building a revolution
TRANSCRIPT
BUILDING A REVOLUTION
Chinese Architecture Since 1980
Charlie Q. L. Xue
"' "' :!« '# "' W- ""- • H ONG KO G U NI VE RSI TY PRESS
Hong Kong University Press
14/F Hing Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong
©Hong Kong University Press 2006
ISBN 962 209 744 8
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~u..u.~i.:;-~i!.Ir~ ~1.Ur~ l:V-.3V
Acknowledgments
Preface
Map of China and Highlighced Areas
Part I Chapter I Chapter 2 Chapter 3
Part II Chapcer 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6
Part III Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Cultural Transformation Evaluation Criteria for Contemporary Chinese Architecture '·National Form·· and Chinese Identity: Burden or Chance?
The Impact oflntemational Architecture
City and Dwelling Survival Strategies: Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou Urban Design as a Tool for Better Living Form Follows Policy: The Evolution of China's Housing
Architects and Creations Portraits of Chinese Architects
Experimental Architecture: The Rising of the Younger Generation Behind the Building Revolution: Private Practice Unleashed
Chinese Architecrure in the Twenty-first Century: An Epilogue
Appendix l Chronicle of Chinese Architecture Since 1980 Appendix fl Architectural Education and Publication
Bibliography
Illustration Credits
Index
CONTENTS
vi
viii
xv
2 12
30
50 70 86
104
130
156
16-l
171 182
191
197
199
CHAPTER ONE
EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR CONTEMPORARY CHINESE ARCIDTECTURE
The c1ite1ia for evaluating architecture are multifaceteJ
and vary according to the. social and cultural context. in
China and in other countries.
l t is widely accepted that social l'Ontext has a
profoundly impo1iant influence on architecture (Musgrcwe
J 987: Rapoport L 969: Norberg-Schulz. 1975 ). Thi:,, chapter
analyzes contemporary Chinese architecture from a variety
of perspectives, including ideology, culwre, and social
valuel'. based on tradition, economy. the market. and
technology. Environmental protection and sust.ainability
are dis~ussed. as they are global focal points in the twenty
fir<;t century. Jn this regard, they give new me:rnjng to
traditional aesthetic principles and play a o;pecial role in
the evaluation of architecture.
By examining the prevailing architectural theorie in China, thjs chapter po~e~ question1> about various aspects
of China's architecture and serves as a general survey of
Chinese architecture today.
ARCHITECTURAL EVALUATION: A RETROSPECTIVE
In hi" The Ten Bnoks 1111 Ar<'hirect111'f:', Vitruvius.. an ancient
Roman military engineer, as~erted that "firmness,
applicability, and delight" are Uic fundamental p1inciples
of architecture. He also defined am.l analyzed aspects of
an:hitectural design. <;uch as site. l)fientation. column order,
scale. and so forth ( 1999). From then on. his theorie~ became the first set of crite1ia for how to judge architecture.
People's under ... tanding of architedure as a symbol of
culture bas hecorne increa~ingly innuenced by almost all
aspec1s of society. including aesthetics. re ligion,
institutions, and "ocial behavior. As a result. architeclural tlesign tends to be d iversified: al the same time, the criteria
for judgment have become more complicated and varied. Jn ancieni times, the practice, theory, and evaluation
of architecture placed greater emphasi" on aesthetic concerns !>UCh a1> !>Cale, proportion, balance, a nd
composition (Pevsner t 976). The Modern Movement and
other ·'-isms" o f' the twentieth cen1ury not only gave futther
weight to architectural ontology but also endowed it with soc:ial and cultural connotation!>, adding human dimensions
to archi tectural evaluation.
Modern nrchitectural movements that emphasi1..e
spatial effecrs and "lightness." in contrasr co the load
bearing walls and heavy forms of' traditional architecture.
have created a new set of architectural lerms and language.
Thi:. reform has changed both traditional formularions of
architecture and way" of looking a t architecrure. In his
book Space. Ti111e and Ar1.:hirecl11n.> ( 1941 ). Sigfried
Giedion argued that the concept of space "ihould be
regarded as a criterion to judge architecture. Other
architects, for example. Bruno Zevi. continued to o;upport
and reaflim' the: dominan1 role of the sµatial model in
architectural Jt!sign and criticism I 1980). In the 1960s. Venturi !-Uggested '·complexity and
contradiction in architecture·· ( 1966) as an antidote 10 the
"munotnnous'' singulaiity of Moderni<;tarchitecture, while
also <1dvocating that popular culture he cited in de'>i.gn
Eva1uat1on Criteria for Contemporary Chinese Architecture I 3
critique. Challenging the modernist orthodoxy. this socalled postmodern theory represented another significant milestone in architectural design and evaluation. From lhen on, Aldo Ro~si conceived "city architecture .. from typology (I 972): Christian Norberg-Schutz put forwnrd '":irchitectural phenomenology:· which injected the idea of ge11im loci into lheOJ'ies of pace. place, and s.ite ( J 980); and Peter Eisenman devoted himself to the explication of deconstruction architecture (2003). Geoffrey Broadbent explored the symbolic meaning of architecture from the per pective of semiotic theory. addressi ng minimalist architecture. which insists on rarefied techniques and com:ision uf space am! materials (] 980). Moreover. architectural hii< torian and theorist Manfredo Tafuri has refened to the importance of ideology. poli1ic.:~. and the economy in architectural critiques ( 1986), whereas Kostof understood and demonstrated historical architecture from "rituals and sertings" ( 1985).
Among the thoughts aboul architecture mentioned above. some are ae~thctic explorations of theories of space, whereas others analyze the meaning and culcural symbolic influences of architecture in deplh, using the knowledge of '>uch disciplines as philosophy, sociology. and linguistics as reference points. These theories complement. revise. and extend the original concepts and play an inspiring role in developing c1iteria for architecture.
CHINA IN THE 1950s TO J 970s: POLITICALLY ORIENTED ARCHITEClURAL DESIGN AND EVALUATION
Under the constraints of ideology. economy. and t·he social !'ystem, architectural cre:nion wa reM1icted to some extent. Chinese archit·ects had to endure ideological and political pressures that might not have been apparent to ob~ervers in Western countries.
In the early 1950!., post-wa r construction wa~ in full ... wing in China. With enormous enthusiasm. 1he Chinese people started to rebt1ild their :.ocialist coumry under Mao Zedong·s leadership. Tn 1953. a conference of architect~· as<;ociation~ wa~ held in War!\aw. Poland, at a time when the whole w0rld wal> under the doud of the Coltl War. Architects from almost all socialist count1ics anended the conference . The panicipants ag reed 10 "'oppo e s tructurali sm" simply because s lrucruralism wa:con!>ickrec.I an expression nf ca pitalism. Jn its stead. they advocated "socialist content. nati0nal form.'" a politically
4 I Cultural Transformation
colorful and appealing doctrine. Thi~ conference had a profound influence upon Chinese architecture.
In keeping with the bar~h economic realitit!!l ol' 1he late 1950s. the government enunci:ned the guiding principles of China·s architectural design. ~tating thar ir mui.1 be ··functional. economical. and delightful if conditions permit," as well as erving to "create a new soc iali!>t architectural style in China.'' The principle e~sentially conformed to universally accepted evaluation criteria from the time ofYitruvius through 10 Gropiui; and reflected the economic and financial situation of China iu thal period. The principle Wa'> adhered to in the constnictiun of the 1960s and is followed even to this day.
As far as aesthetics is concerned, the school of the Beaux Art!. wa3 U1e leading artistic style in those dec:ide~ .
In his artide Beyond ReMl11tin11: Nntcs on Cr111/e111porary Chinese Archir~l'lur<' ( 1998). Zhu Jianfei looked at the 1' ubtlc influence Beaux Arts exerted on architectural creation. "Despite Lhc political changei. and elaborate ideological theoriLaLion, Lhe Beaux Arts model Lha1 was introduced in the 1920s had survived and wa now serving a new political project". In 1956, Mao Zedong encouraged new ideas in social cultme. arts. and science. wir.h this proclaimation: '"Let a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools of thought flourish." However. Mao· · ideas were not carried out to any signifkant extent in ;1rchi1·ectw·al design during those years when the radical left wing prevailed.
During the 1950s, :ideology. national form. China's weak economy. and the s ingle Beaux Arb aesthetic model formed the criteria for architectural design and evaluation. In the late 1950s. "ten grnnd national projects" in Beijing powerfully embodied the policy-oriented content of Chinese architecrure. epitomiling the climax of the ~tyle .
Constrnction activities stagnated during the years 1966-7.,i becau'ie of continuou~ political upheavab.~
FROM 1980 TO THE PRESENT: ARCHlTECTUREAND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION
A favorable development occum:d 111 Lhc lale 1970s. ln 1980. Deng Xiaoping, China·s patriarch after Mau Zetlong, issued a st;llement on cO~l.ltruction and housing projects, pointing 0u1 thm building construction should be one uf the three pillar indu.striet- of the national economy. At the ~ame time. the open-door rolicy \\a~ attn.1cting new technology and materials as well :is new architectural idea~
to China. These Lrends broadenec.l rhe perspective of
Chinese architectural professional1'. From then on. building
con-;truction. the main tay of the national economy. grew
rapidly. In the past twenty years. construction sites of every
size and scale have been seen on almosr every corner of
the cities and towns of Chi1n Standing at the base of a
newly soaring skyo;craper in Beijing or Shanghai, the
question immediately comes ro mind: how is one lo
evaluate Chinese archi tecrure today?
