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A Modern Trend of Study of Buddhism in Thailand: King Mongkut and Dhammayutikanikāya by Phra Dr. Anil Dhammasakiyo (Sakya) [email protected]

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Phra Dr. Anil Dhammasakiyo (Sakya)

1

A Modern Trend of Studyof Buddhism in Thailand:

King Mongkut andDhammayutikanik!ya

byPhra Dr. Anil Dhammasakiyo (Sakya)

[email protected]

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A Modern Trend of Study ofBuddhism in Thailand:

King Mongkut and Dhammayutikanik!ya1

AbstractThis paper will examine King Mongkut’s attempt to develop aninterpretation of Buddhism consistent with Western science andlearning. This attempt is marked by the beginning of a fundamentalepistemological shift in doctrinal Thai Buddhism. The theoreticalshift, which continues to have significant religious implicationstoday, involves the rejection of the layered or hierarchical notionof truth which underlay traditional Buddhist teachings and replacedit with the notion of a single, universal, and all encompassingtruth.

Although Theravada Buddhism has been the national religionof Thailand since the Sukhothai period in the thirteenth century,the popular understanding of traditional Theravada Buddhism wasoften clouded by a mythological and popular overlay mixed withmagical beliefs, superstition and a mixture of Brahmanistic rites.These aspects of Thai Buddhism became problematic for manyBuddhists when they were exposed to Western science, ideologyand authentic Buddhism. King Mongkut found that these practicesconjoined with delusion were far away from the true teachings of

1 This paper was presented at the international conference on Exploring

Theravada Studies: Intellectual Trends and the Future of a Field of Study, August12-14, 2004, organised by the Asia Research Institute at National University ofSingapore. I am grateful for valuable comments made by Louis Gabaude andPeter Skilling.

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Buddha. He referred to this kind of belief as ‘!ci""akappik#’ or‘!ci""akappikanik#ya’ meaning the type of Buddhismtraditionally inherited without openness, without light and withno further explanation given.

King Mongkut viewed authentic Buddhism as the uniqueprinciple of a single, universal and all encompassing truth.Rejecting the superstitious beliefs that had attached themselvesto Buddhism in the course of centuries, he preached Buddhism inits pure form based on the P!li Canon instead of the Commentaries.He showed that Buddhism, if properly understood, containsnothing that is contrary to common sense or in conflict withscience and that it is primarily a moral system thoroughly suitedto modern needs. Commenting on King Mongkut’s critique,American Presbyterian missionary Jasse Caswell observed thatKing Mongkut totally demythologized Buddhism such that itrejected ‘everything in religion which claims a supernaturalorigin2’. Reformation made by King Mongkut resulted in theimprovement of monastic discipline to bring it closer to the vinaya,and he also deconstructed and reinterpreted many traditional ThaiBuddhist teachings. This trend of practice formed the nucleus ofa new, stricter group of Thai Buddhism named Dhammayutika orDhammayutikanik!ya, meaning ‘those adhering to the accuratedoctrine.’

King Mongkut’s legacy continues to have significant religiousimplication to the present day. Following King Mongkut’semphasis on returning to the original teaching of the BuddhaPrince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarosa, his son and the founder ofthe Thai Buddhist education system repeatedly stated that he hopedothers would make further explorations in the direct study of theP!li Canon as a source for spiritual guidance, and that the

2Bradley 1966:39

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commentaries be accepted only when they are in line with theCanon. Referencing such implications today, many scholars writethat popularizing the notion of advancing knowledge in Buddhism,rather than simply elaborating on inherited tradition is thenecessary condition for the twentieth century scholarlycontributions of Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavororas, PhraBrahamagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto) and innovative doctrinalinterpretations of Phra Dhammakosacharya (BuddhadasaBhikkhu) (see Thanissaro 1997; Swearer 1999:202).

