(c) allyn & bacon 2004copyright © allyn and bacon 2004 chapter nine teaching students with...

(c) Allyn & Bacon 2004Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2004

Chapter Nine

Teaching Students with

Sensory Impairments

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

•any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;

•preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;

•any rental, lease, or lending of the program.


Introduction

There remains some debate regarding the best setting in which to provide services for students with sensory impairments. Historically, many students with sensory

impairments were served in residential facilities. Today, many students with sensory impairments

are served in general education classrooms. Most students with sensory impairments are

capable of handling the academic and social demands of general education classroom settings.


Accommodations

For students with sensory impairments, a variety of academic accommodations may be needed such as:

Seating adjustments Sophisticated equipment for listening,

communicating, or navigating Support of additional personnel


Low-Incidence Disabilities

Sensory impairments are considered low-incidence disabilities since there are not large numbers of these students in the school population.

These students represent a very small percentage of all students who are disabled.


Basic Concepts About Hearing Impairments (HI)

HI is a hidden disability.

However, when communicative skills are needed, hearing limitations become evident.


Placements Relatively few students with profound hearing loss

(deafness) are educated in general education settings. When these students are in general education settings, they need

major accommodations. More students with mild to moderate hearing

impairments are educated in general education settings. These students can function more easily in these settings.

Students with minimal hearing loss do not qualify for special education.

These students are at a distinct disadvantage if the teacher does not provide recognize and accommodate their problems.


Impact of Hearing Loss on Language Acquisition

The relationship of hearing loss to language acquisition is very important for teachers to understand.

This means that language is a dominant consideration when discussing appropriate education for students with hearing losses.


Hearing impairment is the generic term used to cover the entire range of hearing loss.

Deafness describes a person with a hearing loss that is so severe that speech cannot be understood through the ear alone, with or without aids.

Hard of hearing describes individuals who have a hearing loss that makes it difficult, if not impossible, to understand speech through the ear alone, with or without a hearing aid.

Hearing Impairments Defined


Hearing loss is often measured in decibel (dB).

Individuals with losses from 25 to 90 dB are considered hard of hearing.

Individuals with losses greater than 90 dB are classified as deaf.

How Hearing Loss is Measured


IDEA Definition

Deafness means a hearing impairment

that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing,

with or without amplification, that

adversely affects a child’s education

performance.


IDEA Definition

Hearing impairment means an impairment

in hearing, whether permanent or

fluctuating, that adversely affects a

child’s educational performance, but that

is not included under the definition of

deafness in this section.


Definition of Minimal Hearing Loss

Minimal hearing loss, which is not

included in the federal definition of hearing

impairment. This condition, however,

can cause problems for students.

Minimal hearing loss is defined as a loss

of hearing between 16 and 25 dB.


Classification of HI

Conductive Hearing Loss (mild loss in both ears)

Unilateral Hearing Loss (loss only in one ear)

Mild Bilateral Sensorineural Hearing Loss (caused by sound not being transmitted to the brain

Moderate-to-Severe Bilateral Sensorineural Hearing Loss (more severe loss in both ears)


Prevalence of HI

About 0.11% of students with hearing impairments are served in special education.

Despite this small number, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have estimated that as many as 15% of all children experience some degree of hearing loss.

This includes those children with minimal hearing loss that does not result in eligibility for special services.


Causes of HI

There are many causes of hearing

Impairments. These include: genetic causes developmental anomalies toxic reaction to drugs infections prematurity Rh incompatibility birth trauma allergies


Characteristics of HI

Psychological

Communicational

Academic

Social-Emotional


Indicators of HI

•Fidgeting or moving about in seat

•Is easily distracted by visual or auditory stimuli

Does not respond when spoken to

Has a restricted vocabulary

Has difficulty following directions

Pulling or pressing on ear

•Has a confused expression on face

Appears inattentive and daydreams

Uses a loud voice when speaking

Withdraws from classroom activities that involve listening

Has frequent colds, earaches, or infections

Asks for information to be repeated frequently

Misarticulates certain speech sounds or omits certain consonant sounds

•Gives incorrect answers to questions

Turns head to position of speaker


Formal Assessments

The assessment of hearing ability requires the use of various audiological techniques including: Pure-tone audiometry tests Bone conduction hearing tests


Informal Assessment

Teachers and school personnel should

engage in informal assessment of

students suspected of having a hearing

impairment. Informal assessment

typically focuses on observing students

for signs that might indicate a hearing loss.