Frampton stated that the development of Western
architecture from 1750 to 1939 could be divided into three
main trcams embracing "cultural transformations.
territorial transformations. and technical transformations ..
( l 992). He also pointed out that these thJ·ee streams were
interwoven and developed in parallel. In fact. the progress
of Chinese architecture exhibits similar feattires to what
Frampton concluded. Great transformations in such area~
as the naniral environment. political systems. the economy.
social culture, anJ technology interweave in parallel
development. making the evaluatio11 of Chinese architecture complex and multifaceted.
Chinese scholars also enumerate <;everal models of
architectural criticism; for example, mm.leis of V;llue
cri ticism, social critici<;m. cultural criticism. science and
meLhodological criticism. science and technical criticism,
form criticism. and so forth (Zheng 2001 ). It is only by
integrating all of these models that one can achieve a
comprehensive appraisal. In this book, the success and failure of contemporary
Chinese architecture and its possible role in the furure is
assessed more or less according to the preceding views.
In the narration. three aspects are treated either separately
or in se4uence: form and !'unction examined in
architectural ontology. the social and cultural value of
architectural texts. and the technological evaluation of
architectural products.
It is not our intenLion to give a perfect evaluation but
rather an individual observation of Chinese architecture
for this period. ics currem situation, problems. challenges.
possible strategies. and prospects.
FORM AND FUNCTION: CRITICISM OF ARCHITECTURAL ONTOLOGY
If architectural works could be regarded as self-contained
texts, isolated from their social background. the appraisal
could focus merely on the analysis of form. function. and
aesthetic value. T he widely accepted principles of
;u·chitecture, such as space, scale. proportion. balance.
hierarchy, rhythm, on.Jer. and so on. become the criteria. Consider, for example, Helou Xuan (litera lly, "Not a
Simple Pavilion''). built in the 1980s in Songjiang Fangtu Gar<len in Shanghai. Professor Feng Jizhong, the designer,
employed pure language to create a smal l teahouse made
up of flowing space and juxtaposed so harmoniously with
the environment that it looks as if it is actually growing out of the earth (Figure 1.1 ).
Let us move to buildings in an urban environment. lnc.lividually. some of them are quite good; in shape. space,
and functicin. they are full of c reativity. However.
architecture is such a complic:11ed subject Lhat aesthetic judgment and functional ru1alysis are useful only in the
most preliminary stages of assessment. A perfect indivi(.]ua.l
building may not be successful when located in an urban
context. Jn this regar<l, we may pay more attention to social
and culturnl critiques rather than to formal or fuoctio11al
judgments.
Figure 1.1 (a, b} Feng Jizhong, Helou Xian, "Not a Simple Pavilion," Songjiang, Shanghai, 1986
Evaluation Criteria for Contemporary Chinese Architecture I 5
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF ARCIDTECTURE
The Social Value of Architecture
lo this section. we emphasize the essential purpose and significance of architecture. In our argument, the physical function of architecture is not equivalent to its essential purpose. fn other words, form and function alone fall far short of telling whether or not a building possesses meaning. because architecture carries so much social and cultural information about our era. From this perspective. the purpose of building "for the people'' is not only fulfilled
by physical functions but by spiritual ones. Take, for example. the projects in the 1950s-60s that
pursued ''socialist content. national form." When one discards the prejudice of ideology, one finds that these projects were created with the rationale of symbolizing the national dignity of dictatorship. Traditional
Figure 1.2 Office building of Ministry of Electrical Engineering, Beijing, 1999. In addition to the creative interior space. the building tries to capture the atmosphere of the nation's capital.
architectural vocabulary bec~me an appropriate way of
expressing that meaning. These projects embodied hiscoric changes and became representatives of that special period (Figure 1.2).
However. "'national form" gradually evolved into an extreme stylistic expression and became a kind of formal doctrin ism. During the 1980s. especially in Beijing. contemporary buildings with traditional kiosks or pagodashaped tops were considered to have .. recaptured the traditional style'· and were the products of such extremism.
These shallow imitations of ancient fom1s proliferated throughout China, but they were unable to "recapture the features of the ancient capital'' (see Chapter Two). On the contrary. such parodies debased the traditional architectural language to that of a facetious and ridiculous label.
Some architectural slogans gained popular cun-ency and reflect the psyche of many municipal leaders. Who hasn't heard proclamations such as "Th is buildi_ng won't go out of date for at least fifty years .. or " It will be a landmark of our city"? Or buzzwords such as "cyber city," ·•street in the Tang Dynasty style," "miniarure world landscape garden." as well as the fabulous hyperbole of .. tallest building." "longest bridge;· or ''largest convention center" in China, Asia. or perhaps the world. These superlatives reveal the ambitions of the developers or municipal leaders concerned and express the vainglory of their achievements. The buildings in question. which usually have important daily functions, are made to bear too heavy a burden (Figure 1.3 ).
The newly builtZhuhai Airport, which cost 69 billion yuan is a regrettable example. The government ofZhuhai was originally anxious to establish an "international fi rstclass" ai rport to showcase the city"s success. But things went dreadfully wrong and the airport that boasted "'the longest runway" and "the most luxurious terminal lounge·•
Figure 1.3 (a) People's Square, Shanghai, (b) Train Station in Shenzhen
6 I Cultural Transfonnation
c;ank into <lebt hecause of a dearth ofbu~ine:.!>: it attracted
few pa.,~enger and tlighr . primaril) because of the city"s
geographic location. As a result. the Zhuhai Airport ha.-. become little more lhan an cmbarra!-sing .. landmark." The
dc!.ign and function may be excellent. but the airport has lost it~ utilit:lfian val ue.
Social a11d C11lrnrol Orie11w1io11 of Architec111ral Text
Spiro Ko tof once concluded: .. Architecture. 10 i.tate the
obvious. is a <;ocial act - social both in method and purpu!>C .. ( 1985. 7). Architectur:il text epitomize a
society·:. culture and ib time: consequently. a profound
understanding of lhe culture and spi1it or an era can belp
us to more fully evaluate ib architecture. Al thi · point.
nothing else can replace cultural un<ler:>t.inding ru. the basi~
for architectural critique (Figure 1.4). During the J 980 . great transformation!> in Chine e
\Ociety occurred: the economic ~y~tem wa-, shifting from
a planned economy to a market economy. At the same time, theorie!i from abroad flooded into China. As China
began to emerge from the shadow of ideological t.lom in:.iti on. architectural profe~~ional~ endeavored to
escape from the srra1tjacket of"socialist content , national form." A revival of archjtect11ral creation began.
Pluralism in Arcllitecwral Delign
In the I 980i>. Chinese architectural circles started to appeal
for plurali.,m in design as an alternati\'e to "monotonous
pattern." .. Socialist coment. national form .. was replaced
by "features of times. nationality, regionalism ..
(Arc/1i1ec111ral Joumal 1980). At the ~amc time. people
were liberated from their long mental nppression, and their
creative energies were unleashed. Like bamboo shoots
after a ~pring rain. numerou:. high-ri ... e building!> ant.I huge
man~ion., in a variery of <ityJe-. c;hot up in the following
L\\o <lecatle~. A number of talentctl architects worked
unremillingly to create new formi. ofChine!>e architecture.
Well-known project::. -;uch as the Beijing Olympic Sports
Center. the Yanhuang An Gallery. lhe China International
Exhibition Center, and the Memorial Museum for the
Nanjing Ma!.~acre of I 938 are only a few of these .,ucces ful works.
Howe,er. an O\erreaction to the dictate~ of the
"monotonour, panem .. and a lack of undcr:-itunding of the
new architectural theorie and critique\ re~uhet.I in a une
~idcu approach to de!'tign .. plurnli~m." and a farrago of
vulgar. :.!range. anti noisy building!- were thrown up in the streets of large and small Chincio.c town~.
Related to "pluralism .. ic; the rich cultural connotation
of archi1ee1ure, which include!> not only an un<ler!itanding
of traditional culture but also of foreign culture. In an
nnic:lc ::inalyling how foreign theorie:. affected the
development of Chine-,e architecture. Professor Zou Dcnong invokes the metaphor or .. three tidal wave ,. to
de-.cribe the interch.inge · between China and other
countrie!> that have occurred in different historieal periods.
A<.:t:l>rdi11g to Zou, we are now witnessing the "the third wave" (2001 ).
An enormous number or architl!etural theories. such
a!. po<.tmodcrni m. deconstruction. typology. and other
philo:.ophical. sociological. and anthropological ··-ism ··
have noocled China. Ir was these exotic trend-; lhat enabled
Chine\e architecl'i to contemplate architecture from more
anglei.. and the new way" of thinking became the weapons of architects and ~tudents. Yet few had a real unt.lerstanding
nf the socia l origin:; of the latest trendi.. In this situariou,
studying and applying these theoric~ actually became only
:.i kind uf simple grafting or direct iconic imitation. As a
result. the buildings with postmodern <.ymbols or KPF
decoration ant.I SOM motifs lhat arose here and there were labeled .. hybrid .. buildings.
