buddhism and spirit cults of north-east thailand chapter 3

8/8/2019 Buddhism and Spirit Cults of North-East Thailand Chapter 3

1/11

} ·

.:

t

¥

i

Cosmology

in Ceylon around 20 B.C., and was accepted as the true scripture in Burma,

Siam

and

Cambodia. ·

f

t Pitaka (which includes the core Patimokkha rules of discipline); Sutta

Ji ~ P i t a k a (the sermons and discourses

of

the Buddha); and Abhidhamma,

The Pali Canon, known as Tripitaka (three baskets), consists of Vinaya

C SM G Y

f:

which is later than the

Sutta and

consists mostly of a complex arrangement

.

f.

and commentary on the discourses.

1

Rather

than

begin

the

exposition

of Buddhism

by

discussing

doctrine t It

is clear

that the

components of

the

Pali

Canon

were

not

composed

I shall begin with cosmology'. But

what

is the difference bet ween doctrinef

s i m u l t ~ e o u s l y

..

Lines of

g r o ~ h are visible in the Vinaya and the Sutta.

and cosmology, and how are they connected? And why do I choose t ~ f A c ~ o r d m g to. Smhal7se t r a d 1 ~ 1 0 n however, the Canon \.Vas fixed at the

unorthodox path? J Third Council held m

the

reign of Asoka c. 272-232 n.c.). The author

Bishop Copleston, who

in

some respects was a more sympa theti c com-t of The Questions ofMilinda, which book was composed by the beginning

mentator

on

Buddhism

than

most of his Christian contemporaries, gave[. of the Christian era, knew

the

Canonical books

by the

names they bear

an unexpected answer to a question he posed: to what extent does the[ now. Thus apparently nothing discredits the conclusion that the Pali

content of the Pali Canon serve for a description of Buddhism in Ceylonf Canon was subs tantial ly fixed in Asoka's time, so far as

the

Vinaya

and

today (i.e. 1890s)? He first divided the contents

of

the classical l i t e r a t u r e ~ · the Sutta discourses are concerned. Thus it can be said that, despite the

into two groups:

that

which dealt with the mora l system [and] thef accretion of commentaries which,

in

any case, must

refer

to the original

human life on which it rests , and that which was composed of 'the[ text , doctrine as such has been transmitted in the southern school

legendary histories

and

the

theories

of

cosmogony

and

geography'.

He '.

relatively unchanged.

then gave this answer: The whole being divided into these two groups

1

t

In

contrast

it

is said that Buddhist mythology and cosmology have

we may assert that the first, the moral, is held now with little alteration;j grown lush

and

unrestrained like a wild creeper. It is, however, interesting

but

that the second, the mass of legends and cosmogony, has been

so{ to

note that the seeds of the full-blown beliefs, myths and cosmologies

greatly developed and raised

to

so much greater prominence, as to makef of a later period are

found

in

the

Pali Canon.

The V£naya and

Sutta

the later Buddh ism differ widely from the Pitakas' (1892). ' Pitaka have many references to supernatural beings and occurrences.

Curiously, the first half of

the

answer,

though

unorthodox, is probably '. The Khuddaka Nikaya of

the

Sutta collection contains the Jataka stories

true; and

the

second half, which is conventional, is unduly exaggerated/ · in verse form which are

the

kernel for

the

later prose elaborations. Similarly

Where the

Bishop was right

in

a novel way-against those who saw[' the skeleton of the pantheon and

the

framework of the cosmology are

a vulgarization of doctrine over time,

and

in repudiation of

the

arrogantf clearly perceived in

the

Vi naya

and Sutta

2

(e.g. Atanatiya

Suttanta

(Rhys

claim of some nineteenth-century

European

scholars that the S i n h a l e s e ~ Davids, Part III, 1957, Ch. 32) ).

have

been content

to

relearn

their

own religion' from

them-was t h a t ~

With

the

passage

of

time,

the

elaborations

in

tl1e

realms

of

cosmology

the major conceptsand assertions of he Buddhist doctrine cannot r a s t i c a l l y ~ and mythical history have been fantastically ornate.

The

life story of the

change. Where the Bishop exaggerated

in

a conventional manner was tOfi Buddha has been enlarged and embellished with many incidents unknown

think that a vast gap separates the wild jungle of cosmology

and

y t h o l o g y ~

to

the Pitaka: The details of the Buddha s birth and of his renunciation,

from

the ploughed fields of doctrine: such a view is possible only i it isk

thought that doctrine and cosmology have no affinity or similarity

off

message contents whatsoever.

There are many versions or Canons of

the

Buddhist Scriptures-such

the Sanskrit Canons, Chinese and Tibetan Canons, ~ t c . b u t I am c o n · \ ~

cerned here primarily with the Pali Canon, or more accurately with thatf;

particular recension

of the

Scriptures of the ancient sect

of

Vibhajjavadimf

that

was set down

in

writing at

the

Mahavihara monastery

in

Anuradhapura :

32

f'

1

The Vinaya Pitaka i n ~ l u d e s

in

addition to the PatimoMha,

the

111.ahavagga and

Cullaoogga (which deal

with the rules of

admission to

the order give

the

occasion and

circumstances when the Buddha made the rules, and give b i o ~ r a p h i c a l detni s

of

the

Buddha). The Butta Pitaka is divided into

four prose

collections called the Nikaya

(Digha, Samyutta,

Majjhima

and Anguttara) and a fifth section mostly

in

verse

form

(Khuddaka Nikaya);

this last

includes the Dhammapada, the Them and Theri-gatl1a

(devotional songs) and the

ataka

stories in verse form. See Eliot (1954) for information

on the contents of the Canon.

1

In

a

subsequent chapter we

shall see

that the

paritta (verses chanted for protection)

also have

their

final

authority or

source

in

the

Canonical

literature.

3

33 TB


2/11

Buddhism and the spirit cults in North east Thailand

.

r

Cosmology

of his visit to his mother in heaven,

and

of his visits to Ceylon, camel· samsara(cycl eofrebir ths),nirvana(finalextinc tion),dukka(suffe ring), etc.,

actually to take precedence, in interest and

in

the poetical wealth l a i d ~ which are alleged to explain man s predicament and to direct his religious

out upon them, over the more authentic incidents in the Vinaya (Copleston·I·· action, are also embedded

in

the cosmology (and its associated pantheon).

1892, p. 422).

The

theory o f a succession of previous Buddhas, which had: But what is the advantage of the aid of cosmology in studying religion?

its nucleus

in

the Canon, was developed

in

time into elaborate accounts

In

this monograph I approach religion through ritual and I would like

of

their

lives. Perhaps the

most

important elaboration

in

respect

of.f

to suggest that there is a close connection between cosmology and ritual.

c ~ n g r e g a t ~ o n a l interest and usefulness for

i n s ~ r u c t i o n

are the

55of;

Cosmological

and

supernatural categories are embedded

in

the rituals

birth stones of the Buddha, the

Jataka

collection. Fmally there has beem. I shall describe; they chart the geography and define the architecture

of

the boundle ss field of cosmogony/cosmology which, with its cycles

oft

sacred space and are expressed

in

the material symbols that are manipulated

ages, multitude of universes, concentric circles of oceans and cataclysmicf in the rituals.

In

the rituals we see cosmology

in

action.

cosmic changes (both big bangs and steady states), has appeared at

first;.

f one may allow oneself

the

luxury of some aphorisms, it may be said

sight to be mere fantasy

run

wild

and

away from religion. t that ritual is for the practical man what ,philosophy is for the thinker.

