c. 2008 pearson allyn & bacon encoding and retrieval processes in long-term memory chapter 6

c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon

Encoding and Retrieval Processesin Long-Term Memory

Chapter 6


Long-Term MemoryFundamental Issues and Distinctions

Many distinguish between short-term memory and long-term memory

Serial position effect Items at the beginning and end of a list are

remembered particularly well Evidence for the distinction?



Long-Term memory (LTM) systems Episodic Memory

memory for personally experienced events Semantic Memory

knowledge or information about the world; not tied to context

Procedural Memory Ability to perform well-practiced actions and skills



Basic processes of LTM Encoding

Processes involved in information acquisition Storage

Retention of a memory representation Retrieval

Accessing information in LTM after encoding and storage

Memory can be tested directly (explicit memory tests) or indirectly (implicit memory tests)


Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes

Attention and Repetition

Spacing effect Massed repetition is not as effective as

distributed repetition

Superiority of distributed repetition due to: Deficient processing in massed repetition Encoding variability in distributed repetition



Rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information with no embellishment

Elaborative rehearsal: linking information with previously stored information

Effective for incidental and intentional learning



Levels of processing Processing of words proceeds from a superficial

sensory analysis to a meaningful semantic analysis

Deeper processing = better retention

Problems: “Deep” processing is vaguely/circularly defined Doesn’t say much about retrieval



Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Places emphasis on encoding-retrieval interaction

Most effective encoding technique depends on how retrieval is to be tested

Encoding processes should match processes to be engaged at retrieval.



Encoding also aided by: Distinctiveness: Processes that distinguish

information in LTM

Organization: Processes that add structure to incoming information

Material-Appropriate Processing Best strategy is whichever provides a complement

to the information offered by the material.



Mnemonic techniques

Devices employed to improve memory Method of Loci: link to-be-remembered material to

known locations Retrieve with “mental walk” Effectiveness of visual processing

Self-Reference: relating information to self improves memory.


Long-Term MemoryRemembering Actions

Enactment effect Memory is better for actions than for

corresponding verbal statements

Prospective Memory Remembering to perform future actions Involves “self-initiated retrieval”


Long-Term MemoryRetrieval Processes

A good deal of forgetting is due to retrieval failure

Accessibility vs. Availability Information is often present (available), but not

retrievable (accessible) without the right cue


Long-Term MemoryRetrieval Processes

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory benefits to the extent that retrieval features (i.e., cues) overlaps with features present during encoding

Encoding features are the best retrieval cues


Retrieval ProcessesEncoding Specificity

Thomson and Tulving (1970) Gave subjects weakly related word pairs

Assessed two types of retrieval cue Strongly related word Weakly related (but presented at encoding) word

Weakly related word was much more effective as a retrieval cue


Retrieval ProcessesEncoding Specificity

An extension of encoding specificity Context Dependency:

Given a particular encoding context, memory is better when retrieval reinstates that context.

Has been demonstrated with both external and internal context

Encoding Context

Retrieval Context

A B

A

B


Retrieval ProcessesA Testing Effect

Retrieval aids in retrieval -- the testing effect Roediger & Karpicke (2006)

compared two conditions

Subjects studied a passage repeatedly or studied it once and tested themselves repeatedly

Repeated testing decreased forgetting rate dramatically


Long-Term MemoryEncoding and Retrieval: Hemispheric Asymmetry

Neuro-imaging studies indicate hemispheric specialization in memory functioning

Left hemisphere particularly active during retrieval of semantic memory info and encoding processes

Right hemisphere particularly active during recall of specific episodes


Long-Term MemoryMemory and Consciousness

Remember-Know paradigm

Recognition task; subjects are asked about subjective experience during retrieval

Remember: Conscious recollection Know: Automatic judgment; no recollection

Remember and know judgments are dissociated by a number of variables


Long-Term MemoryMemory and Consciousness

Not all expressions of memory involve conscious retrieval

Explicit memory: Remembering via conscious recollection and effortful retrieval.

Conscious recollection necessary

Implicit memory: “Remembering” as reflected in changes in behaviors, attitudes, emotions

Conscious recollection not necessary


Memory and ConsciousnessImplicit Memory

Implicit memory reflected in unconscious plagiarism Misattributing a thought or idea to oneself “Memory” without conscious recollection

Implicit memory reflected in deja-vu. Mistaken feeling that you’ve been in some situation

before Implicit remembering of a related situation?



Implicit memory tests

Word fragment completion: c _ n _ c i _ u _ n e _ _

Word stem completion: con ____________

Compare completion rates for words previously encountered to baseline completion rates

Enhanced completion for previously encountered words = priming; a measure of implicit memoryt



Dissociations are often observed between measures of explicit and implicit memory

Amnesia: memory deficits brought on by severe brain injury

Amnesia dissociates explicit and implicit memory Explicit tests: amnesia-related deficit Implicit tests: no amnesia-related deficit



Dissociations can be observed in non-amnesics

Jacoby (1983): had subjects encode words by reading or generating a response to a clue

Tested them explicitly (recognition) or implicitly (identification)

Generating led to better recognition performance; reading led to better identification performance



Accounts of explicit-implicit associations

Transfer-Appropriate Processing Memory depends on retrieval-encoding match Implicit tests: data-driven in nature; are aided by

data-driven encoding Explicit tests: conceptually driven in nature, aided

by conceptually-driven encoding.



Accounts of explicit-implicit associations

Performance on implicit and explicit memory tests depends on different memory systems

Implicit tests reflect procedural memory system Explicit tests reflect declarative memory system

c. 2008 pearson allyn & bacon encoding and retrieval processes in long-term memory chapter 6

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