Figure 1.4 (a) Shekou (snake mouth). (b) Hotel of South China Sea, Shekou, 1986
Evaluation Criteria for Contemporary Chinese Architecture I 7
11 is nen•ssary to mention the influence of globalization und Westernization on Chinese society. Given Lhe global dominence of Western culture. Western ways of Jiving and thinbng, sucb as democracy. freedom. McDonald·s, KFC. and Disney. quickly spread imo mainland China. This kind of quasi-colonial discourse seemed to be a representation of advanced prodm;tivity and culture: Chinese people felt compelled to receive il but often did so inconsistently. both positively and
passively. They surrendered to the pervasive force of this new social culture, which was so powe1ful that Chinese traditional customs <ind value systems were gradually overwhelmed. During this transformation of Chinese society, conflicting ideas and culLUre~ dashed, resulting in abnormaUties of social psychology. Wor<;hipping the foreign ::.ryle and having unquestioning. faith in anothe1· culture, both in society and in buildings. was a rellection of the kind of dialogue ;Jnd even struggles that en~ued Jw-ing this contusing time of transition. Chapter Three discusses 1he effec1 of international 1rends.
Reginnalism and the Pursuit of Traditio11al Architecwral Culrure
"Traditional and national form .. has haunted the Chinese architects for a lung cime. The description has vaiied from time to time: it was ··national style" in the 1950s, "new socialist style .. in the 1960s. and ·•of the times. nationality, and regionalism" in the 1980s: different slogans yt.:t the same essence.
At the heginning. lo inherit tradition was simply to 1mitate the physical form, which was superficial. In the 1980s, the colllrltdiction hetween ancient form and modern function and materials became more pronounced, and people began lo rethink how to best carry on the tradition. A ''Chinese pitched rc1or· was not considered the only way to embody Chinese charaeter. Indeed, traditional architecture is a source of unJimited inspiration. Take the Juer Hutong neighborhood project in Beijing, designed by Professor Wu Liangyong. as an example. The attempt 10 create a new relationship between traditional form:- and modern life is highly commendable, although it has also generated controversy (2000). Chapter Two discusses tradition and innovation.
The conrinuity and innovation of regional ::trchitecture ii> worth mentioning here. For example. the .. Li11gnan style'· of architecture rooted in southern Chi na and let.I by Professor Mo Bozhi (see Chapter Seven) combine~ modernistic language and local context. Research
8 I Cultural Transformation
conducted by archi tec1 Cheng Taining into territorial culture and local styles in architectural design is another persuasive example. We c~111 also list the so-called "Shanghai school'' of arcl1itec1ure crefltcd during the I 930s-60s, and various works designed by Xing Tonghe in Shanghai after the 1980s. as illustrative of o;uch explorations. These new architectural styles nre contemporary but possess Chinese characteristics. The achievements of these archi1ects are discussed further in Chapter Seven.
Fon11 Follows Finance: C0111111ercwl Culture. Medici, and Fann
In the mid-twentieth century. many architect5 and theorists were involved in a dispute over the relationship between fom1 and fonction. ;:t debate that continues even toJay. Al present. the influence of commerdal cu lture upon architecture h~ endowed the t.liscussion with new content: does form follow finance?
During the recen1 transformation of Chinese society. the widespread a11d rapid proliferation of commercinl C'ulture has been a noteworthy feature. For :.irchitecture. there are both advantages and disadvantages to working within such an environment. On one hand. financial incentives. anti rewards will motivarc designer<; to bring their initiatives fully into play. There will be more variety and creativity in the buildings constructed and greater design flexibili ty. The requitementl> of the public wi ll be further ~ati5fied as a resuJt. On the other hand, the situatio11 can have oppo~ite and deleterioul> effects when commercjal considerations are taken to the extreme.
The effect of commercial pressures in China has manifested itself in degraded city streets and urban spaces that lack character or humanity. The harmful influern.:e or capi tal interests has taken its toll on traditional values. behavior. aesthetics. and taste. causing these cornerstone!> of Chinese society to almo~a collapse. The greedy ··get rich quick" mentality and hunger for inst.ant profit!> have spread throughout society. causing deterioration in moral standards nnd values. In building design. commercial considerations inevitably supersede arti~tic ones, and the profit motive becomes the sole raisn11 d 0etre for development.
As a matter of fact the lwu poles - commercinl :incl
arti5tic - coexist everywhere and at all times. but the two are not <10 contradictory that reconciliation i~ impo::.::.ible. A commercialized architecture does not always conflict with the ideals uf architectural form. Examples in both China and abroad provide ample proof of this contentfo11.
Cliellfs, Archirecrs, and E11d Users: A Three-way C(lffru111a1io11
Architectural space b ultimately designed for human beings. The parties in architectural project::; are: clients. archilects. and end users. As the building market gradually opens. architectural design is becoming an even more important t:ummercial activity. Um.ler these circumstances. direct communication among the three side intensifie<;. But until now. the relationship among the parties has not been particularly harmonious.
The target of the client - be it Lhe government, a developer, or a private individual - is to achieve maximum commercial and social benefit with a minimum outlay of resources. The expectations and demands of clients are not always easy to meet: they will often impose impractical requirements upon the architect. insisling that the building be "the most advanced:· or "not become dated," or be con<:tructed in a certain style, which might not be aesthetically or technil'ally practicable. The cli ent'.~
desires can also be self-conLradictory. A recogniLecl architect in Beijing recently stated that few buildings in the capital were designed according Lo Lhc ideals of Lhe architects. Most were generated J'rom the unreasonable ideas of local municipal officials and developers: awkward ·patial relalionships and a clash of icons are typical of the unfortunate resulLS. ' The municipal leaders, dienLS. or e::ven construc1io11 contJactors sometimes decided the materials of external walls, doors, or window~. The problem here is the low level and inferior quality of the ··architectural education" of the client!> who have commissioned the rrojects. In this case. the architect acts only as a "drawing puppet."
A'f:. far as architecLS are concerned. they serve both clieols and users. According to a media survey gauging public perception of "golden collar profe.;;sionals:· architects ranked fifth (ht1p://www.sina.com.cn. Sep. 2001 ). However, the ranking refers to income only; the 'ocial 'talus of architects doesn't match this high rating. In China\, rapid transition from a planned economy to a market economy. architects have not been immune to the blandishmenb of a profit-oriented culture. A client's commission i- everything, no matter if the project is good or bad. The architect i<> not in a position to independently implementthe responsjbility to create a betler<;ociety (Xue and Chen 2003 ).
The end users may be the majority of society, but Lhey are ordinary people with neither power nor influence. From this point of view. the real needs of the user~ of
an;hilectural space are not aJways satisfied. because they must passively accept built environment-.. The concept of ··public participation·· is unfamiliar to most people. ln addition. the ahility of ordinary people to appreciate architecture is limited. and this affects the efficacy of such participalion (Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5 Rising from the old district, Shanghai
However. a new phenomenon is emerging. The government anti private developers are paying increlliiing attention to the rnasses; at the same time. the awareness of 1he public's right to participate in architectural decisions is growing. For example. in Beijing. Shanghai. and other cjties. more and more people have joined in activities such as choosing their ten favorite "celeb1ity" buildings. Public: voting has become fashionable; for example. in the election of notable works from Shanghai's architectural heritage of the pa~t fifty years, and in the public competiLion~ held for the Grand National Theater of Beijing ( 1998), the Oriental Arts Cen1er (:!000), and the desig.n for the Wurld Expo in Shanghai (2002).
But it i:, unclear how signjlicant public voting i!> in these activities. How tlid ordinary people ·s opinions influence the process of design revision and dccisionmaking? lt is reasonable lo assume that such public participation is superfo:ial.
Without a doubt, the thrce-wuy confrontation in China among client~. architect~. and users is counterproductive. A healthy relationship among the three is an important parameter fnr evaluating the architectural de5ign environment. Although the situation in China i[> gradually improving, the '"social design- that Robert Sommer envisaged is just a matter of nrmchnir strategy { 1983 ). The subtle three-way relationship among clients. architect.~. and u~err:. remains u dubious factor in evaluating contemporary Chine'e architecture.
Evaluation Criteria for Contemporary Chmese Architecture I 9
EVA LUATING THE TECHNOLOGY OF ARCHITECTURE
It is widely accepted that new invenrion:- in the science of building and I.he improvement of architectural tec·hnology can create a revolution in architectural design. In I.he l~llc nineteenth and early twcnlieth centuries. as a re-.ult of the invention of the ~teel ~tructural frame and the elevator. the Eiffel Tower in Paris. the Crystal Palace in London, and the high-rise building~ nf Chicago were constructed . Thc~e edifices dramatically illustrate the power of architectur:il technology to change our world.