Realities of the General Education Classroom

Students with HI vary greatly in their need for supports in the general education classroom. Students with mild losses typically need minimal

supports. Students with severe hearing impairments typically

require specialized instructional techniques such as:

Alternative communication methods Use of interpreters


Continuum-of-Placement Options

Placement of students with HI ranges from general education classrooms to residential schools for the deaf.

The topic of educational placement has been the most controversial aspect of educating students with HI.

The placement decision for students with HI should be based on the unique needs of the student and the IEP process.


Placement Trends

The trend is towards educating more students with HI in general education classrooms.

During the 1998-1999 school year: almost 60% of all students with HI were

educated in general education classrooms for at least 40% of the school day.

fewer than 10% of students with HI were educated in residential settings.


Standard Operating Procedures

Students with HI should be required to follow the same rules, routines, and procedures expected of other students.

Some procedures may have to be modified to accommodate special needs.

Example: Students may need to be allowed to leave their seats to get the attention of a student who cannot hear a spoken communication.

Example: Teacher may want to establish a buddy system in which a student with normal hearing is assigned to assist the student with a hearing impairment (e.g., taking notes, notifying of fire drill).


Physical Considerations

Seating is a major consideration. Teachers need to ensure that students are seated to

maximize the use of their residual hearing and/or to have an unobstructed view of an interpreter.

Students with HI need to be seated so that they can take advantage of all visual cues.

Teachers should seat students who use interpreters so that they can easily see the interpreter, the teacher, and any visuals that are used.


Teaching Tips

Seat student in the best place to facilitate attending and participating.

Seat students in a semicircular arrangement to increase sight lines for students and teacher.

Position teacher so that the student can read lips.

Position teacher so that he or she faces students when talking.


Creating a Favorable Environment

Attention must be given to creating a supportive acoustical environment throughout the classroom.

Acoustical modifications include: Acoustical ceiling tiles Carpeting Thick curtains Rubber tips on chair and table legs Proper maintenance of ventilation systems,

lighting, doors, and windows


Preinstructional Considerations

Use homework assignment books and make sure students understand their assignments.

Use cooperative learning arrangements to facilitate student involvement.

Reduce distractions and competing noise by modifying the classroom environment.

Include a section of the lesson plan for special provisions for students with HI.

Ensure that adequate lighting is available.

Let students use swivel chairs.

Acquire or develop visually-oriented materials to augment orally presented topics.

Provide visual reminders indicating the amount of time left for an activity or the end of class.

Allow students to move about the room to position themselves for participation in ongoing events.


Communication Strategies

The most challenging aspect of teaching students whose hearing is impaired is making sure that:

they participate in communicational activities that are occurring in the classroom.

they are able to handle the reading and writing demands of the classroom.



Students who have profound hearing loss must rely on alternative means of communication such as sign language or lip reading.

Teachers need to remember that sign language does not follow the grammatical conventions of English.



Students may use some form of manual communication such as American Sign Language (ASL).

Teachers are not required to learn this language. Teachers should make an effort to know some of the

more common signs and to be able to finger-spell the letters of the alphabet as well as numbers one to ten.

If students can communicate only by using sign language, an interpreter will most likely need to be present.

Teachers should know basic information about the roles and functions of an interpreter.



Another form of communication that may be effective is cued speech.

Cued speech is a system of hand cues that enhances lip-reading. Eight different handshapes represent

consonant sounds and four hand positions represent vowel sounds.

By using the signs near the lips, students have cues that help with their lip-reading.


Tips for Delivery of Instruction

Make sure students are attending.

Provide short, clear instructions.

Speak clearly and normally; do not exaggerate the pronunciation of words.