But is Buddhist cosmology (and its related mythology) really simplyf If the saint and

the

ascetic act

upon themselves-their

minds and bodies,

the systematizing

of

the imaginary which is the bese tting intellectualf and inner states-the layman acts upon the world with the external things

sin of India and the Orient?

Is

it quite unrelated to the doctrinal andi

of

the world. For the layman ritual acts are outward symbols of interior

ethical idea8 of Buddhism as most commentators appear to think? t state; the ascetic on the other hand performs disciplinary acts directed

The Encyclopaedia Britannica

describes cosmology

in

the broades t sensef inwards upon himself so that he can gain mastery over the outer world.

of the word as that branch of learning which treats of the universe asf Forallthereasonssetoutishallnottreadtheconventionalpathbystarting

an

ordered system .

The

name is derived from

the

Greek kosmos

(

r d e r , ~ with the definition of basic ethical

and

doctrinal concepts of Buddhism,

harmony , the world ) plus lo os ( word , discourse ). Cosmology isj but rather describe first its cosmology and the implications thereof.

that framework of concepts and relations which man erects or the} The cosmology that I present is an abbreviated version of ideas that

purpose of bringing descriptive order into the

wor-ld

as a whole, including):

are

prevalent

in

Thailand, Burma and Ceylon and are reported

by

several

himself as one

of its elements. It describes

the

world in terms of space,£; writers (e.g. see

De

la Loubere 1693, Alabaster 1871,

Hardy

1880, Yoe

time, matter, motion and causality. (The related questions of inner

nature{,

1896, Monier-Williams 1890). No villager in Baan Phraan

Muan

is able

and

purpose are usually relegated

to

the branches of cosmogony, ontology,f

to

present

the

details of the total picture in the way I do.

But

fragments

e s c h ~ t o l o g y ,

etc.,

but

I shall include them here under the c o s m o l o g i c ~ ~

of

and allusions

to

the traditional cosmology appear in many myths and

rubric.)

;

rituals, and the ritual experts

in

the village can

in

such contexts expound

I would like to suggest that, contrary to the normal practice of ignorind relevant portions of the lore to the inquirer. Parts of the cosmological

Buddhist cosmology or relegating it to footnotes, it be seen as providingt scheme will come to life

in

some of the rituals and myths documented in

a nice entry into

the

universe

of

religion.

It

has many facets:

it

first of

l l ~

later chapters.

gives a picture of the universe in terms of space, time and matter;[ Thailand itself is the home of a cosmological treatise written in 1345

secondly, it translates this physical universe into a pantheon of d e i t i e s , ~

by

the heir apparent to the throne of Sukhodaya (who later became

humans, animals and demons to which can be attributed ethica l andr King Lut ai). This work entitled Trai bhumikatha ( The History of the

moral qualities; finally, the cosmology gives a dynamic picture of

thef;

Three Worlds ), while written

in

Siamese, was entirely based on Pali

nature, workings and purpose of the universe in terms of the motiont

works

(Coedes 1957)·

I t

brought together, however, various fragments

of the personifications in the pantheon, this motion up and down

and?;

and passages

in

a single work which appears to have been the first syste

bursting out of the universe altogether) being conceived

in

terms o t· matic treatise on Buddhist cosmology.

t

not only contained the traditional

ethical and spiritual force and energy.

Thus

it might be said that t h e ~ cosmology

but

also used

it

as a vehicle for moral dissertations and to

cosmological scheme says figuratively and

in

terms of metaphorical

imagest·

present a picture of o n r c h y ~ c o n f o r m i n g to Buddhis t ideals.

the same kind of thing which is stated in abstract terms in the

d o c t r i n e . ~

Again, in 1776, Phya Tak, who recovered Thailand from the Burmese,

The

basic doctrinal concepts

of

Buddhism such as

karma

(ethical causation),

t

compiled a sta ndard Siamese work

on

Buddhist cosmology.

It

was called

34

f

35

3-2


3/11

Buddhism and the spirit cults in North-east Thailand

r

r

f·

Traiphoom,

ran to sixty volumes, and was no doubt based on classical

Cosmology

sources (Thomps on

1941,

p. 624 . l The six heavens ( deva loka )

Although the Buddhist· cosmology in its broad outlines shows much t The first heaven is below the summit of Mt

Meru

and is the residence

simi Iarity to the Hindu version, it expresses variations and systematization g of the four guardians of he world ( okapala . The second heaven (Tavatinsa/

in

terms of Buddhism s own religious world view. Hence it should be

f

Tawutisa) is on the summit of Mt Meru, over which presides god Sakka

treated in its own right. f

or

Indra. These two heavens must, in fact, be taken together because

According to Buddhist cosmology, the re are innumerable world systems f Indra presides over the four guardians; and together they impinge on

or

galaxies. Each system has its own

sun

and moon,

and

its ear th containing

J

the world

of men and

animals. n myth and ritual

Indra

always appears

continents and oceans, with a mountain

in

the centre called

Mt

Meru.

j

as the presiding deity.

Upwards from the mountain extend the heavens, downwards the hells.

t

Around and

just

below Indra s abode at the summit of Mt Meru are

These world systems are periodically destroyed and re-formed in cycles V the four mansions of the world guardians.

1

The palace to the east is that

of vast stretches of time kalpa)-in modern astro-physics this charac-, of Dhrita-rashtra (Dhratarashtra), King of the Gandharvas (choristers

terization would be called the theory of the pulsating universe. . r and musicians) who guard the eastern domain of the world and minister

The world system consists of thirty-one planes of existence divided l to the pleasure of all gods. They wear white garments and are mounted

into three major categories: kama loka (in which there is form and sensual f on white horses and wield swords and shields of crystal.

On

the south is

desire (pleasure and pain)); rupa loka (in which there is form but

n o ~

the palace of Virudhaka (Virudha) whose attendants are

the

Kumbandas,

sensual enjoyment, only a kind of intellectual enjoyment); and the arupa i monsters of immense size and ugly form. They wear blue garments, are

loka (in which there is no perceptible bodily form and no sensation). The f mounted on blue horses, and their swords and shields are made of sapphire.

order

in

which they are presented here is hierarchical from the lowest

f

They guard the southern division

of

the world.

The

palace

of

Virupaksha

to

the highest. We may note

that

the scheme is based on a

p r o g r e s s i o n ~

stands in the west

and

he is the King of the N agas. Their colour is red;

from corporeality to incorporeality, from body to intellect. fr they wear red garments, ride red horses, carry weapons of coral and

These three major planes of existence subdivide into the thirty-one? flaming torches. They are the guardians of the western portion of the

more specific planes in a complex manner. And in order to describe the \ world. The northern division belongs to Kuvera or Vaisravana (Vessavano ),

ordering we must start from the centre of the world system. f: who rules over the Yakshas; they are adorned in golden garments, ride

Mt Meru stands in the centre of the earth, and it is the pillar of t h e ~ horses that shine like gold, etc. The Y akshas in the classical descriptions

world. Between Meru and the great rocky circumference which is

thel are

not as malevolent as they have come to be in modern Ceylon. (See

wall of the earth are alternating concentric circles of seven mountain f, Hardy 1880,

PP·

45-J). The Thai represent them in their temples as

ranges

and

seven oceans.

A

last (eighth) great ocean adjoining the rimf. enormous

and

horrible, though recognizably

human

in form. .

contains four continents at

the

cardinal points; the southern continent

n

Buddhist mythology the Yakshas and Nagas appear frequently.

Jambudvipa (which is ours).