Today. a cenrury later, history seems to be repeating itself. The development of the computer. advances in lligital and communications technology. and breakthroughs in structural and materia l · !>Cicnce are fueling the 1n-ec;istible momentum of tJ1e building industry. It was the unprecedented computer power that enabled both Zaha Hadid and Frank Gehry to pu'h the bountl:uie~ of space in their \'bionary project-.. The con!>truction of intellige111 buildings and ecological building~ aho requires the utilization of high technology. Some architects, such as Richard Rogers, would be unable to create the incisive details on the tressed ~kin of their bui ldings wirhoul tectonic and special material tt:chniques.
Although China has made considerable progre s. in architectural technology. Chine. c architects cannot congra1ulate themselves on !heir work in this area. Computer technology has not been fully used in design \\Ork. but only a a drafting anJ rendering machine. The understanding of ecologkal architecture is partial and incomplete, whereas re!>ean.:h into intelligent buildings ill only beginning. Moreover. an obvious disparity slill exist-s between China anti the d1:vcloped countries. in the muller of slruc1ural tec hnology. One hears complaints from dc~igner~ such as: "Tht: concept could not be realized because of a luck of technology. and many details had to be changed on -;ite." The con~truction personnel v. ill often frankly admit: ··we cannot do ii:·
THE ECOLOGICAL CRITERJA OF ARCHITECTURE
In addition to con. idering form und function. ·ocial culture. market, anJ technology. ecolugical aspects mus1 not be ignored when evaluating. contemporary Chine'e archllecrure.
10 I Cultural Transformation
The rapid development of the econmny b quickly depleting natural resource~ and threatening the ecological fabric of China. The conflict between people and the planet Earth b shcu-pened by the !.cemingly endless increase in population and limited am.I depicting natural resource!\. China·s arable land account~ for only () percent of the world's total, but it must feed 25 percent of the world·~ population. One problem i). that China'<; population continues to e~plode and will reach I. 7 billion in the midtwenty-fir t century. :llthough the ~trict one-child polic) has been implemented -.inc.:e 1980: the areas of Beijing. Shanghai, Hangt.hou, :.ind Guang1hou uuubled in the L990~ and urban sprawl is rampant. Another factor i!' that arable land is eroding at un alarming rate. sacrificed mostJy in the name of the "Special Economic Zones" that the government is 1:reuting. Although a national '·Lan<l Management Law·· was promulgated in 1986. frumland continued to decrease_ From 1986 to 2002, farmland in China dropped l5 percent from I 32 million hectares to
112 million hectareo; according. to a \Cry con. ervative calculation. This keeps China'::. farmland per per~on at the bollom of the world ranl..ing..4 The new movement (lf occupying rural land was launched in the Pearl River Delta and Yang1ze River Ocha. and 1his will affccr more than 50 mi llion pea ants (Mingpao Daily Ne11•s. March 2, 2004). The won-y of '·who will feed China'!" was raised agai11 (Brown 1995: Mingµan Daily Nc!ll'S. Nov. 30. 2003).
Water resource~ i"i anolhcr area of concern. The water rn China is 1,313 cu m per pcr..,011, only one quarter of the world's level. and the number in nonhem China i' even as low <L<; 9~ cu m (Zheng 200 I). More than 300 cities. including some large munic1pn litics ~uch a~ Beijing. Tianjin, Shanghai anti Xi"an arc nlready regarded as area~
wi th £-Cvcre water shortage-;. Wastage of w;ner can be observed in the~e cities. Wuter trucl..s in Beijing anJ Shanghai ~prinkle planL\. lawns. nnd <t,phall roads when ... amhtorm-. from the nonh blow into southern China. China also needs to consider"' hether it limited \\-ater resource' 111 v.estem China c::in withc;t::ind 1he pre!\~ures of large-scale development (Figure I .6J.
To build a city - no mailer how fabulous - at the s:.icrifit.:e or energy and nalllral rcsourccs is "elf-defeating. Green architecture and ecological urchitect1,1re take envi ronmental protection and ... ustainabi lity a~ their mantl:.itc: they can be of incalculable significance to a country char hao; a popula11on or 1.3 billion and i5 sbon llf
natural resources at the same time. Thi~ is the reason that the \ oice ol u developing ecologic:al architecture has been
The criteria for eva luating architecture are
multifaceted amt vary according tO social context in China
and o ther coun tries. After reviewing the hi storical
i;tandards u<;ed for evaluating architecture, thi<> chapter
analyzes the situation in China. addressing the economy.
the social milieu, the population, and the natural resource ,
and indicates new criteria not just based on general
p1inciples of architectural judgment but on factors unique
LO China . Furthem1ore, the chapter emphasizes that
sustainabi lity and environmental protection will be the
(a) major concerns of C:he twenty-first century. ln this regard,
ecological standards applied to architecture wi ll sati:,fy
the demands of social progress, give new meaning to
traditional aesthetic rules. and play a special role in how
Chinese architecture i s appraised.
China will have beuer opportunities and prospects in the twenty-firs t century than it did in the p revious century.
ln this regard. the bui lding industry in China. including
relevant government departments and professionals, needs
to understand how lo tum chalJenges into opportunities.
(b) N OTES
Figure 1.6 (a) Earth sheltered dwelling, Ganshu, 1988. (b) Interior of the earth sheltered dwelling
raised more loudly in rec.:em years. ln regard to architectural
design. the Ministry of Construction and some local
governmenLc; have successi vely promulgated standards for
energy saving and sustainability. For example. clay brick
has been forbidden as a building material, heat loss through
external wal ls (OTTV, overaU thermal transfer value) musl
now be calculateJ : solar water heaters and passive solar
building technologies are extensively used in north and
south. Energy consumption. conservation, green areas. and
innovative cechnology are emphasized as necessary in
building plan and urban design submission.
The intensification of global wanujng indicates that
humanity's effom. to prevent environmental degradation
and collapse remain insignificant and ineffectual when
weighed against the relentless ecological destruction that
occurs daily. The future for China and the world i s frankly
bleak. To sum up. architectural principles based on ecology
and sustainability will be an important component of
Chinese architecture in the future.
1. The .. ten grand national projects" of 1959 include the People's Congress Hall (Great Hall of People), the Revolutionary History Museum, the Agricultural Exhibition Hall, the Fine Arts Museum, the Military History Museum, the Nationality Cultural Hall, the Beijing Train Station and the Workers' Stadium, the Nationality Hotel and Pavilion of Welcoming Guests, in a total area of 673.000 sq m. The decision to construct these impressive structures was made in October 1958, and all were completed before October 1, 1959, ln time to celebrate the Tenth Anniversary of the People·s Republic of China.
2. During the Cultural Revolution. from 1966to 1976, mos1 design institutes in major cities were dismantled and the architects and engineers sent to the countryside for labor and "brainwashing ." See the Virtual Museum of the Cultural Revolution at http:J/www.cnd.org.
3. Interview with one of the project assistants. Dr. Zhang Xiaochun, June 2001
4. There are great discrepancies between the government's statistics and some scholars· studies. The author uses the figures from government's statistics. See Ye Yaoxian, The process and prospect of China's urbanization, Architectural Journal, No.1, 2002, pp.46-48, Mingpao Daily News, Nov.30, 2003. According to Zheng Yi, the farmland decreased 5% or more every year in the past ten years. And a large portion of forest and grassland was reclaimed to the new farmland at the same time, thus leading to more natural disasters. See Zheng Yi, China's Ecological Winter, Hong Kong: Mirror Books, 2001 , pp.83-102.
Evaluation Criteria for Comemporary Chinese Architecture I 11
CHAPTER TEN
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY: AN EPILOGUE
WHERE WILL CHINA GO FROM HERE?
The previou~ nine chapters talk about architecture, a very visible profesf>ion that ~peah for a nation. However. where and how will this narion go. in turn. determines its future shape of architecture. This chapter fir~t analyze~ the directions and scenarios of China·s development in the twenty-first century. It then presents the ~trcngth~. weak11e~5es. opp011unities. and challenges in architecture. planning. and buill form.
China is the fastest growing economy in the world. its per capita inc.:01m: increasing fivefold ~inc.:e 1980. In the pa!>t 4uarter century, it has achieved what to0k other countries centuries to do. Sw1fl growth and struc.:tur:ll change. although resolving many problems. ha:- created new challenges; for example, employment insecurity, growing inequality. persistent poverty. inefficient bureaucracy. inc.:nnsistent policies. widespread C011'Uption, lad. of infrastructure. and mounting environmental pressures (World Bank 1997: World Economic Fnrum 2003). The Worh.I Bank. in its research report. argues that China can meet the challenges and su~tain rapid growth. Although the difficulcies ahead should not be underestimated, neither should China ·s strength:): relative stability, a remarkably high saving rate, a strnng record of pragmatic reforms. a Ji eiplined and literate labor force. a supportive Chinese diaspora. and a growing administrative capacity (World Bani- J 997 ).