In addition, King Mongkut’s emphasis on meditation set upa strong tradition of deep meditation practice, this led to theestablishment of the Thai forest tradition, later led by renownedmeditation masters like Venerable Phra Ajarn Mun. This trendinitiated by King Mongkut of exploring Theravada Buddhism wasconsidered a daring innovation in Thailand. It led to the formationof a group of ‘progressive’ Buddhist monks who are alwaysseeking to learn and who dare to do new things to uphold thecorrectness and purity of Buddhism. This also led to themodernization of the Thai Buddhist education system includingthe establishment of the present Buddhist universities.

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Introduction :Thai Buddhism and King Mongkut3

Buddhism both Therav!da and Mah!y!na Buddhism enteredThailand from many directions and in many different periods.There were, however, Buddhism that Thai people havecontinuously adhered to from the Sukhothai period to the presentday is Therav!da Buddhism received both directly and indirectlyfrom Sri Lanka. Therefore, in this paper the term ‘Therav!daBuddhism’ means the Sri Lankan style of Therav!da Buddhismin general and the Therav!da Buddhism of the Ratanakosin period(1782—present) of Thailand in particular. The framework for thisstudy is the modernization of Therav!da Buddhism led by KingMongkut (1804-1868) and it’s implication to present ThaiBuddhism. King Mongkut authored over 100 articles, both inP!li and Thai. His P!li works alone numbered 35, the highestquantity of P!li literature ever written by any scholar in theRatanakosin period.

Buddhism in Thailand has influenced society and vice versa.During the period of King Rama III (1824-1851), there wereperiods of great change in studying Thai Buddhism in whichPrince-monk Mongkut (who later became King Mongkut from1851-1868) introduced the modern trend of study of Buddhism inThailand. Dissatisfied with the old practices of Buddhism, thePrince-monk launched a reform programme to make ThaiBuddhism as close as possible to the P!li tipi"aka of Therav!daBuddhism. This involved a reform of monastic discipline, changes

3 I am very grateful to Associate Professor Suchao Ploychum who tirelesslyprovided me with all original books, information and ideas.

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in details of rituals, and most importantly a redefinition of theP!li tipi"aka or P!li Canon.

In addition to the many and varied biographies of KingMongkut, there are many books and articles written about KingMongkut from a political perspective. King Mongkut’sreformation of Thai Buddhism with the establishment of a newgroup of monks under the label of Dhammayut became a juicydebate among scholars. Some hold the view that he introduced aschism into Thai Buddhism (see Tambiah 1976:256; 1988:159-60; Tiyavanich 1997:5). Some hold the view that his emphasis onmodern science and rationality diminishes the supramundane valueof Buddhism and make it more profane than sacred (see Visalo2003: chp. 1). Some even claim that his tenure of monkhood inthe monastery was in fact the time he was preparing his career forpolitical successor. These misrepresentations are too complex todiscuss in this paper. Hence, I have limited myself only to KingMongkut’s exploration of Therav!da studies. However, I believethis paper will also shed some light on those misrepresentations,directly or indirectly.

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Study of Buddhism in Thailand

An important aspect of Buddhism is education, therefore,Buddhism is sometimes known as the ‘religion of learning.’ Ifone converses with any monk in Thailand, he is likely to tell youthat in the past the wat played an important educational role. Withthe continuing impact of Western civilization, modernization andurbanization, the role of monks and novices on Thai educationand society has diminished. Some educated monks will say that itis time that the sangha recaptured it’s former role; but they willalso concede that the traditional monastic education is outmodedin many ways and needs to be restructured. Similarly, recentresearch on monastic education in Thailand indicates that theteaching of Buddhism at both the grassroot and higher levels isnot efficient. Research shows that it is not leading to theachievement of its goals because the objectives of monasticeducation are obscure, qualified teachers of Buddhism are fewand monastic education does not get continuous financial andadministrative support from the sangha and the government.Research also shows that the role of the wat on education andsociety is diminishing. The administration of wats is outmodedand cannot respond to the needs of modern society. This hasresulted in the inefficiency of the sangha to propagate Buddhism.The wat becomes a place for monks to live and perform religiousrituals or even worse it merely serves as a museum and touristdestination. Therefore, there is need for great change andimprovement in the monastic education in Thailand.4