It

is

the

most sacred

in

the time cycle

inf

In

Ceylon

the

Yakshas,

ruled over by Kuvera

the

god of wealth, have

which Gotama Buddha was born. { been elaborated

on

and transformed into the much-feared malevolent

f: demons. In Thailand, on the othe r hand, it is the N agas who have

a

special

. place.

KAMA LOKA

t

Th

. e Nagas will fig\}re importantly in this study of Thai religion. A brief

The kama loka plane

of

existence expresses the cosmology that is directly@ introductory note on them is therefore appropriate. They are thought

relevant for our study. This plane of bodily form

and

sensual

f e e l i n g s ~ to

reside under the rocks that support Mt Meru and under the waters

is divided into eleven

loka:

six are heavens inhabited

by

gods

(deva loka ;

of the earth. Their bodies take

the

shape

of

serpents. They

e11joy

the

five are worlds, four of which are inhabited by human beings, animals, t status of demi-gods , and in Buddhism are usually represented as favour

ghosts, and demons. The fifth world consists of eight major (and other u ~ € able to the religion and its adherents. At the same time they are considered

sidiary) hells, situated in the interior of

the earth, in which intense

o r m e n t ~ ·

1

In Thai the four guardians

(thao lokaban)

are called: Thataret, Wirulahok, Wirupak,

and pain are experienced. }

··

and Wetsuwan.

37


4/11

-

- - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - - - = = = = = = = = = ~ ~ - -

..

.

t

'

o be formidable enemies when th eir wrath is aroused. They are associated r

with rain

and

fertility. ·

f:


Beyond

and

higher

than the

second heaven of Indra are four other l

heavens

that

fall within

the

definition

of kama loka.

Of these, only one

l

need be mentioned here, the fourth called Tusita in w i ~ resides thel

all-compassionate

bodhisatva

(Buddha-to-be) Maitreya, awaiting

the t i m e ~

when

he will come down into

the

world

of men

as

the

next Buddha and

l

saviour. The

Tusita

heaven is regarded as

the

most delightful

of

the

l

heavens,

in

which all desires are satisfied. n it grows

the

kal,pavriksha

f

tree (in Thai, Karaphruk or Kamaphruk), which produces fruits of gold, J

silver, jewels, etc., that gratify all desires.

The

tree appears frequently

f

in

Thai

rituals and will greet us with its promises at many places in

f

this book.

l

The five worlds l

The four lower worlds

of

men, animals,

asuras

(demons),

and

ghosts J

preta)

stand

in

contrast to

the

heavens. While life

in the

heavens

is

r

unadulterated

p l e a s u ~ e

the lower worlds are increasingly painful. Human

l

beings and animals as forms of life are self-evident

and

require no com·

mentary at this stage, but the others do. f

The asuras

are

in

Buddhist (and Hindu) mythology the arch opponents f

and

enemies of

the

gods. They are demi-gods themselves

and

are

of

the f

underworld, living

under Mt Meru.

They have

had

repeated contests

f

with the

gods

of Indra s

heaven,

and the

great representation

of

this

{

contest is

the

churning of

the

ocean for the nectar of life which

the

gods

t

successfully took away from them.

This

story is represented

in

both

J,

Hindu and Buddhist architecture, notably in Cambodia at Angkor. The

p

asuras were finally su bdued by

Indra,

and it is

the

task of the four guardians { _

to conti nue to ward off their attacks. Rahu and

Ketu

are

the

much-feared

i

asuras

which swallow the moon

and

cause eclipses.

The asuras

as

t h e ~ -

classical opponents

of the

deities have found other expressions

in

con-

r

temporary South-east Asian countries:

devas

versus y kk in Ceylon, t

versus nats

in

Burma, versus phii in Thailand. [

While the asuras are a permanent category of supernatural being, the}

pretas

are

of

a different status.

They

are ghosts of dead humans who had

{

recently inhabited the earth.

They

are condemned to live

in

a kind

ofl

b

hell

or

may wander about on earth, haunting

the

places they formerly

f

lived in. Although in themselves not harmful to man, their appearance

C

and

attributes are disgusting.

They

are of gigantic size, they have dried

up

limbs, loose skin, enormous bellies. They continually wander about,

l

consumed with hunger and thirst, yet are never able to eat

or

drink

f

k

~ : .

Cosmology

because of their small mouths, constricted throats

and

the scorching,

boiling heat

that

emanates from thei r bodies.

Some writers have seen

in pretas the

inversion of the Buddhist 1nonk

(Yalman 1964).

It

is also apposite to point

out that the preta

condition

of perpetual hunge r

and thirst

may possibly signify

the

extreme punishmen t

for withholding food from monks

and

fot being stingy in merit-making.

Despite their. sinful condition,

it

is felt

that

relatives can

and

should

transfer to the

pretas

some

of the

merit accrl,ling from their merit-making

acts (such as donating gifts of food

and

other items to the monks).

Finally,

the

eight major hells of the fifth world are fiery places of

intense misery

and

pain. One has only to see the murals

on the

walls of

Buddhist temples in Thailand and Ceylon to understand that hell is no

mere abstract concept hut is imagined

in

all its hon-or

and

sadism.

n

heaven handsome

men and

women embrace and walk around in a garden

of wishing trees

kal,pavriksha)studded

with diamonds and other gems;

in

hell one

burns

in raging fire

and

one s sides are pie rced wi th ·weapons

by

demons. A Siamese law book

Book of Indra)

gives the following

description

of

heaven (Alabaster 1871, p. 294):

There is a celestial abode in the Dewa heavens, an aerial dwelling covered with

gold and gems with roofs shining with gold and jewels, and roof points of

crystal and pearl; and the whole gleams with wrought and unwrought gold

more brilliant than all the gems. Around its eaves plays the soft sound of

tinkling

golden bells. There dwell a thousand lovely houris, virgins in gorgeous

attire

decked with the richest ornaments, singing sweet songs in concert, with

a melody whose resounding strains are never still. This celestial abode is

adorned with lotus lakes, and meandering rivers full of the

five

kinds of lotus,

whose

golden petals,

as

they

fade fill

all the air with sweet odours. And round

the lakes are splendid lofty trees growing in regular order, their leaves, their

boughs

their branches, covered with sweet-scented blossoms, whose balmy

odours fill

the surrounding air with heart-delighting fragrance.

THE RUPA LO.,KA

1

AND ARUPA LOKA

1

( BRAHMA LOK.A )

Whereas the six lower

deva

heavens belong to the domain of form

and

sensation

kama loka),

there are twen ty other, high er heavens.

The

next level upwards is

that

of

the

rupa loka, consisting of sixteen

heavens where there is form but no sensual enjoyment. Beyond them

are the four

arupa

heavens with no form

at

all. These last are

of

minimal

significance

in

village

myth and

ritual.

This brief outline

of

classical Buddhist mythology contains a

number

of significant ideas

that

are essential to

the

understanding of Buddhism

'. O


5/11


Cosmology

,as a religion that is not only thought but also lived. One vital conception':'

;fayman

(i.e., one who is not a monk) reaching

nirvana.

While normally

it

is that all the orders of being described are fundamentally homogeneous;

f s·

a monk alone who may reach the final state, should a layman be on the

or of one ·kind. There are six forms of existence-god, demon, p i a p . ~

2

· threshold of nirvana he should either become a monk or immediately

animal, ghost, soul in hell-whose distinctions are only of temporary· .. pass into

the

state

of

death pannibbana).