"The transformation of an economy as large as China·s. from low- to middle-income status. from rural Lo
urban. frnm agrkultural to industrial land 'iervices). will inevitably cause ripples in the world ~conomy: · "The p:t~I two decades have seen sustained . rapid m0derni1atinn unlike in any other pcriot.I in China·., long history. The next two decades promhe more of the same. The huge risks that China foces coulJ ye1 take the hine off th is potential. But with resol ute leader'ihip at home and statesmanlike policies from the world\ industTial powers. China 1.Clln overcome these challenge~. One-fifth of humanity woulJ then have within ib grasp the power to break free of the !>hackles of poverty nnd underJevelnpmeot <md accomplish whuc could become the most remarkable economic tran!.fonnation the world hus ever seen" (World Ba~nk 1997).
Mnny world experts on economics acknow ledge China's phenomena.I growth on a mncrn <;cale, hut fai.l to
recogni1.e 1he problem~ associated with lhe pace of the development. From the top leaders to lhc wmker~ in China. everyone '-Ce~ the imperative of economil: pro~perity. Money nnd development are the only gn;:i l ~ and measures tO gauge !lllCcess. Even when SARS (~evere acute respiratory <;yndromeJ affected China in 2003. the country recorded an increa.;e in GDP of9. I percent. ' The physical construction of modernization contmuou~ly exhibits proud achievements. Without this speed, tens or thou~and:. or people will lose joh-.. triggering <;ocial upheaval. To maintain a booming economy seems to be the sole objective of the government at various levels.
How ttJ showt·ase the rapid Jevelopment and make a profit from the procC<;<; are lWO questions that need
Chinese Architecture in the Twenty-fi rst Century: An Epilogue I 165
answering. The ·'image projects" are the best means. Scallered through0ut che countries. these bridges. highways. <..:entral business districts, and impressive theaters are lucrative business for the officials in charge. and the manifestation of the achievements of local governments and officials. Countless grand cenes parade JO the mass media, and people"s lust for ma1erials has reached a climax. Woman can sell their bodies. officials "elJ their power. inlellectuals sell I heir souls. a nation selb it land. and people <:ell their dignity - all for money! Corruption is rampant in various administrative levels and academic ioslitutions. The sot:ial. moral. and honest conscience has gradually disappeared in this 5000-yearold civiliwtion. The traditional religions and the spiritual pillars collapsed during the communist rule, and the new common belief and world values have not yet been established.
Nine hunt.Ired mmion pcasUiltS and rural inhubitants account for more than 60 percent of the population in China. The structul'al poverty of rural areas, and a se1ies of irrational policies, will enlarge the already huge gap
between 1he countrysitle and cities, rural people :rnd citydwellers. 'fhe voices of disadvantaged and vulnerable groups. both in the countryside and cities, are rarely heard. The fruit~ of grow1h cannot be fairly shared by all people, and that will create more instability in society (also see Preface and notes).~
Soi;ial pn>blems directly or indirectly lead to environmental di:1:isters. China's growth has brought both dramatic improvements in Jiving standards and seriou!. damage to the environment. China's air ant.1 water.
particularly in urban areas. are among the most pollutetl in the world. Ambient concentrations of most pollutants exceed international standards several times over. burdening China with vast human anti economic cosls. estimated at 3 to 8 percent of the GDP a year (World Bank 1997; also see Preface and Chapter One). An alarmjng scientific report. "Climate change:· indicated "the planer is c:irrying a higher populminn than it can susrain. By 2020
'catastrophic' ~hortages of wmer and energy supply will become increasingly harder to overcome, plunging the planet into war. 8.200 yeari. ago climatic wnditions brought widespread crop failure. famine. disea~e and mass migration of populations that c:ould :.Mn be repeated" (The Observer. Feb 22, 2004). Accounting for almost onequarter of lhe residents on E::u1h, Chilla is no 1::xceptio11. as ''China's huge population and food demantl make it paiticuJarly vulnerable.'' When "major European cities will
be sunk benealh rising ea" (The Obsen1er. Feb 22, 2004). Shanghai and other Chinese coastal citie~ have no esc:ipe.
In an autbotitative global ranking conducted by the World Economic Forum and Swiss lntemational lnstilute of Management Development. China's growth competitiveness dropped from number twenty-::.ix in 1996 and rwenty-four ia 1997 to f011y-J'our in 1003. and around fony to forty-four since 2000 (World Eton(imic Forum 1995-2003 ). Apparently the social, environmental and other problems are affecting the counu-y's competilivene~s.
All of those barriers can be allriburet.1 to the reluctance to reform China's political ystcm and the strict censorship of the media. According to mnny analyses, modernization will only be al'sured by liberal democracy (Fukuyama 1992: www.cnd.org). The Chinese government "must begin serving market~ by huildmg the legal, social , physical. and institutional infrastructure needed for lheir rapid growth" (World Bank 1997). Only by ta.king thi~ direction can China sustain fmther g.rowth and steadily enter the -;trnngest rank in che twenty-first century.
STRENGTH, WEAKNESS. OPPORTUNITlES,AND CHALLENGES IN ARCHITECTURE
While the macro condition in China is one of rapid growth with potcrnlal instability, China's architecture ii. also in a state of llux. To predict how Chinese ari.:hitccture will rerform in the twenty-first century. four aspect~ will be discus:>ed: strengths. weaknesses. opportunitie!., and dial lenge~.
Strengrhs
The healthy dewlopment of Chinese architecture has benefited from the ambitions of various leve ls or governments to improve their cities. As revealed in the previous chapteri;, China not only embraces the international m11111s bur aspires to lead the world trends. This is renected in the rc1pidly expanding building quantities, gratlua)ly cnbani.:etl qualities. and mure frequenily helt.1 international activities. If the cconn111y keeps a healthy momentum. it will be financia lly viable to build a serie.-. of more impressive urban and huilding projects.
After twenty and more years uf exchange with and immersion in internutionul nrchitccture, Chinese an:hitei.:t~
166 I Chinese Architecture in the Twenty-first Century: An Epilogue
have accumulated valuable experience in design and
management, which in tum contributes to their building
works in the twenty-first century. Trained in the top
Chinese and overseas architecrural schools. the architects
mentioned in Chapter Eight entered the golden age of their
career in this new n'lillennium and will soon reach the
frontier of China·s construction of modernization. They
know China ·s past shortcomings and aim to be world class
in design and services. Their activities and work will be
part of the international scene of pioneering architecture.
In spite of the shortcomings mentioned in the previous sections, the general education level and people's qualities
have been enhanced. "Educating clients., has been
mentioned by the professional world for a long time, as it
''is a slow job and often lags as much as a qua11er century
behind the education of architects which is not always a
Figure 10.1 New town in Shunde, Pearl River Delta
Figure 10.2 Seminar in a smal l design firm, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province
Figure 10.3 Jianwai SOHO, Beijing
fast moving process"' (Lang et al. 1997). In twemy-first
century China, it is hoped that the clients have a better
vision and higher mission in doing building. which directly
demands more forward-looking, durable, sustainable, and
ingenious design. The authentic and serious designs and
buildings will be based on China's economic, and available
technical and material situations, instead of merely
showing off wealth and mimicking foreign counterparts.
Weaknesses
Although the large number of design tasks gives designers
more practice opportunities, it takes away the time
required for careful thinking. ft is a common problem of
Chinese architecture that a building has an impressive
visual effect when viewed from afar. but it cannot be read closely. The details and maintenance have the typically
embarrassing problems that can often be seen in
developing nations.
Chinese Architecture in the Twenty-first Century: An Epilogue 1167
A., the funding i' volatile and decisions are u ually made in h~te. most building!. are de'>igned and con~tructed in :i very short period (see Chapters Four and Five). For example, the constJw.:tion or tJ1e Zhuhai C:lillpus or Dr Sun Ya1-scn University. a site of around 200 ha. the academil.: building~. canteens. and students hnlh. or aroun<l 200,000 1,q m. GFA. was completed in les~ than a year in 2000. So wa~ a neighboring c::unpui.. Beijing Teachers· University in Zhuhai. The Dongguan Convention Center or 190.000 ..,q m was also delivered to clienL., after eigbc monthi. 11f inten!-ivc consLruction in 2001. Foundations were laid when other dr:iwings had not yet been issued. The hardworling clients. dec;igoer~. and construction companie~ de!>ervc applause. But tho~e buildings fail lo present appropriate details here and there. not to mention the lad. durable of qualitiel. required for lifty or even a hundretl year<;.
In thi~ regard. Chinl!c;e architects and their client-. are general!) not mature. More expO!.Ure LO imemarional architecture. or examination of Hong Kong architecture. will help Chinese architect~ 10 establbh the concept and techniques of carrying out project' from design through procurement.
Op port 1111 i tics
The ample opportunities of practice. both in quality and quantity, gh·e architect<. (especially younger ones) the be 1 environment to learn and accumulate experience. From 2000 to 20 I 0. the urbaniL:ilion level will increase from 36 percent to around 50 pen.:cnt. which mean!. anotJier 130 million people will move 10 the towni. and cities. Some <>Ocial sc ientists estimate this migration figure :is 200 million (Jake' 2004). Suppose each per~on need~ 15 ~g m. That means 1.95 billion ~q min lloorarea for residential buildings alone. A~sumc the current 12.000 architect!. continue 10 work in these ten years. Each architect will de,ign 160.000 "q m of n!sidenttal building!.. not including the :wos Olympic Game~ in Beijing, 1010World fapo in Shanghai. and numerous urban beautification project... in various rowns. The chance~ of real huilding are so immense: a young architect under thirty years old mny act a~ design or project architect for a building of 100.000 'l'l m. Gootl wo rk::.. it is h1Jpcd, are increasing proportionally co the vac;t qunntlly. The boom in the l 990o; nntl early 200(h gave opponunitie'> mainly co imemational ma!)ters. The ris ing young Chine<;e architec ts cannot compete in building quantitie., and scale. When thi., generation matures and ha' ample cham:e 10 pr::tctice.