4 College of Religious Studies, Mahidol University. Nam Thong Sikkh#lai. Asouvenir publication of the College of Religious Studies. 2004:37. This is the

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In the past, there were no centrally designed syllabi for allmonasteries to follow.5 The nature of traditional monasticeducation was clearly determined by perceived traditional needs.The subjects were not necessarily religious alone, but reflected‘instead whatever academic abilities the teacher had such asmathematics or poetry, for example.’6 There were no fixedcurriculum or textbooks for teachers to follow and plan theirteaching accordingly. We do not therefore know what texts haveactually been used to teach monks and novices in monasteries.

Ideally, monastic education in general is deeply rooted in thestudies of morality (silasikkh#), mind or meditation (cittasikkh#)and wisdom (paññ#sikkh#). In another word, these studies canbe summarized into a conventional tripartite division of Buddhisminto learning (pariyatti), practice (pa$ipatti) and realization(pa$ivedha). Each part is higher than the preceding but alsodepends upon them. Pariyatti means the preservation of thescriptures. Though this is a lowly thing, it is the basis for everythinghigher, and thus indispensable. Monks whose emphasizes is onscripture learning (ganthadhura) are the vehicle for pariyatti; theirfunction is to hand on the doctrines by teaching other monks andpreaching to the laity. That they are also supposed to practise whatthey preach (pa$ipatti) and strive towards Enlightenment(pa$ivedha) goes without saying.7

Thailand’s past monastic education can simply be dividedinto two: formal and non-formal education.

result of many research papers relevant to the monastic education in Thailandconducted by my students at Mahidol University in 2003.5 Keyes, Charles. Thailand: Buddhist Kingdom as Modern Nation-State, p.1846 Zack, Stephen. Buddhist Education Under Prince Wachirayan Warorot, p.447 R. Gombrich, Buddhist Precept and Practice. 1995. p. 316

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The Formal education is the education provided for monksand novices which is known as pariyatti-dhamma. Pariyatti-dhamma is a systematic institutionalized curriculum of teachingand examination. This type of education has been established fromthe Ayutthaya period (1350-1767), however the specific date ofthe establishment of Buddhism in Ayutthaya is unknown. Basedon the report of La Loubère, the French envoy to King Narai’s(1657-88) court, formal monastic education in Thailand probablyfirst began in the Ayutthaya period and continued until the earlyperiod of Ratanakosin. La Loubère attests to the fact that inAyutthayan times state-regulated ecclesiastical examinations wereperiodically held.8

This monastic education was limited only to monks andnovices because it was a study of scriptural text recorded in P!lilanguage. In Thailand, it is considered to be a main duty of allmonks and novices to learn P!li. Evidence shows that the holdingof religious examinations for monks ‘was an affair of state, beingincluded in the functions of a king as the upholder of the Faith.’9

In a similar way, the sangha too takes this task very seriously.Non-formal education is the Buddhist study undertaken by

lay people. Lay people study Buddhism in various ways, forexample, by listening to sermons delivered by monks on differentoccasions. Sabbath (wan phra) days particularly are consideredto be days of listening to the sermon. These days are known as‘dhammasavana day’ or ‘dhamma listening day’. These areorganized once a week in most Buddhist wats on the eight andfifteenth lunar day.

Besides listening to sermons lay people also learn Buddhismthrough discussion with monks or listening to dhamma-talks

8 Tambiah, 1976: 2039 Tambiah, 1976: 204

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delivered by monks or lay scholars on various occasions.Furthermore, one can learn Buddhism by reading books: whilethis is presently the easiest way to learn and study, it was difficultin ancient times as books were rare and hand-written.

