social Cognitive Theory mechanisms by which gender develops

observationimitationrewards and punishment

Gender Schema Theory gender typing emerges as children gradually

develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture

gender schema -- organizes the world in terms of female and male

(Martin & Ruble, 2010)


Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

Diana Baumrind (1971) has described four types of parenting stylesauthoritarian parenting -- restrictive, punitive style

demanding obedience and respectauthoritative parenting -- encourages independence

but still places limits and controls neglectful parenting -- parent is very uninvolved in the

child's life indulgent parenting -- highly involved with but place

few demands or controls There are ethic differences which may be

associated with more positive outcomes than Baumrind predicts


Insert Figure 6.2


Punishment

Corporal (physical) punishment historically has been considered a necessary and even desirable method of discipline

Use of corporal punishment is legal in every state in America

Individuals in the United States and Canada were among those with the most favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment and were the most likely to remember it being used by their parents

(Curran & others, 2001)


Consequences of Corporal Punishment

Corporal punishment is associated with Higher levels of immediate compliance, but

also with increased aggression by the children Lower levels of moral internalization and

mental health More adjustment problems

Adolescent depressionJuvenile delinquency

(Gershoff, 2002; Bender & others, 2007)


Reasons to Avoid Physical Punishment

Parents who spank present children with an out-of-control model which the children may then imitate

Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance in children

Punishment tells the child what not to do rather than what to do

Punishment can be abusive

(Durrant, 2008)


Coparenting and Alternatives to Corporal Punishment

Handling misbehavior by reasoning and especially explaining the consequences of the child’s actions

Time out -- the child is briefly removed from the setting

Coparenting -- the support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child


Child Maltreatment

Eighty-four percent of children, who were abused according to a 2008 report, were abused by a parent or parents

In 2006, approximately 905,000 U.S. children were victims of child abuse

(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008)


Types of Child Maltreatment

Physical abuse the infliction of physical injury

Child neglect failure to provide for the child’s basic needs

Sexual abuse fondling a child’s genitals, intercourse, incest,

rape, sodomy, etc. Emotional abuse

psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury acts/omissions that have caused, or could

cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems


The Context of Abuse No single factor causes child maltreatment A combination of factors includes:

The cultureFamily characteristicsDevelopmental characteristics of the child

About one-third of parents who were abused themselves go on to abuse their own children


Developmental Consequences of Abuse

Poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and other psychological problems such as depression and delinquency

Difficulty in establishing and maintaining healthy intimate relationships

As adolescents and adults, they are at higher risk for violent romantic relationships, as well as for substance abuse, sexual risk taking, financial and employment-related difficulties


Prevention of Maltreatment

In a recent study, two treatments were effective in reducing child maltreatment: home visitation that emphasized improved

parenting, coping with stress, and increasing support for the mother

parent-infant psychotherapy that focused on improving maternal-infant attachment

(Cicchetti, Toth, &Rogosch, 2005)


Sibling Relationships

Approximately 80 percent of American children have one or more siblings

Interactions with siblings include aggressive, hostile interchanges

Conflict is only one of the many dimensions of sibling relations sibling relations include helping, sharing,

teaching, fighting, and playing


Characteristics of Sibling Relationships

Emotional quality of the relationship many children and adolescents have mixed

feelings toward their siblings Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship

they can either provide support or tease and undermine each other, depending on the situation

Variation in sibling relationships some siblings describe their relationships

more positively than others

(Dunn, 2007)


Birth Order First-born children

more adult-orientedmore helpful, conforming, and self-controlled

Only children often are achievement-oriented and display a desirable personality, especially in comparison with later-borns and children from large families


Changing Family in a Changing Society

The United States has one of the highest percentages of single-parent families in the world

Among two-parent families, there are those in which both parents work, or have divorced parents who have remarried, or gay or lesbian parents

Differences in culture and SES also influence families


Working Parents

The nature of parents’ work rather than whether one parent works outside the home is significantParents who have poor working conditions

are likely to be more irritable at home and engage in less effective parenting

A consistent finding is that children (especially girls) of working mothers engage in less gender stereotyping and have more egalitarian views of gender