Figure 10.4 Students' design. arts exhibition, Shanghai. 2002
Chi nese architects will rise in prClminence. A simi lar phenomenon happened in J;_1pan in the secom.I half of thc twentieth century. which all\O saw a large quantity of con!.truction aod trained Japane~e and overseas architect~.
··Fifty ye:irs ago. tJie architectural '\Ct:ne was not about a unique individual. the geniu,, hut about the group, the movement. There wa.' no );Cene .. . Architecture was not about the largest possible difference. hut about the ~ub1le 1 ics that could be developed within :i narrow range of simi laricies within the g.eneric ... This kind of architecture saw it. elf a~ ideological. Its politics stretchctl <ill the way from socialism to communism and all Lhe points in between ... Our dienr is no longer the state or it~
derivation. but the private indtv1dual<: often embarked on tlaring ambitions and expen!)ive tr::tjectorie~. which we architects support whole heartedly." "The system i final. The market economy. We work in a post-ideological era and for lack of !.upptlrl we have abandoned the ciry or any more general issues ... At best our work btilliantly explore~ and exploit~ a series of unique conditions·· (Koolhaas 2000. www.prit7.kerprize.com ). Kt1ulbaa~ \ words uccinclly describe the transi tions of both world and Chinese architt:cture. a!> evidenced by the narrative in thi:. book. The markel economy and ambi tious pri vate developer; ure encouraging individual de~ign and unique qualities in planning and buildings
As the lower- tream computer in(.]u-.try mo\e lo China and India. the twenticlh century o;aw :i tendency for Hong Kong':. design firms 10 outsource the rendering and technical documentatil'll to the Mainland. The relatively inexpensive technical labor 111 architectural rendering. animation. printing. nntl binding may al!.o attrac1 employer~ from ovcr:-.eas. Thi~ may be an oppo11unity for China to export its building <,ervice'-.
In addition to the market. technological advancement provide-. opportunitie~ for beuer tle!.ign and quality ot urban architecture. One de\ elopment i-; in the con1.iouously
168 I Chinese Architecture In the Twenty-first Century: An Epilogue
improved building materials and creative SLTucrural and
mechanical engi11eering, which generate high-intensity,
low weight and brand-new-looking structures. Another
development is in the design process itself. which benefits
from rhe current information technology. including digital architecture, a larger database, design incelligence, virtual
realities. and faste r and more extensive communications.
In thi~ regard. China shares the global efforts in expediting
the advancement of building science and technology.
The changes in ideas. cu lture, and technical means
will inevitably influence the future curric ulum of
arch itectural education. The youth in the twenty-first
century li ve and grow in an env ironment obviously
different from that of their parents. In the J 980s. students
had limited material re ources and reference materials;
rherefore. at that time they could take only one or two
directions. In the 2000s, students have too many choices in a more li vely cultural background, and they may be
bewildered about what and how to choose. They have their
own c ultural values. aesthetic goals, and technical
dimension. Teaching them needs a completely new way
of thinking ru1d pedagogic methodology.
The building boom creates an urgent need for new blood- the expansion of ru·chitecrural education has been
and will be continuously ongoing. There are currently
around 120 architectural programs. either in an
a rch it ectura l program attached to an engi neering
department or in an architectural schoo l under the uni versicy system. Architectural education wil l be
particularly in demand in two areas. One is the
undergraduates, who will directly join the army of drafting
and designing. The other is the higher graduate a nd
research degree holders, who will satisfy the teaching
forces of continuous expansion in old and new schools.
The latter is seen in top schools like Tsinghua. Tong.ii. and
Southeast Universities. The opportunities of practice and
education are for both the domestic Chinese and the
overseas international professionals. China wiU become a
new employment center for building professionals and
scholars.
Threw.,
The strengths and opportunities are always encouraging;
however. challenges and threats exist. The environmental
and social crises, often mentioned in this book, saliently
present several possible constraints for the future of
architecture.
Figure 10.5 Old lane house in Shanghai
Figure 10.6 Residential tower in Pudong, Shanghai
Fir:.!. the land supply is limited. as indicated in
Chapters One and Four. The fast expansion and drive of
Chinese Architecture in the Twenty-first Century: An Epilogue j 169
cities and Special Economic Zones ruthlessly erode the
agricultural lands: building development and "'food
demanu' · compete for pitifully limjtctl land resources. The existing c ity ce nters are suffering from increasingly
crowded use: more people. more buildings. more roads.
and vehicles. The Chinese government's encouragement
of the car industry ba!. sharpened tbe contradiction. The
land shortage wi 11 force people to dig for space un<lerground. According to a study, the undergrounu ~pace
of Beijing bas a potential of providing 6.4 billion sq m of floor area, outnumbering the rotal of Beijing's buildings
now (Qian 1998), 1n this case. the chaJlenges may also be
transformed to opportunities.
The "hortage of electricity and clean water already
constrain most Chine5.e cities in the beg inning of the
twenty-firs t century. The new developme nt stretches the
already tight supply. and it will have to s low down m adapt
m the situation. The "oppo11unities" of abundant practice mentioned above can easily be lost at any time, What is
the appropriate uevelopment speed'? What is the suitable
den,ity for the urban areas, which can save the buildable
land and cater for livable environment? These will be big
challenges both for Chfoa and the world. This also explains
why we believe that the environmental aspect should become the new criterion in evaluating (Chinese)
architecture. as di scussed in Chapter One. The
environmenlal cri,is may also stimulate more research and
N OTES
1. The World Bank, through its thorough study, suggests that an alternative (or perhaps real) picture may be 1.2 percentage points lower than is indicated by China's official statistics. See World Bank , China 2020: Development Chaflenges in the New Century (The World Bank, Washington DC, 1997. p 3).
2. Following the discussion in the Preface of this book, the
practice in sust.ainable. green, and intelligent buildings and
relevant technologies.
Second, in the conflict of commerc iali sm and
preservmion. traditional neighborhood and relics are
threatened and largely b e ing razed. The pace of
preservation anti meager funds cannot save the valuable
heritage from the bulluozers anu short-sighted decision
rnakers. As discussed in the preceding chapters. the
continuation of Chinese culture was broken on several
occasions in modem times: the people"s belief in their own tradition is amatingly weak or even nonexis tent. The
Crunese or local identity and tastes are almost swamped
in the high tide of globalizarion. Imported buildings,
archjtects, and styles are embraced. and they dominate the
urban s tree t!. regardless of the local conditions. Most
Chinese cities. if not all. soon foll into the rank nf·'generic
city:· a term c:oined by Rem Koolhaas (1995). It is good or bad, al> repearedly <..liscussed in Chapters Two anu Three,
but it is definitely detrimentaJ to China as a nation. In our analysis in Chapters l\vo and Three. lhe mere
and singular ··western'· or ··Chinese" will only exist in
illusion. Chinese architects and developers should find new
baJance and position in the framework of contemporary
China and the world. China should. and will. provide more ple::isure 10 its people through a better built environment,
and vigorously co ntribute to the wealth o f world
architecture in the new millennium.
problems of the countryside and peasants gradually draw the attention of the Chinese government and people in the cities. In the beginning of 2004, an investigation, Report of Chinese Peasants , by two writers in Anhui Province. shocked the country with its profound revealing of the poor conditions in rural areas and a series of scandals about the local leadership. The report was first published by People's Literature Press of Beijing, and then by numerous newspapers and websites.
170 I Chinese Architecture in the Twenty-first Century: An Epilogue
798 Facrory (an area), I 49-150
A + U (t\rchitec111n• and Urbanism). 154, 19()
Abercrombie Award, 76
Abercrombie. Patrick. 52
AC'SA !Arneril.:an Collegiate Society of Architecture), 183
Adjayc. David, 1.53
Agile Garden, Zhong Shun. 96
Ai Weiwci. 147-8. 151 - 2
AJA !American l n~litute ofAn:hitecls). 158
Alexander. Christopher, 73
Ando. Tadao, 36
Andreu. Paul (and ADP), 41- 3, 47, J60
The Archite(.'/. 73. 189- 190
architectural desigT• institute, IJ. 91. 136. I 57-oO. 187
Archirecrt1mf Joitmal. 189
Archi1ect11raf Record. I 54. I 90
A rt'f1irec111ra/ Rt!1•it'w. 190
Architectural Society of China (ASC'). 2 l. 109. !58. 11$9
Archirectural technology, 10
Arat11, Isuzaki. 36, 41, 153
Asia(Asian), ix-xi. 29. 151
A~ian dragon~. ix
Australia. 61. 153, 160
Austria. 185
Bac)1man. Gabor, 153
Bacon. Edmund N .. 73
Ball State University, I 33
Ban, Shigern. 151
Barragan. Luis. 142
Bauhaus. 186
Beaux Art~. 4. 73. 135
Becket. Ellerbe, 32-3
INDEX
Beijing. viii, xiii. 4. o. 17- 20. 22. 25- 6. 51- 6. 88. 9L 94. 142.