Thus

the whole cosmological

duration and through which all human beings (except those who

have• .•

.· system focuses on man as

the

moral agent, and

it

holds

the

possibility

entered the path leading to salvation) may at one time or other pass. The·. : r.>f a complementary relation between man and god on the one side, and

god may be reborn as demon and an animal as man, etc.; a change

of

• between

man

and

the

dark agents

on

the other.

Man

can transfer

the

condition is a realistic possibility depending on one's karma and ethical.> fruits of his merit to them; in turn,

he

can be affected for good or evil

status. At any one point of time, the stratification is a statement of

a. i

by them.

The

way is thus open

in

ritual action for manipulating

the

gradient of pur e bliss and tranquillity enjoyed by the gods to black torment· · .categories and achieving a change of moral state.

suffered by those

in

hell. The gods, especially those

in

the six lower heavens;·: < While the total cosmological scheme is integrated

in

this manner, the

exist in subtle corporeal forms. Although they are not omnipotent, they :(scheme also contains a tension or inconsistency or opposition of ideas.

are capable of beneficial acts towards human beings. They, too,

are

{This tension derives basically from

the

philosophical and doctrinal fo rmu

subject to the universal law of dissolution and rebirth. They appear ill. .: lations and can be simply put thus: if the doctrine of

karma

gives an

the cosmology mainly as protectors of the faith, ready to help believers or, . explanation of present suffering and squarely puts the burden of release

to testify to the true doctrine.

In

turn, the other orders

of

existence can on individual effort, then the doctrine that supernatural agents can cause

descend

or

go upwards. The ghosts and demons are not perpetually . or relieve suffering and that relief can come through propitiating them

condemned; they may

harm

men

but

they are also subject to

the

law

of·.

contradicts

the

karma

postulate. Some writers,(e.g. Spiro 1967 concerning

rebirth and can change their status for the better. .. : Burma) see this tension as a basic inconsistency between Buddhism and

This is essential for grasping the Buddhist notions of 'this world'

a n d ~ .

supernaturalism (or animism). While I recognize that this categorical

the 'other world',

laukika

and

lokottara.

All the levels and forms oU opposition is present n Thailand, I see it as one which operates within

existence so far described belong to 'this world': the heavens, the earth; '\_iqotal field- that e x p r e s s e ~ other relations as well of complementarity and

and the hells; gods, men, beasts, and demons. Canonical Buddhism's' ' hierarchical ordering bet\yeen Buddhism and the spirit cults. To emphasize

conception of 'otherworldliness' is

nirvana,

the salvation of extinction one aspect at the cost of others seems to me to be a partial analysis; to

from rebirth and existence. Otherworldliness does not simply mean· go further and assert that there are,

in

fact, two contradictory religions

concerns which transcend the present existence, or rebirth, or existenee, in uneasy co-existence appears to me to be a misunderstanding.

in

the heavens of

devas,

but a liberation from sentient existence.

Lokottara

While we must await

the

presentation of the Thai data in later chapters

means 'hypercosmical . I emphasize the point

b ~ c u s e

some anthropolo-· to see that another way of looking at the religious system is possible,

gists have mistakenly assimilated 'rebirth' and the 'next' life to

the

I should like to make a point regarding analytical orientation which

notion of 'otherworldliness'. ·

/:; may

have a bearing on the question.

A second fundamental idea embodied in this cosmological scheme

s

Some analysts may take as their point of reference the postulates of

that

n

the dynamic hierarchy o sentient existence it is man

in

h i ~ · ·

~ · . doctrin l

Buddhism s the essence and re lity o Buddhism and tl1erefore

human condition living on this earth who is the fundamental acting ',; also the base line for studying popular Buddhism. This orientation dictates

agent. It is said that in order

to

attain nirvana any order

of

being, even: · itsmethodology and shapes the final conclusions, for the analyst accordingly

a god, must be born of a woman in a human s tatus in his last life. Central, .. eeks to see how' non-doc trinal' facts are adapted, modified and rationalized

to

the

Buddhist doctrine is that to be born as a human being is a privilege:

;; in

relation to

the

'doctrinal' ideas. The question is thus prejudged.

because it offers the only opportunit y for betterment and final liberation ' _Another method is possible and

it

is more open. While being mindful

through one's decisive effort.

It

is

in

a human status that new

karma and

. ; Qf the doctrinal and mythological heritage, we can pay attention to the

increment to it can be made. A god can merely enjoy the fruits of previous total ar.ray of religious ideas and rituals as they present themselves and

karma

and must be born a human to ascend higher.

;J see

the internal relations and distinctions i n thi s total field.

The

doctrinal

A

~ r a n s f m m a t i o n

of his relatio:

0

is

expr d

again

in

respect

of

• .j

.•pproach is especially

m i s c h i e v o u s

as in

Spiro's study of Burmese


6/11

- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- ; ; ; ;; ;: :: :: ; : := -

........

Buddhism and the spirit cults

n

North-east Thailand

i.

Cosmology

supernaturalism,

the

Buddhism contrasted

with the n t

cults

and

exorcism) particular interest because they are reflected

in

one way or another

in

rituals (which are analysed in detail) is not that of the ideas and

activities :;

the religious life of Thai villagers:

of the

village Buddhist temple

and

its monks

or

the rituals performed by

; .

the Buddha manifests

the

remarkable faculty of remembering past

monks (which are conspicuous b " their virtual ~ b s e n c e his book), ?ut births, which is at? ibuted

to h i ~

clear discernment of

truth

through

a

set

of tenet s drawn almost exclusively from doct rme stated m

the

Canorucal ;' personal effort

and

is also a revelation from the gods;

texts. Furthermore, it is not

at

all clear whether the alleged inconsistencyl · a Buddha, before

he

makes his appearance in human form, exists as

of

the

two religions is a product

of the

ai:throp?logist's

w n . u n d e r s t a ? ~ g J

a.bodhisatvain

the

h e ~ v e n

of delight and

at the

proper

time

descends into

of

what

true

Buddhism really is, or is

an

irresolvable mcompatibih ty[ his mother's womb mmdful

and

self-possessed;

reflected in the ideas

and

actions of the actors themselves. The Burmeset

in

the biography of Vipassi-which was later transferred to the Buddha

evidence is unclear;

at

best it would appear

that

sophisticated Burmeser

himself-it

is stated

thathe

was

born

of royal status, endowed with

the

thirty

are at one level aware of a con.tradiction, but

it

is startling to read t h ~ t · ; · ····two marks of the Great Man, and that there were two careers open to him:

None of the villagers, however, showed any awareness of the basic ' f he live the life of the House, he becomes Lord of the Wheel, a righteous

inconsistency (Spiro 1967, p. 46); However, one should not throw ,

Lord

of the Right, a ruler of the four quarters, conqueror, guardian of the

out the

baby with

the

bath water. Distinctions, oppositions, c.ompie:r:ien'.i

people's good,

owner of the Seven Treasures But if such a boy go forth

tarities, linkages and hierarchy do exist in

the

arrangement of

d e a ~ ,

r1tuall from the Life of the

H ~ u s e

into the 1:omeless state, he

?e.comes

an Arahant,

idiom, techniques and roles of

the

practitioners,

and

the behaviour o f ~ ~ a Buddha Supreme, rolling

back

the veil from the world

tbzd.

p

13).

villagers according to context

and

situation'.

an

exploration

of

these isf Thus

it

is stated

that

a world conqueror

and

a world renouncer are two

a

m ~ j o r

task of this book.