Children in Divorced Families Children in divorced families are more likely to

have academic problems show externalized problems (such as acting out and

delinquency) and internalized problems (such as anxiety and depression)

have less competent intimate relationshipsdrop out of schoolbecome sexually active at an early age take drugs to become sexually active at an early agehave low self-esteem

A majority of children in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems


Divorce Adjustment When a divorced parents’ relationship with

each other is harmonious and when they use authoritative parenting, the adjustment of children improves

Children who are socially mature and responsible, who show few behavioral problems, and who have an easy temperament are better able to cope

Children with a difficult temperament often have problems in coping with their parents’ divorce


Socioeconomic Issues of Divorce

Custodial mothers experience the loss of about one-fourth to one-half of their pre-divorce income

This income loss for divorced mothers is accompanied by increased workloads, high rates of job instability, and residential moves to less desirable neighborhoods with inferior schools

Custodial fathers have a loss of only one-tenth of their pre-divorce income


Gay Male and Lesbian Parents

Approximately 20 percent of lesbians and 10 percent of gay men are parents

Many lesbian mothers and gay fathers are non-custodial parents because they lost custody of their children to heterosexual spouses after a divorce

Most children of gay and lesbian parents were born in a heterosexual relationship that ended in a divorce

Parenthood among lesbians and gay men is controversial


Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations

Families in many countries are experiencing cultural change because of frequent international travel the Internet and electronic communicationseconomic globalization greater family mobilitymigration to urban areasseparation as some family members work in cities or

other countries smaller families and fewer extended-family

households increases in maternal employment



Families within different ethnic groups differ in their size, structure, composition, reliance on kinships networks, and levels of income and education

When children spend time in a child-care center, school, church, or other community setting, they are likely to learn the values and behaviors of the dominant culturethey may be expected to adapt to that

culture’s norms -- acculturation



Lower-SES parents more concerned that children conform to

society’s expectationscreate a home atmosphere where parents

have authority use physical punishment more are more directive and less conversational

with their children


Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic

Variations Higher-SES parents are more concerned with developing

children's initiative and delay of gratificationcreate an atmosphere in which children are

more nearly equal participants rules are discussed are less likely to use physical punishmentare less directive and more conversational

with their children


Peer Relations Peers -- children of about the same age or

maturity level Functions of a child’s peer group

receive feedback about their abilities can be necessary for normal socioemotional

development negotiating roles and rules in play, arguing,

and agreeing


Play Extensive amount of peer interaction

during childhood involves play Play -- pleasurable activity that is engaged

in for its own sake Its functions and forms vary Therapists use play therapy both to allow

the child to work off frustrations and to analyze the child’s conflicts and ways of coping with them


Parten’s Classic Study of Play

Parten’s proposed the following types of play:Unoccupied playSolitary playOnlooker playParallel playAssociative playCooperative play


Types of Play Most widely studied types of

children’s play sensorimotor and practice playpretense/symbolic playsocial playconstructive playgames


Types of Play Sensorimotor play is behavior by

infants intended to derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes

Practice play involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports


Types of Play Pretense/symbolic play occurs when the

child transforms the physical environment into a symbol

Social play involves interaction with peers Constructive play combines

sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation

Games are activities that are engaged in for pleasure and have rules


Television

Television is the most influential of the many types of mass media that affect children’s behavior

Many spend more time in front of the television set than they do with their parentsaverage of 2 to 4 hours a day


Television

Negative influence on children by making them passive learnersdistracting them from doing homeworkteaching them stereotypesproviding them with violent models of

aggressionpresenting them with unrealistic views of the

world


Television

Positive influence on children’s development by presenting motivating educational programsincreasing their information about the world

beyond their immediate environmentproviding models of prosocial behavior


Effects of Television on Children’s Aggression

Saturday morning cartoon shows average more than 25 violent acts per hour

Increased concern about children who play violent video games, especially those that are highly realistic

(c) 2012 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. chapter 6 socioemotional development in early childhood...

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