building automation kjc 315 - ec221cem417 · 18/01/2011 6 right-of-way, construction and...
TRANSCRIPT
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CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY &
maintenance
CEM 417
Stages for construction
WEEK 3
1. Building
2. Retaining walls, Drainage
3. Road, Highway, Bridges
4. Airports, Offshore/Marine structure
ROADS,
HIGHWAYS &
BRIDGES
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WEEK 3
At the end of week 3 lectures, student will be
able to :
- Identify the different types of roads,
highways and bridges and their respective
functions. (CO1; CO3)
HIGHWAY
Development Process
and Functional
Classification
flash.lakeheadu.ca/.../Highway%20Design%20-
%20Class%20notes%202%20-
%20Functional%20classification.ppt
OVERVIEW OF THE
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch01.htm
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HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Highway design is only one element of the overall development process
Five stages of highway development process: planning, project development, final design, right-of-way, and construction
Different activities with overlap in terms of coordination
Flexibility available for highway design during the detailed design phase is limited by decisions on early stages
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch01.htm
PLANNING
Initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project takes place in this phase
Problems identified fall into these categories:
Existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement
Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems that can only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number, location, and physical design of access points necessary (access).
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PLANNING (CONTD.)
Once problem is identified, it is important that all parties agree that the problem exists and that it should be fixed
Consider potential impacts of project: How will the proposed transportation improvement
affect the general physical character of the area surrounding the project?
Does the area to be affected have unique historic or scenic characteristics?
What are the safety, capacity, and cost concerns of the community?
Answers on this phase
FACTORS IN PLANNING
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch01.htm
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
Environmental analysis intensifies
Includes a description of the location and major design features of the recommended project
Try to avoid, minimize and mitigate environmental impacts
Basic steps: Refinement of purpose and need
Development of a range of alternatives (including the "no-build" and traffic management system)
Evaluation of alternatives and their impact on the natural and built environments
Development of appropriate mitigation
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PROJECT DEVELOPMENT (CONTD.)
Assess area
Consider context and physical location
Data collection effort
Identify constraints
Consider factors and select preferred
alternative
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch01.htm
FINAL DESIGN
After a preferred alternative is selected and the project description agreed on upon as stated in the environmental document, the final design occurs
The product of this phase is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of required quantities of materials ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent construction
Depending on the scale and complexity, this phase may take from a few months to several years
FINAL DESIGN (CONTD.)
Need to employ imagination, ingenuity and
flexibility
Be aware of commitment of previous phases
Ability of making minor changes to original
concept
Design considerations
Developing a concept
Considering scale
Detailing the design
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RIGHT-OF-WAY, CONSTRUCTION
AND MAINTENANCE
During the right-of-way acquisition and
construction phases, minor adjustments in
the design may be necessary
Construction may be simple or complex and
may require a few months to several years
Maintenance is very important to keep the
character of the road
Functional
Classification
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
Is the process by which streets and
highways are grouped into classes, or
systems, according to the character of
traffic service that they are intended to
provide
Streets and highways classification
Orderly grouping roads based on service
Assist in geometric design features
In accordance with operational needs
Establishes hierarchy of roads
Efficient and safe if road serve their purpose
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FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
(CONTD.)
Assessment of operating conditions
Comparison between actual and intended
purpose
Chance to sort data based on type of road
Collision data not yet available
Three functional classifications:
arterials
Collector
local roads
ROADWAY FUNCTIONAL
CLASSES
Determined by
characteristics:
function
access density
traffic demands
trip length
expected speed
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch01.htm
ROADWAY FUNCTIONAL CLASSES
(CONTD.)
Arterial: highest level of service, high
mobility, low access, long trips, fast speeds
Collector: less highly developed level of
service, lower speed for shorter trips,
collects traffic from local roads and
connecting them with arterials
Local: all roads not defined as arterials or
collectors, provides access to land with
littler or not through traffic, low speed
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SERVICE FUNCTIONSOURCE: TAC GEOMETRIC DESIGN GUIDE FOR CANADIAN
ROADS
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
IN THE DESIGN PROCESS
The first step in the design process is to define the
function that the facility is to serve.
The level of service required to fulfill this function
provides the basis for design speed and geometric
criteria within the range of values available to the
designer
Functional classification decisions are made before the
design phase, but there is flexibility in the major
controlling factor of design speed
DESIGN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Source: TAC Geometric Design Guide for Canadian Roads
Classification system (differences in) Traffic and land service
Design features
Operational needs (adjacent land use)
For all areas in Canada
Rural (R) Urban (U)Lane
Local (L) Local (L)
Collector (C) Collector (C)
Arterial (A) Arterial (A)
Expressway (E)
Freeway (F) Freeway (F)
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DESIGN CLASSIFICATION (CONTD.)