167, 189
Beijing Library, 22
Beijing New Train Station, 22
China lnternalional Trade Center. 34
Tiananmen Square. 52, 54. 83
Wangfujin, 54-5
Biennale di Venezja, 132, 153
British (and French) Coow;~jon. 56- 7
Broadbent. Geoffrey, 4
Bu Zhengwei. 112-3 Chongqing Airport, I 13
Yantai Airpon. 113
Cai Guoliang. 148 capitalism (capitalist), 16, 105
Ch<1ng. Gary. 151-2
Chang Qing. 60. 81-2
Chang Yong He. 1 3~-5. 140-7, 151 - 2, 154
Fei Chang Jian Zhu Atelier. 133
Six Crates of Architecwre. 147
Charpentier. Jean-Marie, 36, I 60
Grand Shanghai The:: at er. 3o-7. I oO. 163
Chen Zhihua. J 90
Chen Zhanxiang, 52
Chen Xitong. 19
Index I 199
Cheng Tainiog. 109- 112
Dragon llolcl. 109- 110
Ghanu ational Thea1er. 11 ~I
Hangihou Train Station. 112
Chengdu China Arch11cc1ure and .Building Press (Chio a Building Industl')
Pressl. 189
Chten Hsueh Yt. 151 China ln,titLtte of Archi1ec1ural Re~eiir..:h, 29, 81
Chinese 1den1t1y. 12~. :!6. 21!
Chile. 153 Chongqing, 44. 80, I 12- 3. 182
Chongqing University of Building. 182
Cuhb. Menry, 35
China-Europe International Business School, 35
Codinach~. Marcin. 61
Cody, Jeffery W., 41 , 46
Cold War. 4
colomal. coloni1ation, viit- \ Columbia Univer~ity, 146
Communbt (Party). tx. !{7. 186
Commune by the Great Wall. 151- 3
Cunfuciuni m. ix
Co>.. Philip. 61
Crnnhrool. Art l11'1ilute. 72
Cret. Paul. 11!7 Croatia, 153
Cut Kai. 132. 151 - 2. 153- 5
Cultural Revuluti11n (Proletarian CulluraJ Revolution), ~ii. 17,
131. 153
Dai Fut.long (and Wu Lu~hcng). 11 5-7. 161
Archilecwral School building. Tongji University. I J 5
Big Dipper Mountain Village, 116-7
Mo Zedong's palace, Wuhnn, I 16
Run Run Shaw Building. Tongji Univerf.ity. 11 5
Zunhua Motel. I 16
Dai Nianchi. J 3. 20-1
Quli Hotel. 13. 20- 1
Dalian. viii- h. 94
D.tshe Studio of Shanghai. 144
Deng Xtat)ptng. t\ , xiv. 91. 119. 131
DGBK + KFS. 61
Ding Wowo, I J:!
Dong Wei. 75
Dong Yug<rn. 135-<1
01111111 .\, 155. 189
Dou Yitle. x11
200 I Index
Ea:.t China Design l n~ti1ute, 157
Eisenman. Peter, 4
end·userhl. 9
Engel~. Fneclndt. Al\'
ETH, Zunch, 136
Europe !European). 68. 73, 132. 16<1
experimental an:hi tecrure. 130-2. I 53- S
Fang Ke, 68 Farrell. Tell). 41
Fei Xiaohua. 98 Feng Jizhong. 5, I KS
.feng sl111i, xii. 82. 14 l
(Sir) Fletcher, Bani~ter. J J 8
Fo~tcr. Norman. 36
Frampton. Kenneth. 5. 46. 80- 1, 135
France (French), 56, 61, 153. 160
Fujian. 68 Fukuyama. Franca~. 17
Furuya, Nobuaki , 151
Gan~u Province. 55
GDP CGro'~ Oome~uc Pn'ltlucbl. x. 44. H15-6
Gchry. Frank, 10
Genuany. 35. I 05. 135. 149. 185. 187
Giedion. Sigfned. ::!
globali1:11ion, xiii- iv, 8. 31. -lt1
God.~dl. St:an. 153
Gong Deshun. xii
Great Earth De~1gn Incorporation. I 59
Great I-l ull 11f People. 11 . J X Gropius. W11her, 185
Guan Zhaoyc. 127- 9
Tsinghu~ U111vcr'tily Library. 127-9 Guangdong Province. R4. 102, 154
Guungd1ou. ix. xiii. 44. 50- 1, 63-8, 77. 189
Tianhe DbtricL 6-t 77
Yuexiu D1~tm:t. M Guangxi. 6R
Gui1.hou. flM
lladid. 7..;1hu. 10. 36. 14-1. 148
Haikou. 74. 77
Hainan. 68. 74
Harbin. i\. 80. 18~
H:mard Unt\t:r<.,tly. 136. 146, 185
Hangthou(ZheJiung Pr<JVlm:cl.44. !SI. 109- 110. 112
He .I ingrnng. 125- 7
Hebei Province. 75
H1:;ilongjiang, 73
Herzog & De Meron. 36. 43
high tech. 10
Holl. Steven. 36. 97, 100. 153
HOK (Hellmmh. Obata +Kassabaum). 36. 74
Hong Kong, viii, xii. 32, 50. 55-6. 66. Mi. 95-7. !02. 142. 149.
163
Hu Shaoxue. 125. 128
Huahui Design Ltd .• JM Hunan (Province). 68. 164
Hungary. 157 /111tong, 55-fi
imperialism. JO
India. ix
Italy (Italian). 153, 155
Jaran (JapaneseJ. ix-x. 19. 41. 57. 6l. 65. 73-+. 105-7. ll4.
127. \ SI. 185. 187. 189
Jencks, Clmrles. 19
Jiang~u, 58, 102
Ji:rnguo Hotel, 32
Jiangxi. 68 Jilin. 73, 77
Joumal 1>{ Archi1ec11irc1/ 011d P/(11111i11q Rt'.1tart:l1 , J 90
Kuhn. Louis. 19
Kales. F. H .. 26
Kanika R' kul. 151
Kalach, Alberto. 153
Klotz.. Mathias, 153
Koollrnas. Rem (and OMA). xiii. 17. 43, 135-6. 154. 160, 168,
18Q
CCTV J lcauquartcrs. 43-14. I 36
Kostof. Spiro. 7
KPF (Kohn Pedersen Fox Assocjates), 7. 37, 3'-J, 45, 136. 160.
163
Global rinancial Center. 39
Plata 66. 31
Ku ma. Kengo. J 51
Ktmikawa, Kishn, 36, 78. 189
Sino-Japan Youth friend~hip Cenrer. 35--6
Kwan. Wu & Yang. 157
Lao Tzu. l 13
Legorreta, Ricardo. 14:!
Leigh & Orange. I 60
Lcrup, Lars. 135
Li. John M. Y. (anu Michael TinwhulaL 7-t 78
Li Lin. 97-8
Li Linxue. 146
Li Zongze . 36
Li Xinggang. 144
Liang Si-c:heng (Liang Ssu Ch· eng). 13-4, 17. 29. 51-3. e'i8, 72.
