(c) 2012 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. chapter 1 introduction powerpoints developed by nicholas...
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(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter 1
Introduction
PowerPoints developed by Nicholas Greco IV, College of Lake County – Grayslake, IL
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Life-Span Perspective
Developmentthe pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and continues through the human life span
each of us develops partly like all other individuals partly like some other individualspartly like no other individuals
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Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
Learning about ourselves and othersdevelopment involves growth, but it also
includes decline
Traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in old age
Life-span approach emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood
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Life Span versus Life Expectancy
Human Life Span Based on the oldest age documented—122
years Maximum life span of humans has not changed
since the beginning of recorded history
Life Expectancy the average number of years that a person
born in a particular year can expect to liveLife expectancy increased by 30 years in the 20th
century
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More Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
Life-span perspective views development as
Lifelong Multidimensional MultidirectionalPlasticMultidisciplinary Contextual
(Baltes, 1987, 2003; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006)
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Contexts: Three Types of Influences
Normative Age-graded Influences Normative History-graded Influences Non-normative Life Events
(Baltes, 2003)
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Contemporary Concerns in Life-Span Development
Health and Well-Being Parenting and Education Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity
cross-cultural studies ethnicitysocioeconomic status (SES) gender
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Social Policy
A government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens valueseconomics/povertypolitics
childrenthe elderly
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The Nature of Development
Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s physical nature
Cognitive processes refer to changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language
Socioemotional processes involve changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality
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Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and
Socioemotional Processes Inextricably intertwined Two emerging fields
Developmental cognitive neuroscienceDevelopmental social neuroscience
Bidirectional
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Periods of Development
Developmental period refers to a time frame in a person’s life that is characterized by certain featuresprenatal period -- conception to birth infancy -- birth to 18 or 24 months early childhood -- end of infancy to age 5 or 6middle and late childhood -- 6 to 11 years of
age
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Periods of Developmentcon’t
adolescence -- transition from childhood to early adulthood, approximately 10 to 12 to 18 to 22 years of age
early adulthood -- late teens or early twenties through the thirties
middle adulthood -- approximately 40 to about 60 years of age
late adulthood -- sixties or seventies and lasts until death
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Periods of Developmentcon’t
Life-span developmentalists who focus on adult development and aging increasingly describe life-span development in terms of four “ages”first age: childhood and adolescencesecond age: prime adulthood, 20s - 50sthird age: approximately 60 to 79 years fourth age: approximately 80 years and older
(Baltes, 2006; Willis & Schaie, 2006)
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Conceptions of Age
Chronological age -- number of years since birth
Biological age -- age in terms of biological health
Psychological age -- individual’s adaptive capacities
Social age -- society’s age expectations
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Nature and Nurture
The nature-nurture issue concerns the extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurtureNature refers to an organism’s biological
inheritanceNurture to its environmental experiences
Which has the greatest influence, and how do the two interact?
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Stability and Change The stability-change issue involves the
degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or changeStability is the result of heredity and possibly early
experiences in life Plasticity, the potential for change, exists
throughout the life span
To what degree do early traits and characteristics persist through life, or how much do they change?
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Continuity and Discontinuity
The continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the degree to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change or distinct stagesContinuity -- gradual, cumulative change; quantitative Discontinuity -- distinct stages; qualitative
Is change in development gradual or abrupt?
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Evaluating the Developmental Issues
Most life-span developmentalists acknowledge that development is not all nature or all nurture, not all stability or all change, and not all continuity or all discontinuity
Nature and nurture, stability and change, continuity and discontinuity characterize development throughout the human life span
(Gottlieb, 2007; Rutter, 2007)
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Theories of Development The scientific method
Tool to understand or answer questions about development
Four-step process: Conceptualize a process or problem to be
studiedCollect research information (data)Analyze dataDraw conclusions
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Conceptualizing the Problem
Draw on theories A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of
ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions
Develop hypothesesHypotheses are specific assertions and
predictions that can be tested
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Theories of Development
Psychoanalytic Theory Psychosocial Theory Cognitive Theory Behavioral and Social Theory Ethological Theory Ecological Theory
Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
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Psychoanalytic Theory
Primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and heavily colored by emotion
Understanding of development requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind
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Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud’s Theorybehavior and problems are the result of
experiences early in life (mainly first 5 years)adult personality -- resolution of conflicts
between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory primary motivation for human behavior is social
and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people developmental change occurs throughout the life
span
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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
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Cognitive Theories
Emphasis on conscious thoughts Three important cognitive theories
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theoryVygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theoryInformation-processing theory
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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Children go through four stages of cognitive development
Processes underlie this cognitive construction of the world organization adaptation
Each stage is age-related and consists of a distinct way of thinking -- a qualitatively different way of understanding
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Piaget’s Cognitive Stages
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
Cognitive development involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies
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The Information-Processing Theory
Emphasis on ways that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it
Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills
(Munakata, 2006; Reed, 2007)
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Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Behaviorism -- we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured
Two versions of behaviorism B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioningAlbert Bandura’s social cognitive theory
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Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning consequences of a behavior produce changes
in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence rewards and punishments shape development
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory holds that behavior, environment, and
cognition are the key factors in developmentobservational learning (also called imitation or
modeling)people cognitively represent the behavior of others and then
sometimes adopt this behavior themselves
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Ethological Theory
Ethology stresses Behavior is strongly influenced by biologyIt is tied to evolutionCharacterized by critical or sensitive periods
Noted ethologistsKonrad LorenzJohn Bowlby
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Ecological Theory
Emphasis on environmental factors Noted ecological theories
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theorytheory identifies five environmental
systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
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An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
No single theory described in this chapter can explain entirely the rich complexity of life-span development, but each has contributed to our understanding of development
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Research in Life-Span Development
Application of scientific method Methods for collecting data
observationlaboratory observationnaturalistic observation
asking questions -- survey and interviewstandardized testingcase studyphysiological measures
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Research Designs
Descriptive research -- observe and record behavior
Correlational research -- describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
Experiment -- regulated procedure in which one or more factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant
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Independent and Dependent Variables
Experiments include two types of changeable factors independent variable
manipulated, influential, experimental factor
a potential causedependent variable
can change in response to changes in the independent variable
resulting effect
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Experimental and Control Groups
Experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated
A control group is a comparison group As much like the experimental group as
possible, which is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor (independent variable)
Control group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared
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Time Span of Research
The cross-sectional approach is a research strategy that simultaneously compares individuals of different ages
The longitudinal approach is a research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more
A cohort is a group of people who are born at a similar point in history and share similar experiences Cohort effects are due to a person’s time of birth, era, or
generation but not to actual age
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Conducting Ethical Research
Rights of participant Responsibilities of researchers APA’s guidelines address four important
issues Informed consent ConfidentialityDebriefingDeception