Keep your face visible to students.

Avoid frequent movements around the classroom, turning your back on students while talking, and standing in front of a bright light source.

Use gestures and facial expressions.



If the student reads speech, make sure that your mustache and beard are trimmed to maximize visibility.

Maintain eye contact with the student, not the interpreter.

Encourage students to request clarification and to ask questions.

Check with students to confirm that they are understanding what is being discussed or presented.

Identify other speakers by name so that students can more easily follow a discussion among more than one speaker.



Repeat the comments of other students who speak.

Paraphrase or summarize discussions at the end of a class session.

Write information when necessary.

Have students take responsibility for making themselves understood.

Provide students with advance organizers such as outlines of lectures and copies of overhead transparences.



Provide summaries, outlines, or scripts of videotapes, videodiscs, or films.

Let students use microcomputers for word processing and for checking their spelling and grammar.


Tips for Addressing Social-Emotional Needs

Prepare students for dealing with the demands of life and adulthood.

Encourage and assist students to get involved in extracurricular activities.

Let students know that you are available if they are experiencing problems and need to talk.

Help students develop realistic expectations.

Practice appropriate interactive skills.

Encourage class involvement through active participation in classroom activities and interaction in small groups.

Help students develop problem-solving skills.

Help the students with normal hearing understand the nature of hearing impairment and what they can do to assist.

Create a positive, supportive, and nurturing classroom environment.


Assistive Listening Devices

Assistive listening devices (ALDs) include hearing aids and other devices that amplify voices and sounds, communicate messages visually, or alert users to environmental sounds.

Even children with mild losses (16dB to 25dB) may have problems hearing faint or distant speech without some amplification.

Hearing aids are the predominant ALD found in schools.


Tips for Maximizing Students’ Use of ALDs

Perform troubleshooting of all components of the system.

Keep spare batteries on hand.

Be sure students turn off the transmitter when not engaged in instructional activities to prevent battery loss.

Help students keep their hearing aids working properly.

Make sure students avoid damaging their hearing aids by accident.

Be able to determine whether a hearing aid is working properly.

Make sure background noises are minimized.

Understand how the device works.

Ensure that the system is functioning properly.

Know what type of ALD a student uses.


Students with HI may have a particularly difficult time associating with the “hearing” culture.

Teachers must ensure that these students become part of the community of the school and class and are socially accepted by their peers.

Teachers may have to orchestrate opportunities for social interactions by using such strategies as:

Grouping Pairing students for specific tasks Assigning buddies Establishing a circle of friends

Promoting Inclusive Practices


Although the number of students whose vision creates learning-related problems is not large, having one such student in a classroom may require a host of accommodations.

Vision plays a critical role in the development of concepts, understanding of spatial relations, and the use of printed material.

Students with VI may need adaptive devices or techniques such as: Braille Optical Devices

Basic Concepts AboutVisual Impairments (VI)


Visual Impairments Defined

Blindness has different meanings depending upon context. Legal blindness refers to a person’s visual acuity and field of vision. It is defined as a visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the person’s better eye after correction, or a field of vision of 20o or less.



An educational definition of blindness implies that a student must use Braille or aural methods in order to receive instruction.



Low vision indicates that some

functional vision exists to be used

for gaining information through

written means with or without the

assistance of optical, nonoptical, or electronic devices.


Classification of Visual Impairments

Refractive Errors (farsightedness, nearsightedness, and astigmatism)

Retinal Disorders Disorders of the Cornea, Iris, and

Lens Optic Nerve Problems


Other Types of Visual Impairments

Strabismus – improper alignment of the eye Nystagmus – rapid involuntary movements of the eye Glaucoma – fluid pressure buildup in the eye Cataract – cloudy film over the lens of the eye Diabetic Retinopathy – changes in the blood vessels

of the eye caused by diabetes Macular Degeneration – damage to the central

portion of the retina, causing central vision loss Retinitis Pigmentosa – genetic eye disease leading to

total blindness


Tunnel vision denotes a condition caused by

deterioration of parts of the retina, which leaves

the person with central vision only. Individuals

who have tunnel vision can see as if they are

looking through a long tube; they have little or

no peripheral vision.