81. 185 Liaoning Province, 73, 158
li/011g (lane house). 25. 83
Lin Huiyin. 29
Lin Keming. 14
Lingnan Myle (Lingnan archiiecturet. 24, 123
Liu, Doreen Heng. 144, 153
Liu Dunzhen. 81
Liu Jiakun. 132. 142- 3. I SJ-4
Luyeyuan Museum ot'Stom.' Sculpture. 142-3
Liu Li, 25
Yan Huang Art Gallery. 25
Liu Taige. 79
Llewelyn-Oavi~. TJ. 76
Lnndon, 135, 163
Lu Jiwci. 118
Lu Yanihi (Lu Yen-chih), 14, 16
Lufthansa Center. 34
Luke H. S .. 105
Lynch, Kevi.n, 73, 118
Ma Qingyun. 132. 136. 138, 153
Macau, 50, 66, 68. 96
MADA s.p.a.m .. 136, 161
Malay~ia. x . .><iv. 28
Mansilla, Luis M .. 153
Man Ze<long. ix. 4 Marx, Karl (Marxism). i.x. xiv, 1(15 Meier. Richard, 45
Meng Jianmin. 136. 138. 155
Meltico, 15.i
Mian, Pu, 14, 139-1-W
Reception. Minhang Ecnlogical Gur<len. 139
Teahouse at Xiaolangdi Dam Parle 139
Minisn·y 1,fConwuction. 11, 7i-5. 90. 92. 158-9. 184
Ministry ot Education. I +l
Ming Dynns1y. 5 I -2
Mn Bozhi. 24. 119. 123
White S\\an Hotel, 123
mmlcrnization. ix. 32. 167
Murphy, Llenry K .. 26. l57
Index I 201
Nanjing, 14-6, 25, 32. 44. 58. 106-8. 183. 187
Nanjing University. 136, 154
National EcJucation Commission, l SR
National fom1, xiii. 12-9. 26, 109
Nationalist Party (Kuomintang). ix
NewYork.46. 133. 135, 153
Nikken Sekkei, 36,
Ningbo. ix. 58. 77
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, 55. JS8
Nji1ic. Hrvoje, l 53
Norberg-Schulz, Christian, 4
orth Korea. xi
Ochoa. Antonio. 15 I
Odile Deco. 15>
Olympic Games, 43-4. 78-80. 83
P & T Group (Palmer & Turner), 32. 47. 160, 163
Pan-Pacific Design Ltd_, 162
Pan Shiyi (and Zhang Xin). 153
Pead River Della, xiii, 50, 65-S, 95, 97, 129
Dongguan. 65. 67-8. 153
Zhongslmn. 65. 67-8
Peddle and Thorp, l 60 Pei, l. M., 13. J 9-.?0. 32, 40, 48, 133
Bank of China headquarters. 40
Fragrant Hill Hotel. 13. 19-20, 32
Pei Architects. 40, 48
Suzhou Museum. 48
Peking Ur1iversity. 125, 135, 154
Peng. Alfred PK. 48. 159
Peng Yigang, I 13-4
Memorinl Ha ll of Jiawu Naval Battle. 114
Peng Nu. 155
Pit Gui Yuan, 95-6
Pompidou Center of Paris, 132
Porrman, John. 33. 37. 163
Shanghai Center. 33
Tomorrow Square. 37
PostrnocJern. postmodernism, 4, 19
Pritzker Architectura l Prize. 43. 158
Pudong,59-60. 77
Lujiazui. 77-8
Pudong Airport, 47, 163
Qi Kang. 106-8, 125. 161
Memo1ial Hall of Japanese Massacre. 106-7
Provincial Museum of Henan, 106-8
202 I Index
Wuyi Mountnin Village. LOf>-7
Ytihuatai Memorial Hall. 108
Qi Xin, 132
Qian Xueshcng, 75
Qin Dynasry, 63
Qing Dynasty. ix. 2. 51-2. 59. 63. 11~. 185 Qingdao, ix, 8 L 101
Qinhai Province, 158-9
Rao Wekhun. l 29
Regionalism, 8, 24
registration (archi tecr's registration 1. 158-9
Ren Zhenying, 73
Republic of China. 136
revolution, ix, 86-7. 154-5. 163
RIA (ofJapan). 61, 74
Rice University, Houscon. 133
RIBA (Royal Institute of British Archit~ts ;, 158
Roger , Ricbanl. 36. 68. 78
Sas11ki, 79-80, 163
Sanaksenaho, Matti. 153
Saarinen, Eliel. 72-3
SCAUIM of Fnmce. 74 Sejima, Kazuyo, 153
Seung H-Sang. 151
Shaanxi Province. 55
Shane.long, 73, 76,90 Shanghai, viii-ix, x.ii, 4, 44, 50- 1. 56-63, 66, 69, 78-80. 88-9,
9 1. 94. 97. 99, 117, 120-2. 150. 153. 163. 187. 189
Bund.57-9. 78-9.SI. 122
Chifeng Road, 163 Hongqiao District. 73
Huangpu District. viii.
Huangpu River. 57. 59. 81
Nanjing Road. 37, 58. 77
Nonh Bund, 77, 79
People's Square, 36. 58-9
Suzhou Creek. 57. 8 1
Xinrianc.li, 25-7
Shanxi Province. 81
Shen1hen. -14. 65-o. 76. 7X- 9. 14~. 187
Futian. 76. 78
Luohu. 76 Shenzhen Universi[y, 182, 184, 187
Shi Wei. 16:!
Shunde.66-7. S.l
ichuan, 61:1, 142. 153
Singapore. Lx-,, I 51
Sita, AIVllrO. 142
~ociali!.t. 'ocialbm. i, . ..!. 6 7. 16. 157
SOHO. China. 153. 167
Sommer, Roben. I 0
Song Dyn:ht). 79
SOM . 7. 36. 160
Jin Mau Bu1ldmg. 26, 36-8. 163
011sas~. Eunre. 153
South China U11iv1mity ofTcchnolog.y. 161. JR2
South KoreJ. b.-x. 15 1
Southeast Univer,i ty. 75. 106. 161. 18o-7 Thc SovietUnion,i\, 17,88,9 1, 149, 185
The Stale Council. 159, 185
Special Ernno111ic Zo~c. I 0
Speer. Alht:rt, 61
Spence & Robinson, 157
St. John'~ University. 185
St:11e Council. 159. 185
Suihou.58
Sun Yat-Mm, L-t. 14, 16
Tafuri. Manfredo. 4 Taiwan (TaiwaneseJ. l'(-X. 97, 15lJ-I , 15:,
Tan. Kay gee, 151
Tang Dyn•bty. 7.12-3. 7Q
Tang Hua, 153
T:mge. Kcn10. 43
Taoho. 161 Teng Kunyen, 150- 1
Tiunjin, ix, 10. 53. 90. 112-4
Tiunjin U11iver..11y. t 13-4, 182
Tibet. 159
Tsinghua Llnivi:rsity. 29. 125. 127-8. 144-5. 182-3, 189- 190
Tong Jun. Zhao Sheng & Chen Zhi. 105, 155. 187
Tongji Univer~ity, 115, I IS, 139, 155, 161, 163, 183-6
Tung Du you, I 05
Udac. 155.1
UlA. 44. 76
Unitt:d Kingdom <Britain. Bmi~h). xii. 56. 76. 105. 155, 16:!.
185. 187. 189
L'mted 'ation~. :29
Unitt:u 1a1e, c t\mcnc:l}. i>., >.i1. J!.46-7, 72-4. 102. I 05. 131-
2. I SJ. 157-X, 162, 183, 185. 187. 189
Univer))it) of California at Berkeley. JJ3. 135. 139
Un1ver..1ty of I luwaii. 139
l'ni.,,cn.1t) of Ill inois :it Urhan:i-Chumpuign, 10.5
Univer,ity of Pennsylv:mi.1. 29. I 3ti. 187
urban design (urban renewal). 70-6. 80-t
urb:ini1at1on. 70-1
Venturi. Robert. 2. 19. J(1
Vietnam. xi
Wang Jtangu1'). 73. 75
Wang Lifang. 144-.5. 15.!
Wung Mingxian. 132
Wang Shu. I 32. 142. 144. 153 Wang Tan, 190
Wang Tiunxi. 133
Wang Weijen, 146
W~ing Xiaodong. 129
Wang Xiao-xiung. 159
Warsaw (Poland), .!
World Ard1iWl'l1tre. 189
The World Bun!... 167-8
World fapo. 44. 60-1
World TraJc Organi1ution <WTO). 4 I
Wren. Chri~tophcr, 16
Wright. Frank Lloyd. l IJ
WSP Arch11ec1ural De~ign Consuh111g Co. Ltd .. 40
Wu Liangyong, 2.5-6. 73. 128
Wu Yaodong. 144-5
Wuhan. i'(. 14 I Wuhan Unhel"it). 14-.5. 141-2
Xi 'an. 22-3, 74, 80, 94
Xi'an Univer,i1y of Building Science. 18l
Xiamen (Fujian Province). viii
Xiang Bingren, \19, I J IS- 120
Xing Tonghe, 61 . 119. 12 1-2
Lu Xun's M1Murn. 11 9. 121
Shanghai Mu~cum . 11 9. 12::?.. 163
Xue, Charlie (Xue Qiuli), 97-8. 190
Yabenko Architecture Planning Con,1llt:itinn Compan). 74 Y•lng Tingbao. 14-.5. 105-6. 187
Yangt1e Ri.,,er Delt<1 I Changjiang Ri' er Delta>. 50-1. 56. 5~. 66
Yao Rcnxi, 1.53
Yeang. Ken. 28-Y. J(l
Yim. Rocco. 1.51
Yin Jia (and Liu Kt:minl. 1.17
Yuan Dynru.ty. 51-2 Yunnan, Mt !i I. 129
Lijiang. 81
Index I 203
ang Zhaofcng. 183- 190
Zhang Kaiji, 19
Zhang Lei, 132. 136-7
Zhao Biog. 139. 141- 1
Zhejiang Province. 58. 69. 83. !09. 14:.!. 162. 185
Zhejiang Univer,it}" 6Q, 125
Zbi Wenjun, 155, 190
Ttme + Archireu11r('. 155. 190
Zhong. Gmm Cun (Beijing). 54
Zhou Dyna~ty, 79
Zhou Ganz.hi. 73
Zhou Kai. 153
204 I Index
Zhou Zhuang (7.h\)u Village). 81-2
Zhu Jianfci. 4
Zhu Jiaiuaog. l 32
Zhu QiLhcn. 81
Zhu Rongj1. 183
ZhuTao, 146
Zhuang Jun, 105, 157
Zhuhru.6,65-6.95-6
Zou Denong. xii. 7
Zuu Xiao~i. l51J Zweig. David, x