It is important to notice that current Buddhist education inThailand, both formal and non-formal, does not use tipi"aka asthe first hand scriptures for the study. However, it appears thatthree parian degrees were granted in the late Ayutthayan period:the third grade for proficient translation of Suttanta Pitaka, thesecond grade similarly with respect to the Vinaya Pitaka, and thefirst grade with respect to the Abhidhamma Pitaka as well as theother two ‘baskets.’ Prince Damrong described a similar systemof three grades as being in effect in King Rama I’s reign.10

Although monastic education of late Ayutthaya and earlyRatanakosin period had curricula made up of all three baskets oftipi"aka, in actual teaching and learning only few texts was selected.

The pariyatti-dhamma or formal monastic education systemwas changed in the early Ratanakosin period. It was in the reignof King Rama II that the third Supreme Patriarch M# (1818-1819)revised the examination system, instituting the P!li nine grades, asystem that has continued into modern times.11 It is called prayog.The annual examination is managed by the Central P!liExamination Board (Mae Kong Dhamma). It has changed fromusing the first hand scriptural texts of tipi"aka in the curriculumto using commentaries (a$$hakath#), sub-commentaries ($ika) andlater literary work (pakara"a) instead. In other words, the Buddhistcurriculum has changed from studying the tipi"aka first hand tostudying commentaries of later texts instead. Some suggest suchchanges were made because the tipi"aka is made of many

10 Tambiah, 1676: 20311 Tambiah, 1976: 204

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voluminous books. If one cannot study them completely the overallunderstanding of Buddhism may not be accurate, or in other wordsit cannot be understood holistically. The doctrines in all threebaskets of tipi"aka are specific doctrines. Some doctrines giveonly the topics without any details. Therefore, the direct study oftipi"aka is a difficult task and to understand it completely requiresmuch dedication and effort.

On the contrary, some commentaries (a$$hakath#) and laterliterary works (pakara"a) explain in detail some of the doctrinesfrom the tipi"aka. Moreover, these descriptions may refer to otherrelevant doctrines both within and beyond the tipi"aka to facilitateon understanding of those wider and profound Buddhist doctrinesin a very short time. Additionally, one would learn doctrines indetail which cannot be found in the tipi"aka. These commentariesand later literary works are a compilation of teachings from varioussources and various subjects compiled in a single place.

The topics presented in these commentaries and later literaryworks have been chosen systematically in a handbook based onwhat should be learned as foundational knowledge. This facilitatesstudents in understanding and studying those doctrines. Hence,this could be a reason for using commentaries and later literaryworks with new improved curricula for pariyatti-dhamma in theearly Ratanakosin period. In commentaries, monastic discipline(vinaya), discourses (sutta) and higher teachings of abhidhammaare all included at one place. This helps new students to developbasic knowledge of Buddhism and lay down foundation for themto able to study the original texts of the tipi"aka directly bythemselves with ease and convenience.

Non-formal monastic education is not much different. Whena monk or lay scholar delivers a sermon or lecture his sermon isbased mostly on the stories from various commentaries, sub-commentaries or later literary texts instead of referring directly

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to the tipi"aka. Moreover, various doctrines and instructions arethe views of the particular teachers. Therefore, many doctrinesand teachings are not based on any scriptural texts. Such doctrinesseem to be increasingly present in Thai Buddhism. This is attestedtoo by Charles Keyes: ‘the evidence from monastery libraries in(Laos and) Thailand... reveals that what constitutes the Therav!dindhamma for people in these areas includes only a small portionof the total tipi"aka, some semi-canonical commentaries such asBuddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, a large number of pseudo-j!takaand other pseudo-canonical works, histories of shrines and othersacred histories12.’ He further lists three key texts which he suggeststo define the basic parameters of monastic education in Thailandbecause they were in almost every monastic library.13 These textsare the Traiphum Phra Ruang (Tribh%mikath#), the Phra M!laiand the Vessandon [Vessantara-j#taka]. This shows howBuddhism in Thailand is perceived and what underlays traditionalBuddhist teachings.

12 Justin McDaniel, ‘The Curricular Canon in Northern Thailand and Laos’ inManussaya: Journal of Humanities, 4:2002, p. 2013 Charles Keyes, Thailand: Buddhist Kingdom, p. 179.