The

a n t ~ r o p o l o g i s t must

find .a new way ofl] sides of

the

same coin;

relatmg

the past to the present, classical dogma to present ideas. the biographies also state, in terms of a time scale, the progressive

f

shortening of human life

and by

implication also its degradation. Thus

THE BUDDHA

BODHISATVA AND ARAHAT i; while the length of life at

the

epoch in which Vipassi was born was

' . . . t 8,ooo years, in this aeon

the

length of life diminishes successively from

Those who have broken through

the

v a n o u ~ orders of sentient ex1Stencef 4,000 years at the time of Kakusandha to 100 at the time of Gotama.

and have reached (or are about to reach) the liberated state are the u d d h a . n ~ This fateful decline, however, is counteracted

by

the idea

that

a Buddha

and

certain lesser others who have entered

the path

to

nirvana. I

appears from aeon

to

aeon under similar circumstances to preach a similar

Three

kinds of persons who have attained a supreme religious statel; faith, which hopeful message is represented most importantly for con

appear significantly

in

ritual

and

worship. They are

the

Buddha, who hast: temporary villagers

in the

beliefs centring around l\/Iaitreya,

the

next

reached nirvana, the bodhi satva who is an embryo Buddha or a B u d d h a - t o · f ~ Buddha to come.

be, and the arahat,

.

an ascetic who has entered the path and is credited f The most important Buddha is, of course, the historical Gotama who

with miraculous powers.

l

m b o d i e s the i d e ~

of all Buddhas. And

the o ~ i e n t a t i o n s

to this Buddha

if .m

popular Buddhism are complex

and

paradoxical.

The Buddha

r One puzzle is

the

relation between

the

Buddha

and

the gods

in the

The a c h i e v e m e ~ t of B u d d ~ a - h o o ~ .was not unique

to

the

historicalf Buddhist pantheon. The

Pitaka

(Pali Canon) characterize the Buddha

~ o t a m a . Accordmg to Buddhist tradition there a v ~ been severa:

B u d d h a s £ ~

as omniscient

and pure

but do

not

suggest

that

he is a god; however, they

m t ~ e past,

and

some twenty-four have appeared m

the

precedmg

cycles· '.

d o represent

him

as instructing the devas

and

receiving their homage.

of time.

In the

present aeon or

kala,

Gotama was

the

fourth

to a p p e a r , } ~ .

Two transformations took place

in

institutionalized Buddhism which

He was preceded

by

Kakusandha, Konagamana and Kassapa. t can be expressed in terms of

the

pantheon.

In the

Mahapadana Suttanta (Rhys Davids, Vol.

m, Part II, 1 9 1 0 , ~

. . . . f h

t

H a Buddha cannot be called a Deva rather than a man, it is onlv because

Ch.

14) Gotama Buddha is said to have related the histories o t e asti·:.·.h . h' h th b th

It

· thi tr

·

f th ht

tl

t

l

d

[

· ] 1 t B d II· t

. . . . . . s

f

e

s

ig. er an .o . is s

ain

o

o.ug la ea

sic

a

er u (

ii:i

s

seven Buddhas, startmg with Vipassi

and

takmg m the four Buddha

0

to call hlil Devatideva, or the Deva who is above all other Devas

(Ehot

this aeon including himself.

In

this account

the

following features are

ol:

1954

,

p.

J4.0).


7/11


Cosmology

A parallel change took place in respect to

the

gods. The Canonical . The problem of

the

inconsistency of worshipping an extinct being

and

doctrine

of the Dhamma had

very little to

do with the devas in the

sense • of soliciting

the

aid of

an

external agent

in

a religion which doctrinally

that the truths

of religion

did not

depend

on

them although

their

existence :main tains

that

salvation is the

product of

a personal quest

and

striving

was granted; for example,

when the

Buddha preached

in

Magadha

the

•

is

a classical one. It was one

of the

dilemmas dealt with

in The Questions

local deities were

not

considered

the

personifications of cosmic forces

of Ki ng

Milinda written

at the

beginning

of the

Christian era.

or the

revealers of truth.

(In the

Kevaddha Sutta, for instance,

the

Buddha The quest ion posed

by

King Milinda to Nagasena was

that if

the

belittles Brahma

and the

gods as being ignorant of the answers to certain Buddha accepts gifts he cannot have pas.sed entirely away, he

must

be

basic metaphysical probl ems; the Digha Nikaya also contains

the

ironical>

still

in union with

the >:Vorld. On

the other hand,

if

he has escaped from

account of the origin o f gods as being a progressive descent from superior

.. all

existence

and

is unattached to the world, then honours. could not be

worlds, while

the

gods (especially Brahma) have illusions of being

the

ioffered to him.

creators.) The critical change incorporated in the cosmological scheme is: Nagasena s answer, if.sophist ic, i s yet fascinating, for it invokes some

the

conversion of deities into protectors of

the

faith, who take their:·

incisive

analogues.

The

Blessed

One

is set entirely free and therefore

place in the karmic scheme. In the Jatakas for instance, Indra (who, in accepts no gift. Nevertheless, acts done to him, notwithstanding his having

the Hindu

Vedas, is a demon slayer) is depicted as

the

heavenly counterpart/ passed away

and

not accepting them, are of value and bear fruit.

f

gods

of a pious :Quddhist king, protector of

the

religion whose throne grows, or men put

up

a building to contain the jewel treasure of

the Buddha s

hot when a good man is in trouble. From being autonomous powers . relics, the devotee attains to one or another of the three glorious states

by

gods had now become mediators. · i virtue of the supreme good which resides in the jewel treasure of the

Another

puzzle-which

is probably of more direct concern to us-is - Buddha s wisdom.

the

dual orientation to

the

Buddha.

On the

one hand,

the

Buddha, A great and glorious fire

that

has died

out

would

not

accept any supply

human

being, is dead and has reached mrvana. This being so he cannot

of

dried grass or sticks; but men

by

their own effort can produce fire.

directly affect human beings or influence their future status,

becausel,.-.•

Agreat and mighty wind, were it to die away, cannot be p roduced again;

salvation is a personal quest.

On

the other hand, the Buddha has been but men, oppressed

by

heat or

tormented

by fever, can produce wind

credited with supernatural

powers-when

alive

he had

extraordinary( by means

of

fans

and

punkahs.

The

broad earth does not acquiesce in all

markings and qualities,

and

after his death his relics,

mahadhatu

(whichf

kinds

of seeds being planted all over it; yet

t

acts as a site for these seeds

significantly include jewels, ornaments and

the

holy texts) have spiritualn and as a means

of

their development.

power; so do consecrated images. Thus these o_bjects a_re

c o ~ c e i v e d . .

The

e ~ s a g e

conveyed .by this argum ent is

that

the Buddha s

t t ~ i n n ~ n t

magical power stations

and

have been associated with r a m m a k m g ~ i S symbolized

by

the relics,

that

when

men

pay homage

and

give gtfts

ceremonies

in

Ceylon (Geiger 1960) and Thai land (Wales r93r).

· to

the Buddha, goodness is caused to arise within them, that

in

fact

the

The following facts drawn from the literature on Buddhist traditionsf s ~ b o l s of the Buddha act as a field of merit and men by their own

might help

in the

solution of this problem. A passage written

by Hardy1··

• ethical efforts can plough,

plant and

produce fruits

in

it.

(1860) vividly describes the worshipper s relation to the Buddha; t h e ~ : What is lacking in Nagasena s argument is any statement of

the

spiritual

description is as valid today as it was for

the

last century; it could apply {Power emanating per se from the sacred objects which commemorate the

equally well to Ceylon, Burma,

or

Thailand.