Ten primary divisions
Design subdivisions Divided (D) or undivided (U)
Design speed (value)
Example (See Table 1.3.2.1, next slide) RAD (90)
UCU (80)
Comments
Number of classes: 63
Design speed increases from local to freeways
All locals street are undivided
All freeways are divided
RURAL DESIGN CLASSIFICATIONSOURCE: TAC GEOMETRIC DESIGN GUIDE FOR CANADIAN
ROADS
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN
CLASSIFICATION
Adjacent Land Use:
Urban vs. rural classification
Service Function:
Access to land. Ex: local
Service to traffic. Ex: freeways
both
Traffic Volume:
Freeways: high volume
Collectors and locals: low volume
Flow Characteristics: Freeways: uninterrupted facility
Locals; interrupted facility
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FACTORS CONSIDERED IN
CLASSIFICATION (CONTD.)
Running Speed: Generally increase from locals to collectors to
arterials to freeways
Vehicle Type: Proportion of passenger cars, buses, large trucks
Connections: Normal for roads to connect to the same
classification or one higher or one lower
See Table 1.3.3.1
For Characteristics of Rural Roads See Table 1.3.4.1
For Characteristics of Urban Roads See Table 1.3.4.2
ROAD CONNECTIONS
COMMENTS
Comments: Rural and urban roads are the same in terms of service
function, and land service
Volumes are higher on urban roads than on rural roads
Design speeds on urban roads are lower than in rural roads
Vehicles types are different, especially for local streets
Government agency responsible for each type of road: Municipal government -urban: local, collectors
Provincial government –rural - freeways
Similar roads have similar designs, construction, maintenance and operation Similar roads: similar costs
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BRIDGES
Development Process
and Functional
Classification
HTTP://WWW.BUZZLE.COM/ARTICLES/TYPES-OF-
BRIDGES.HTML
Top 20 Most Popular Bridges in the World
Other than the above given names, here are some
more names of the most famous bridges of the
world. Chengyang Bridge, China
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
Alcántara Bridge, Spain
Millau Bridge, France
Chapel Bridge, Switzerland
Galata Bridge, Turkey
Tsing Ma Bridge, Hong Kong
Banpo Bridge, South Korea
Magdeburg Water Bridge,
Germany
Howrah Bridge, India
Kintai Bridge, Japan
Chain Bridge, Hungary
Ponte Vecchio, Italy
Pont des Arts, France
Bosphorus Bridge, Turkey
Charles Bridge, Czech Republic
Rialto Bridge, Italy
Jacques Cartier Bridge, Canada
Stari Most, Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Great Belt Bridge, Denmark
Bridge is not a construction but it is a concept,
the concept of crossing over large spans of land or
huge masses of water. The idea behind a bridge is
to connect two far-off points eventually reducing
the distance between them. Apart from this
poetic aspect of ‘bridges’, there is a technical
aspect to them that classifies bridges on the basis
of the techniques of their construction
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Beam Bridge: A beam bridge was derived from the log
bridge. It is built from shallow steel beams, box girders
and concrete. Highway overpasses, flyovers or
walkways are often beam bridges. A horizontal beam
supported at its ends comprises the structure of a beam
bridge. The construction of a beam bridge is the
simplest of all the types of bridges.
Truss Bridge: A truss bridge is built by connecting
straight elements with the help of pin joints. Owing to
the abundance of wood in the United States, truss
bridges of the olden times used timbers for compression
and iron rods for bearing tension. Truss bridges came
to be commonly constructed from the 1870s to the
1930s. Deck truss railroad bridge that extends over the
Erie Canal is one of the many famous truss bridges.
Arch Bridge: Going by its name, it is arch-shaped
and has supports at both its ends. The weight of an
arch-shaped bridge is forced into the supports at either
end. The Mycenaean Arkadiko Bridge in Greece of
1300 BC is the oldest existing arch-shaped bridge.
Etruscans and the ancient Greeks were aware of
arches since long. But the Romans were foremost in
discovering the use of arches in the construction of
bridges. Arch bridges have now evolved into
compression arch suspended-deck bridge enabling the
use of light and strongly tensile materials in their
construction.
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Suspension Bridge: A bridge falling under this
category is suspended from cables. The suspension
cables are anchored at each end of the bridge. The load
that the bridge bears converts into the tension in the
cables. These cables stretch beyond the pillars up to
the dock-level supports further to the anchors in the
ground. The Golden Gate Bridge of USA, Tsing Ma
Bridge of China and the Humber Bridge of England
are some of the famous suspension bridges.