Impact of Vision Problems

Whether or not the student has usable residual vision is an important issue, as is the time at which the vision problem developed.

Students who are born with visual loss have a much more difficult time understanding some concepts and developing basic skills than students who lost their vision after they have established certain concepts.


Prevalence of VI

Vision problems are common in our society.

Corrective lenses allow most individuals to see very efficiently.

Visual impairments increase with age as a result of the aging process.

Approximately 0.04% of students are classified as visually impaired.


Causes of VI

Genetic Causes Premature Birth Anoxia Retinal

Degeneration Physical Trauma Infections


Characteristics of Students with VI

Psychological Characteristics

Communicational Characteristics

Academic Characteristics

Social-Emotional Characteristics

The most educationally relevant characteristic of

students who have visual impairments is the

extent of their visual efficiency.


Assessment of VI

Formal Assessment Typical eye examination assesses visual

acuity and field of vision. The Snellen Chart is commonly used to

assess visual acuity. Informal Assessment

Typically involves observation of behaviors Teachers need to be aware of behaviors that

could indicate a visual problem.


Eligibility

To be determined eligible for special education, students with visual problems must meet guidelines established by the states under IDEA.

These guidelines focus on the visual acuity of students: Students with a 20/200 acuity or worse, in the better

eye with best correction, are eligible under the “blind” category.

Students with a visual acuity of 20/70 to 20/200 are eligible as low-vision students.


Continuum-of-Placement Options

Students with visual impairments must have a full range of placement options and be evaluated individually to determine the most appropriate placement.

Although some students who are totally blind function very well in general education settings, many are placed in residential schools where they receive more extensive services.


Placement

Trends

Today, the trend is in the direction of more inclusive placements.

During the 1998-1999 school year: more than 85% of students with VI were served

in general education classrooms at least 40% of the school day.

almost 50% were served in general education classrooms more than 80% of the school day.

fewer than 10% were educated in residential schools.


Standard Operating Procedures

The same standards of expected behavior should be applied for all students, including those with visual problems.

Students with visual limitations, however, may need special freedom to move around the classroom, to find the place they can best see demonstrations of participate in classroom activities.


Physical Considerations Students with visual problems need to know

the physical layout of the classroom so that they can navigate through it without harming themselves.

Appropriate seating is extremely important for students who are able to use their existing vision.

Placement of the student’s desk, lighting, glare, and distractions should be addressed.


Preinstructional Considerations Class schedules must allow extra time for students

who use large-print or Braille.

Test-taking procedures must be modified. Preparing an enlarged version of the test Arranging for someone to read the test

Special instruction in study skills (e.g., notetaking, organizational skills, time management, and keyboarding) may be needed.


Specific Accommodations

Assign a classmate to assist students who need help with mobility in emergency situations.

Teach all students in the class the proper techniques of being a sighted guide.

In advance, inform staff members at fieldtrip sites that a student with a visual problem will be part of the visiting group.

Tell students with visual problems when you are entering or leaving a room.



Have all students practice movement patterns that you expect of them.

Orient students to the physical layout and other distinguishing features of the classroom.

Maintain consistency in placement of furniture, equipment, and instructional materials – remove all dangerous obstacles.

Keep doors to cabinets, carts, and closets closed.



Assist students in getting into unfamiliar desks, chairs, or furniture.

Eliminate auditory distractions.

Seat students to maximize their usable vision and listening skills (usually front-and-center).

Ensure that proper lighting is available.

Create extra space for students who must use and store a piece of equipment (e.g., Braille, notebook computer).

In lesson plan, include accommodations for the student with visual problems.


Materials and Equipment

Vision specialists can help teachers select appropriate materials and equipment to enhance the education of students with VI.

Many educational materials may pose difficulties for students with visual problems. Size of Print

Typically, this can be addressed by enlarging the print. Contrast of Print

It is very hard to enhance the contrast of photocopied materials.


Tips for Enhancing Photocopies

Do not use colored paper. It limits contrast.