·

;, Buddha. According to popular tradition,

the

Buddha told his disciple

. . .

Ananda

that the objects that may be properly worshipped are relics of

The people, on entering the wihara, prostrate themselves before the una · hi b d hin d . . . .

of the Buddha, or bend the body, with the palms of the hands touching each s.

0

y,

gs erecte m commemo ration of.

him

(e.g

.

mages),

and

other and the thumbs touching the forehead. They then repeat the

threefold articles

he possessed,

such

as

the

alms bowl, girdle, bathmg robe, etc.

formulary of protection, called

tun-sarana

stating that they take refuge

n

.·The sacred ho tree

under

which

he

attained understanding has come to

Buddha, in the Dharma, and

in

the Sangha, or they take upon themse be an object of reverence. So have

the

sacred books which contain

the

a certain number of the ten obligations, the words being first chanted in doctrines that the Buddha taught .

by

a priest, or in his absence by a novice. Some flowers and a little rice are . All these objects are called

cetiya

on account of

the

satisfaction they

placed upon the altar, and a

few

coppers are thrown into a large vessel placed produce

in

the mind.

to receive them (p.

209).

45


8/11

t


l

Cosmology

The

religious monument that has attracted special comment by writers f arrive to bring salvation to the world. Maitreya is revered by all Buddhist

(e.g. Leach 1958, 1962; Yalman 1964) is the

dagoba (dhatu garba =

relicl sects as the coming saviour, and his name signifies one who is full of love

womb), which brings together and transcends the polarities of death and ( toward all beings,

life, impurity and purity, dissolution and fertile creation. . · It is believed

that the

Buddha himself elected Maitreya as his successor

Similarly, it could be argued that certain religious objects and persons . and that Maitreya now resides in the Tusita Heaven (Dusit in Thai), the

bring together and synthesize the notitms of spiri tual and political heaven

of

contented beings, from where he watches over and promotes

sovereignty. These notions are eminently symbolized in the person of

..

the interests of Buddhism.

He

awaits the time when he will appear on

the

king as chakravartin (universal ruler) and as bodhisatva (Buddha-to-be). earth as Maitreya Buddha.

1

Tradition has it

that

the Buddha predicted

The relation of the sacred tooth relic in Ceylon and the Emerald Buddha that his teachings will last for

5 000

years, at the end of which they will

image in Thailand to the institution of kingship (and statehood) under .. no more be respected or even remembered because of the world s cor

the umbrella of Buddhism is well known. Perhaps less well understood · ruption and degeneracy.

is the symbolism of Buddha s footprint on the top of the mountain e.g. According to the

Vinaya,

the Buddha

had

fixed

a

time limit of

500

years

Adam s Peak in Ceylon, Phrabat in Thailand, and

Mt

Popa in Burma), starting from his death during which the Law would last. The same period

Just as the cult of the spirit of the mounta in was traditionally associatedf:

is

confirmed by Nagasena in his dialogues with King Milinda.

t

appears

with political unification and centralization under a king, so does thef that Buddhagosa in the fifth century A.D. extended the duration

of

the

footprint on the mountain top declare that the people and the territory[ message in this world to 5 000 years. He foresaw five successive steps of

in question are the inheritance of the Buddha. These associations lead 1i retrogression, at intervals of one thousand years: first, the disappearance

us back to the sacred mountain of Meru at the centre of the universe, I of the acquisition of the degrees of sanctity, then of the observance of the

often artificially reproduced in

the

centre

of the

royal cities of South-east;( precepts,

of the

knowledge of the Scriptures,

of the

exterior signs of

Asian kingdoms. . . . . . J religion, and lastly of the corporeal relics of the Master which would be

So we return tQ the puzzle: What 1s

the

ordmary Buddhist s orientation[ gathered together and cremated at Bodhgaya (Coedes 1964). Apparently

to the Buddha and his material embodiments and symbols? It is uncon-f

this

prophecy motivated,

at

various critical dates in the reigns of famous

vincing to say that what has been described are aspects

of

m a g i c a l ~ kings, the holding

of

convocations, writing of Scriptures

and

revival of

Buddhism which are meaning-rais ing devices (Ames 1964). This inter-f religious enthusiasm. The most recent manifestation in our time was the

pretation is that of a theologian and not of an anthropologist. More f;

2,5ooth

year (Buddha Jayanthi). The Siamese cosmological treatise, the

convincing are interpretations which see the resolution of the polarities r

Traibhumikatha,

was produced long ago under similar inspiration.

of pure-impure, death-fertility in the relics of the Buddha. This is for l To this pessimistic prophecy, however, Buddhist tradition has joined

me a start ing point for unravelling the problem of conversion and transfer. · an optimistic messianic one. Maitreya, the next Buddha, will descend at

f by one criterion the pure entities are remote and inaccessible, and i

y

[

the

end of this decline. Religion will wax again, arahats will arise, men

another, relics

and

texts (and jewels and gold) ar e invested with power,

i t t

will

be freed from toil and care, hunger, old age, and sickness.

vVe

shall

is the final bringing together of power plus purity, the inaccessible n d ~ see later that Buddhist ritual

in

the village dramatizes with great expecta

the accessible, as constituting a primary problem in religious technologyJ:

tions

the coming of the next saviour.

It

is therefore relevant to compare

that has to be explained. f; Maitreya with the Buddha. The Buddha belongs to the past; his teachings

• exist but he is extinct; it is possible that he is not in direct contact with

The bodhisatva

f this world. Maitreya lives in heaven, is interested in the present order

The traditions relating to

bodhisatva,

those who are on the threshold ofl of things

as

well as in the future, and his descent into the world from

becoming Buddhas, are manifold. One destined to be a Buddha m u s t ~ heaven is imagined to bring collective salvation and benefits to those

finally be born as a man, so the bodhisatva does not tarry for long in the I

1

The Tusita

is the fourth heaven

in

the

sensual deva lolw.

Alabaster (1871) makes

heavens o f delight. the interesting statement

that

when he asked the Siamese why the embryo Buddha

Th b h · t h · h · · · d h Id h t t · occupies a low sensual heaven instead

of

the highest heaven of the

brahmas, he

was told

e o isa v W

0

stirs t e imagmatton an ° s t e greates f that s i n ~ e

the

term of life allotted to one in

the

brnhma loka is vast beyond imagination,

promises for the

Thai

villagers is

:aitreya,

the next Buddha who

willf;

the commg

of the

next Buddha would be

delayed

if

he were

to live there (p.

177

).

47


9/11


Cosmology

who will be fortunate enough to see him at that time in the status

of

: Ariyan path and has reached its end, and consequently possesses the

human being. knowledge of emancipation. By the exercise of meditation (dhyana), the

However, it is not in the countries of Theravada Buddhism

but in h o s ~

~ p e r f o r m a n c e of certain ceremonies, and

the

observance of the prescribed

in which the Mahayana form prevails

that

the concept

and

cult of

the

~ . c o u r s e of moral action, the arahat has entered the path of salvation and

bodhisatva

has been greatly elaborated. There

bodhisatvas

abound-the ,

his

niind is therefore free of desire for, and cleaving to, sensuous objects,

most glorious of whom are Manjusri, Avalokitesvara and Vajra-pani. ·and free of the accompaniments of sorrow and pain.

At

his death he

They

are imagined

to

be permanently

in the

celestial worlds

in

benevolent

«

reaches

the

state

of

nirvana.

relationship with humanity. Mahayana Buddhism, it would seem,

has

Now the notion of iddhi (or siddhi) is ancient in India, and Buddhism

systematically incorporated the existing gods into its pantheon and trans- ,accepted and confirmed its existence and reality.