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Buddhist Conservatism inthe Early Ratanakosin Period

An important landmark in the development of monastic educationoccurred during the reign of King Rama III (1824-1851) in theearly Ratanakosin period, particularly under King Mongkut’sleadership while he was still a monk.

Buddhism of the early Ratanakosin period was the successivecontinuation of Ayutthaya period. As a result of war with Burma,in 1767 Ayutthaya was severely destructed. This nearly eliminatedthe Thai sangha, however, it was fortunate that many other countiesof Thailand were not so affected by the war. The Thai sangha,therefore, was not totally destroyed. Nevertheless, nearly all seniormonk scholars good at monastic disciplines (vinaya) and doctrines(dhamma) died before the war ended. When King Taksin (1767-1782) founded the new capital of Thonburi he searched for a seniormonk to appoint as the Supreme Patriarch for the stability ofBuddhism and the sangha. He was not able to find a single monkwho was suitable for the position. The only monk he was able toget for the position of the first Supreme Patriarch of Thonburiwas Phra Ajarn Sri of Wat Phra Chao Phanangcheng of Ayutthayawho had fled war and was residing at Nakhorn Sri Dhammarat atthat time. Additionally, most Buddhist scriptures were burned,destroyed and lost in the final battle of the Ayutthaya war. Thevery short 15 year reign of the Thonburi kingdom not much wasable to restore the lost Buddhist scriptures.

Once King Rama I founded Ratanakosin as the capital, hetried to revive and improve Buddhism in every aspect in order tomake Ratanakosin prosper just as it did in Ayutthaya. In the process

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of reviving Buddhism, King Rama I (1782-1809) gathered thetipi"aka scriptures from all around the country as well as fromother kingdoms to restore them properly. He also gave royalcommand to revise the scripture thoroughly, the first revision ofthe tipi"aka made during the Ratanakosin period. Since then,Buddhist studies in Thailand have been completed with the wholeset of the tipi"aka. In addition to the restoration of the tipi"aka,most Buddhist activities, local beliefs and other Buddhist practicesof Ayutthaya were also strictly preserved. Therefore, Buddhismof the early Ratanakosin period was not much different from theAyutthaya period. In order to shed some light on Buddhistconservatism in the early Ratanakosin period, I will briefly discussthree aspects of Buddhist conservatism, popular during the KingRama I to the King Rama III reign. They are local beliefs, Buddhistpractices and Buddhist studies.

1. Local belief: Popular belief among Buddhists was thatBuddhism would last for only 5,000 year. This statement firstappeared in the Samantap!s!dik!14 commentary of Ven.Buddhaghosa, and it was the widespread belief of most TheravadinBuddhists including Thais that Buddhism would decline. MostP!li literature composed in Thailand mentioned this belief.Ratanakosin period was not excluded from this belief either as itis mentioned in the Collections of Royal Interrogations No. 16 ofKing Rama I that ‘the Buddha lay down Buddhism for 5000year15 .’

Believing that Buddhism would last for 5,000 years led tothe further belief in the disappearance (antaradh#na) of fivethings: religious learning (pariyatti), practice (pa$ipati), realization(pa$ivedha), monasticism (linga), and relics (dh#tu).16 It was

14Samantap!s!dik! Mah!vibhangava$$an! (Thai translation), p. 5915 Collections of Royal Interrogations [in Thai], p. 10216 Sangtiyavongs: Ratanakosin Literature Vol. 3: 323. The sequence of

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thought that these five things would gradually disappear startingwith the disappearance of religious learning to the disappearanceof the relics at last. It was believed that the Buddha’s relics fromeverywhere would gather into a form of the Buddha and wouldburn to ashes. This would be the complete end of Buddhism afterhaving been established for 5000 years. This type of Buddhistliterature, both in P!li and Thai, is widely available. For example,Sang#tivamsa, the history of Councils written in the period ofKing Rama I, discusses the disappearance of the five things atgreat length.