Make new originals when photocopies become difficult too read.

Give the darkest copies of handouts to student with visual problems.

Avoid worksheet masters with missing parts or creases.

Copy over lines that are light with a dark marker.

Avoid old or light worksheet masters.

Avoid the use of colored inks that produce limited contrast.

Do not give a student with a VI a poor copy and say, “Do the best you can with this.”

Avoid using both sides of the paper.


Using Large-Print Materials

Large-print materials may be used inappropriately.

These materials should be used only as a last resort after other techniques, such as the following, have been tried:

Optical devices Reduction of the reading distance


Optical, Nonoptical, and Electronic Devices

These devices may help students by enlarging printed images.

Teachers will need to learn about these devices to ensure that they are used properly and are in working order.

Teachers should consult with a vision specialist to learn how to use these devices.


Use of Braille

Students with severe visual limitations may use Braille as the primary means of working with printed materials.

Students who use Braille can use a computer to write in Braille and then have the text converted to standard print (the reverse process is available as well).

Teachers should consult with a vision specialist if they have a student who requires Braille.



Avoid using written materials with pages that are too crowded.

Avoid using materials with glossy surfaces and, if possible, dittoed materials.

Ensure that students are seated properly so that they can see (if they have vision) and hear you clearly.

Use environmental connectors (e.g., ropes or railing) and other adaptations for physical and other recreational activities.

Use high-contrast materials, whether paper or the chalkboard – dry erase boards may be preferable.

Take breaks at regular intervals to minimize fatigue in listening or using a Brailler or optic device.

Use large-print materials only after other methods have been attempted and proven unsuccessful.

Vary the type of instruction used, and include hands-on lessons, cooperative learning, and real-life materials.

Call students by name, and speak directly to them.


Social-Emotional Considerations

Research is mixed as to whether or not students with VI are less well adjusted than their sighted peers.

There is evidence that some students with VI experience social isolation.

Social skills instruction may be needed. Teachers need to remember that vision is

needed to learn many social skills (e.g., observing & imitating).


Tips for Addressing Social-Emotional Needs

Encourage students with VI to become independent learners and to manage their own behavior.

Create opportunities for students with VI to manipulate their own environment.

Teach students how to communicate nonverbally.

Reinforce students for their efforts.

Help students develop a healthy self-concept.

Provide special instruction to help students acquire social skills.

Work to eliminate improper mannerisms that some students with VI display.


Examples of Technology

Magnifiers

Closed-Circuit Television

Monoculars

Braille Printers

Speech Input/Output Devices


Strategies for Promoting Inclusive Practices

Remember that the student with a VI is but one of many students in the classroom with individual needs and characteristics.

Use words such as see, look, and watch naturally.

Introduce students with VI in the same way you would introduce any other student.



Include students with VI in all classroom activities, including physical education, home economics, etc.

Use the same disciplinary procedures for all students.

Encourage students with visual problems to move around the room just like other students.



Use verbal cues as necessary to cue the student with a visual impairment about something that is happening.

Provide additional space for students with VI to store materials.

Allow students with VI to learn about and discuss with classmates special topics related to vision loss.



Model acceptance of students with VI as an example to other students.

Encourage students with VI to use their specialized equipment.

Discuss special needs of the student with a VI with specialists, as necessary.

Always tell a person with a VI who you are as you approach.



Help students avoid mannerisms associated with VI.

Expect the same level of work from students with VI as you do from other students.

Encourage students with VI to be as independent as possible.



Treat students with VI as you treat other students in the classroom.

Provide physical supports for students with concomitant motor problems.

Include students with VI in outdoor activities and team sports.


Cultural Values to Consider

Communication Health Beliefs Family Structure Attitude Toward

Authority

Etiquette Expectations of

Helping Time Orientation


Personnel Supports

for the General Educator

Vision Specialist Orientation and

Mobility Instructor

School Health Personnel

Counselors

Adaptive Physical Education Instructor

Vocational Specialists

(c) allyn & bacon 2004copyright © allyn and bacon 2004 chapter nine teaching students with...

Documents