The

mystic powers of

formed them into benevolent mediators and future Buddhas who

will not ~ i d d h i

are not miraculous

in

the Wes tern sense of interference by m outside

necessarily descend to earth as human Buddhas. , :,power to contravene known laws of nature,

but

are special powers in

These Mahayanist developments are echoed in the so-called Hinayana , conformity with nature possessed by certain people who are able to

countries, which have at various times been fertilized by Mahayana ·accomplish acts beyond the powers of ordinary men. Typically they are

influences. We have already noted

that

Sinhalese, Burmese and

Thai

; gained by ascetics. .

kings were· elevated to the status of bodhisatva.

In

certain situations,· The Buddhist suttas enumerate the iddhi powers in several places. For

messianic Maitreya status may be claimed by charismatic leaders .

f

··instance in the Samanna-Phala Sutta the Buddha enumerates the five

popular rebellions against established kingship (Mendelson 1963). In , .modes of mystical insight that an

arahat

possesses:

Ceylon the protective guardian god Natha has been identified . withl the practice of

iddhi- beiri.g

one he becomes many, or having become

Maitreya, and others like Saman and Skanda are regarded as

bodhzsatvatmanybecomes

one

~ g a i n

he becomes visible or invisible; he goes, feeling

whose r o ~ e is to guard and protect both ~ h e B u d d h i s ~ r.eligion a:id t h e ~ n? obstruction, to

the

u ~ e r side of a 7 all

or

rampart hill,

as.

if through

secular kingdom. P a r ~ l l e l s C:a :1 found m

o ~ h e r

societies;

but

m s ? f ~ 1 . a 1 r . . .he walks on water :v1thout breaking through, as if on sohd ground;

as

we.

are concerned with

rel:g1.on

m .the

Thai

village

of h r a a n

Muan

isi

he travels cross-legged

m.

the

.sky . . .

even

the

moon. and the sun, so

sufficient to remember that it 1s Maitreya alone who enjoys the adulat1onf.potent . . . does he touch with his hand . . . (Rhys Davids, Vol. n, 1899,

and the anticipations

of

a bodhisatva. f, .pp. 88-9);

f the heavenly ear-the ability to hear sounds, both human and

cele:.:;tial,

The arahat and his

mi raculous

powers lwhether far or near·

, r

While the Buddha is a personage

of

the past who has reached nirvana,

f

knowledge of others thought s;

and

Maitreya is the coming Buddha, the arahat is a lesser personage

off

memory of his own previous bir ths;

both

the past and the present,1 who is inferior to the other two

but

ist

the heavenly

eye-the

knowledge

of

other people s previous births.

nevertheless on the

path

to salvation. The attributes of an

arahat

are ofr What is of special interest in respect of the concerns of this book is

interest to us because they have relevance for understanding certainlthe relation between

the

achievement

of

arahatship and the possession

village rituals, especially those connected with

h e a ~ n g

and exorcism.,;and employment of these mystic powers.

In

the Samanna-Phala Sutta

Their

bearing on these rituals nevertheless is not readily apparent. · ·:the Buddha has listed The Fruits of the Life of a Recluse and in this

Buddhism poured new content into an old word.

The

term

arahat

:list the mystic powers of iddhi rank high, superseded only by the higher

was previously applied to persons with honorary titles and of worldly ~ a c h i e v e m e n t of the destructionof ignorance, rebir th and the sure knowledge

position who were entitled to receive gifts, and also to ascetics whofii.;..pf emancipation.

subjected themselves to self-mortification (tapas).

The

Buddhist

o n c e p t i o n , ~ · ,

Thus a remarkable feature

of

the arahat is that in the course of his

applied more narrowly to the ascetic man of religion who has entered the.

~ i n e n : a t

and spiritual progress he naturally_ attains extraor.dinary povYers.

1

According to the post-Canonical Buddhist writers,

arahats

belonged to the past and ~ B u t m the Kevaddha Suttanta (Rhys Davids, Vol. II, 1899, Ch. I I) the

the world has been bereft

of

them for over 2 0 0 0 years. But with the corning

of thet::Buddha

is said to have taken a definite stand regarding their exercise.

Messiah Maitreya there will

be arahats

again. ·

i:On

being urged by Kevaddha, a young householder, to perform mystic

48 JC

4

J.Q

· •·n,


10/11

Buddhism and the spz'rit cults in North-east Thailand

Cosmology

wonders so as to make the people of Nalanda more devoted to the Exalt : way is therefore open for someone to take to the ascetic and meditative

One, the Buddha, while conceding that he has himself realized the powe · discipline in order to acquire them. An example that springs to mind is

of

iddhi

(the 'mystic wonder' and the wonder of manifes tation') assert the Burmese

weikza,

who is regarded as possessed of supernatural powers,

strongly that he loathed their practice, and that a greater and bett long-lived and on the path to nirvana (Mendelson 1963).

The

possibility

wonder, which he had realized and recommended, was the wonder o

s

also there for someone to use the vehicles of inner

transformation

education, that is, the system of self-training which culminated in

arahatshi

chants and

spells-

without actually undergoing the mental transformation

The

doctrinal position

thus

is that while

it

is

inevitable that,

at

n

in

the Buddhist meditative sense.

Thus

come about hierarchical distinctions

advanced stage in his progress, the searcher attains mystic powe between ritual specialists and practitioners in respect of their ethical

which are in fact a mark of his progress-the exercise of these powe ;. status and endowment with spiritual power

rit

in Siamese). The actual

is dangerous both for the monk, who may

be

seduced into a vain magi i results of these possible developments we shall see later in Chapter 18,

mastery

of

the world, and for the laymen, because

it

may cause confusion which deals wi th exorcism.

in their minds and give opportunity for unbelievers

to

degrade the mystic{.. .

powers of the recluse and equate them with the efficacy of base charms.f; .

• • •

THE

BUDDHA AND MARA

The Buddha therefore forbade the monk to exhibit his powers

befor

non-initiates,

.111d

the following

s t r i c t u r ~

is e m e d ~ e d in the Canon.i. - T ~ e

p a r a d ~

we have so far w i t : 1 1 e s ~ e d of the grand

B ~ d d h i s t

prot.agonists

Law of the Vinaya:

You

are not, 0 Bhikkus, to display before the l a i t y ~ ·

will

be senously unrepresentative

if

we

do

not also give a place, if not of

the

wonders of

iddhi,

surpassing

the

power

of

ordinary men.

W h o s o e v e r ~ .

honour then of a conspicuous nature, to Buddha's great antagonist,

does so shall be guilty

of

a wrong

act

dukkata).

l

Mara.

This

demon antagonist appears in village myth and ritual frequently,

While Buddhist commentators and expositors state the above

as

t ~ j

for

he

is to the Buddha as

baab

(demerit) is to

bun

(merit).

Buddha's position on this issue, a measure of ambiguity and contradic ti]'. Mara is generally regarded as the personification of death; he is

the

is introduced in the Patika Suttanta (Rhys Davids, Vol.

IV,

Part

III, I957ili:

Buddhist counterpart

of the

principle of destruction.

In

1nore philosophical

~ h .