Cable-stayed Bridge: Structured similar to the
suspension bridges, the difference lies in the amount of
cable used. Less cable is required and consequently,
the towers holding the cables are shorter. Two
variants of cable-stayed bridges exist. In the harp
design, cables are attached to multiple points of the
tower thus making them parallel. In the fan variant of
design, all the cables connect to the tower or pass over
it. Cable Bridge boasts of being the first cable-stayed
bridge of USA. Centennial Bridge is another well-
known cable-stayed bridge.
Cantilever bridge: Cantilevers are the structures
that project along the X-axis in space. They are
supported only on one end. Bridges intended to carry
lesser traffic may use simple beams while those aimed
at handling larger traffic make use of trusses or box
girders. The 1800 feet Quebec Bridge of Canada and
the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge that is 1400
feet long are some examples of the cantilever bridges.
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Truss Bridge Types
Truss is a structure composed of triangular units which
consists of straight beams connected at the joints called
nodes. The application of this principle and their
improvisation further led to the invention and design of
various types of truss bridges around the world. These
are some truss bridge types with examples:
Howe Truss BridgeThis is named after its inventor William Howe, and was designed for the use of
timber as diagonal compressions and iron as vertical tensions. Howe truss was later
improvised to use steel for its construction and became a forerunner of iron bridges.
These truss bridge types are popular as railroad bridges, and a well preserved
example is the Comstock Bridge over the Salmon river, Colchester.
Allan Truss BridgeThis was designed by Percy Allan, hence it was named as Allan Truss. Hampden
Bridge in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia, is one of the most famous
bridges and an example of Allan Truss Bridge. It is the first of this type and
constructed with wood and ironbark for strength. This is the simplest among the
other truss bridges, economical due to the use of less material and easier to repair.
Truss Arch BridgeThis type of truss bridge combines the design of truss and arch bridges, in which
the trusses are fitted within the arch. A famous example of this type is the Iron
Bridge across the river Severn, Shropshire, England.
Bollman Truss BridgeNamed after its inventor Wendell Bollman, this type of truss bridge is built only using metals,
mostly wrought iron and cast iron. Most of the railroad bridges around the world are built by
adopting this design due to the ease of assembly and its durability. Though common after its
invention, only one bridge of this type is available today. The oldest and most historic, the
Bollman Truss Rail Road Bridge in Savage, Maryland, is an example of revolutionary truss
bridge design in engineering history.
Pratt Truss BridgeIt is exactly the opposite of Howe truss bridge in structure. Here, the diagonals are in tension
and the vertical elements are under compression, both sloping towards the center in a V-shape.
Earlier Pratt truss bridges were made of timber and iron truss, but later it was made of iron
only. It has many variations, due to the modifications made on this design, to make it lighter,
but was originally designed by Thomas and Celeb Pratt. An example of these truss bridge types
is the Schell Bridge in Northfield, Massachusetts.
Bowstring Arch Truce BridgeThe father of tied arch bridge is considered to be Squire Whipple. This involves
complicated engineering among the various truss bridge types, where the tension of
the top chord is supported by the bottom chord, rather than being supported by the
ground foundation. Due to this quality, tied arch bridges are usually built in areas
of unstable soil. An example of this type is the Torikai Big Bridge over the Yado
river, Osaka, Japan.
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Cantilever BridgeCantilever bridges are named after its use of cantilevers and involve one of
the most complex designs among different truss bridges. For supporting
heavy load, cantilever bridges either use steel trusses or concrete box
girders. For long bridges, steel truss cantilevers are used, which gives it
strength and can be easily constructed. The Quebec Bridge in Quebec,
Canada, is not only listed as one of the famous bridges of the world, but is
also the longest cantilever bridge around.
Bailey BridgeThis type of truss bridge was originally designed by Donald Bailey for use
by military engineering units. These are portable bridges and are small
enough for easy transportation, handling, installation and reuse. They are
modular bridges, and unlike previous portable bridges used by the
military, these do not require complicated equipments while assembling,
and are very cost-effective.
Comstock Bridge
Over Salmon River north of Route 16
Colchester-East Hampton
Covered timber truss
Length: 2 spans, 110' overall, 80‘ Maximum
span length
Built in 1873
The Howe Truss Bridge (designed by William Howe ) was patented in 1840. The advantages of the Howe Truss Bridge to the railroad companies of the era were that it was easy to prefabricate offsite and to ship by rail.
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Truss Arch
Bridge
Bollman
Truss
Bridge
Pratt Truss Bridge
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Bowstring
Arch Truss
Bridge
Cantilever Bridge
Bailey Bridge