24), w ~ c h

~ e l o n g s

to the same

h i ~ t o r i c a l

period as the suttas

alreadyf

terms he can equated with the ;hole .world of .sensuou.s existence and

cited. In this dialogue the Buddha claimed to have worked wonders of ant

•

the realm of rebirth, as opposed to hberatrnn and

nirvana:

for such a world

amusing and magical nature to vindicate his superiority over othe r s c e t i c s J ~ is under the sway of desire and death. And in the thought of the

Pitakas

I am not concerned here with sifting out. the true doctrine

but

tt there is a clear connection between desire and death.

For

the world built

pinpoint a phenomenon dealt with in classical Buddhist doctrine ant, on desire waxes and wanes, flourishes and decays; hence the ruler of

which serves as a point

of

reference for certain kinds

of

cults and practif

worldly

desire is also god of death. But Mara is not the ruler over hell.

tioners one meets

in

the field today. The function of judgment and punishment is assigned in the Buddhist

The

powers of iddhi itthibat

in

Siamese) as set

out

above are

notf

pantheon

to

Yama,

the

god

of

the dead.

peculiar to Buddhism alone; they are for the most part stereotyped

a n ~

The Buddhist texts refer extensively to the various encounters between

occur in all the ascetic and mystical literatures of Indi a (Eliade 1958). [ the Buddha and Mara the tempter; Mara's temptations also extended to

The supra-normal powers of the

arahat

thus have an indirect b e a r i n ~ monks, nuns and laymen in order to lure them from the path. n the

on contemporary religion

in

so-called Buddhist countries. Strictly p e a k i n ~ [ Padhana Sutta Mara is represented as visiting Gotama on the banks of

i1:

t ~ e . Buddhist discussion. of the. problem, it is b virtue of mentall; the Neraiijara, where he was practising austerities, and tempting him to

disc1plme

and

by undergomg an

mner

transformation

that the ~

abandon his endeavour.

But the

most important encounter-greatly

gains the mystic powers, and it is because their indulgence and exercisef: elaborated in later books and chronicles, and constituting today a lively

would stall his progress to the final goal

that

Buddha forbade their

displaJt: part

of village

lore-is

the attack on

and

temptation

of the

Buddha by

as dukkata

(evil deed). To make false profession of the attainment Mara, as the Buddha sat

under

the ho tree immediately before his enlighten

arahatship

one of the four crimes that result in permanent exclusio1.

Ii···

ment. This encounter not only is recalled in some village rituals but also

from the pnesthood. gives mythological legitimacy to a ritual act performed widely

and

But

the

possibility

of

acquiring

: :s tic

powers is not denied. And ,

habitually-yaadnam, the

pouring

of a t e r

on the ground when transferring


11/11


merit. I shall relate the bare details

of

this great encounter between

good

and evil

in

Buddhist folklore:

PRIM RY

VILLAGE CONCEPTS

The previous section on cosmology and Buddhist traditions was designed

to

serve a dialectical function

in

relation to the ethnographic data. The

classical ideas will sometimes guide the ordering of the ethnography, just

as

much as the categories and relations that emerge from the ethnography

will sometimes serve to clarify the classical formulations.

n this chapter I deal with primary concepts that emerge from

the

observation of thought and deed

in

the village.

When Gotama sat under the bo tree engaged in his final effort to attain 5

Buddhahood, Mara, whose nature is sinful, determined that he must at ;

once destroy the man who was about to pass beyond his power. He

first ·•

sent

his

three

daughters Raka (raga

=love),

Aradi (arati discontent),[:

and Tanha

(trichna

=

desire); beautifully

e d e c k ~ d ,

t?

ter:ipt. him. Gotama.f:

drove away these women who wanted to cham hrm m the fetters off

concupiscence.

Then

King Mara, in fury, assembled his generals and his.

fearsome army and decided

to

make war on the bodhisatva so that he

might flee in terror. At Mara's approach all

the deva

gods, the

Nagas ·,

and other spirits who had gathered round the bodhisatva to pay him homage [

and sing his praises, took unceremonious flight, except the earth goddess. ·

Mara employed all his miraculous powers to hurt the bodhisatva-from

the

brandishing of weapons by hideous forms, the causing of thunderstorms ;

and violent gales, to ·the final hurling of his powerful thunderbolt, whicht Bun and baah (ethical norms) and their implications or merit-making

however stood over the Buddha like a canopy of flowers. U n d a u n t ~ d t

Bun

(merit) and

baab

(demerit) are verbal categories frequently used by

Mara challenged the Buddha to prove that the seat, the throne on which {

the

villagers. These concepts-especially the

former-constitute

the major

the Buddha sat, was his by right. Mara proved his own claim to that

f

ethical notions by which villagers conceptualize, evaluate, and explain

throne by

calling on his generals to affirm his might. , \ behaviour. They derive, of course, from philosophical Buddhis1n, but

H ·

ere we

~ u s t

let Alabaster

(1871,

pp.

154-5)

present to

us

his t r n s ~ · ~ · , • . : : .

village

formulation deviates from the strict doctrinal one and must be

lat1on from Siamese sources: ·• , . understood in its own terms.

The Grand Being reflected. Truly here is no man to bear me witness; bur: The words

tham bun

(to make merit) and

aw bun

(to take

merit)-used

I will call on the earth itself' Strikin.g forth his

~ a n d

he thus in;oked the"f;.

as equivalents-refer to

the giving of gifts to

the

Buddhist monks

and the

earth: 'O holy earth I who have attamed the thirty powers of virtue, a n d ~ Buddhist wat.

The

second expression highlights the Buddhist attitude

performed the five great

alms,

each time that I have performed a great act ; that meri t is made not

by

giving per se but is acquired

by

the willingness

I have not failed to pour water upon thee. Now that I have

no

other witnes.s,

of

the monks to receive. (The sociologist may phrase the transaction

I call upon thee to give the testimony.

f this

throne was created by my merits, F thus: the gift-taker in this context is superior

and

is capable of transferring

let the earth quake and show it; and if not, let the earth be still ' ·

t

And the angel of the earth, unable to resist his invocation, sprang from thef some kind of spiritual grace to the giver.) The concepts make merit and

earth in the shape of a lovely woman with long flowing hair, and standing,f-. 'take merit express a double relationship in which the transaction is

before him, answered: f • given a particular ethical twist.

O

Being more excellent than angels or men it

is

true that when you

e r f o r m e d ~ ·

Performing acts of merit

and

avoiding acts of demerit are directed to

your great works you ever poured water on my hair.' And with these

w o r ~ the

achievement of certain results.

The

value of merit-making is discussed

she wrung her long hair, and a stream, a

flood

of waters gushed forth from it

It

by villagers under two aspects: first,

it

is said. that one's fund of merit

Onward against the host of Mara the mighty torrent rushed'. ..

a ).d

his{'

whole army

fled

in utter confusion, amid the roarings of a terrific earthquake, accumulated

in

this life will ensure a rebirth blessed with happiness,

and peals of thunder crashing through the skies.

i

prosperity and wealth.

(The

achievement of salvation

or

final extinction

The Thai villagers of today, whenever they have done an act of meritf nirvana) is not usually stated as a goal nor for that matter does

it

have

· any personal relevance for them.) While merit-making is thus given

which is rewarded

by

blessings chanted

by

monks, transfer some

of

thisX

t ideological· direction in terms of somehow immunizing the consequences

merit

to the dead, to

the

gods, to other humans,

by

pouring water upon i

.

of

death and ensuring a prosperous rebirth, villagers also say

that

it has

the

earth, thereby calling upon

the

goddess

of the

earth, Nang Thoranee,

t

certain consequences

in

this life:

the

giving

of

gifts to monks produces

to witness

the

act.

l

5z t 53

buddhism and spirit cults of north-east thailand chapter 3

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