There were clear indications that Buddhism in the earlyRatanakosin period was declining greatly. This is clearlymentioned by King Rama I in his Royal Order Notification No 8:‘these days Buddhist sangha has brought to a halt as it has beendeclining for too long till it cannot be developed anymore.Accordingly, no one reproaches anybody.’17 This royal thought ofKing Rama I signifies that Buddhism was declining and it wasobserved for the sake of show alone. No one strictly followed thedisciplines because all monks and novices thought there was nopoint in practicing the teachings. This illustrates the influence ofthe belief in the five disappearances. It had a severe negativeinfluence on the behaviour and practise of the Thai sangha of thattime. This negative influence extended into other areas of Buddhistactivities by bringing many non-Buddhist elements into Buddhism

disappearance of five things is different in each place and period. In T#mnanm%las#san# or History of Origin of Buddhism composed in Lanna period of14th century the first sequences is the disappearance of realization (adhigamaantaradh#na) followed by practice, religious learning, monasticism and relics.The sequence in Sri Lanka differs from Thailand. Gombrich (1995: 335) writesthat in Sri Lanka it is believed that the relics will disappear first and followedby realization, monks and novices, practice and religious learning.17 Kot Phra Song (Sangha Enactment), p. 562

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such as belief in superstition, black magic and even in the powerof gods and ghosts. These beliefs still exist among both sanghasand laity.

2. Practice: Monks in the early Ratanakosin period werevery lax in the practice of monastic discipline (vinaya). Thispersuaded King Rama I (1782-1809) to issue Sangha Enactments(Kot Phra Song) in order to force the monks to behave within theBuddhist discipline. There are two reasons these monks observednon-Buddhist practices.

The first reason is the lack of Buddhist study. There was noformal Buddhist education in monasteries for people who ordainedas monks and novices. Most of the learning processes and studiesdepended upon the teacher. Monks and novices learned andpracticed only what their teachers taught or simply followed theirpredecessors without properly learning or analyzing the reasonsbehind those practices. When teachers had wrong beliefs students,too, followed them wrongly. The erroneous practices of monksand novices were observed both intentionally and unintentionally.

Secondly, at issue were wrong education and belief. Wrongeducation meant that monks and novices merely followed theirteachers without studying the true principles of Buddhism orstudying without proper judgment. Wrong beliefs were, forexample, that Buddhism would last for 5,000 years, thedisappearance of five things in Buddhism or believing thatBuddhism would decline and nothing can be done to revive it.Accordingly, Buddhist monks and novices believed that there wasno benefit in adhering properly to the doctrine and disciplinebecause the highest goal of Buddhism was no longer attainable.

Both reasons were in fact grounded in the weakness ofBuddhist studies and lack of proper practices of Buddhism of thattime. The Sangha Enactment of the early Ratanakosin periodillustrates a general picture of Thai Buddhism with full non-

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Buddhist practices of monks and novices18 :‘They [monks and novices] do not feel moral shame anddread, behaving in a manner of shameless monks by beingdrunk, eating afternoon. Some play gamble while somerefuse to put robes on and behave like a lay. Some do notshave their heads and eyebrows and disguise themselves togo places unsuitable for monks both in days and nights. Somego to theatres to watch the shows and get into crowd to jostlewith women. Some joke and speak foully with women. Someseeing young handsome boys abuse them with words andhugs and take them out together. Some even dress those boysto compete each other for those boys. Some shop for goodsilk fabric and made robes out of it in different colours. Someuse belt while others not. Some cover their head anddecorated with flowers behind ears. Some smoke and walklike a lay. Some possess amulets, black magic, ritual knives,sword etc. like robberies. Some team up as a gang and harassgirls both in day and in night time by covering their shavenheads and behave like a lay. When monks were invited inhouse for merit making ceremonies they recite Buddhistchants like singing songs from different nations and rhythmsetc...’

Moreover, monks and novices observed Buddhism basedmerely on what their teachers taught them rather than studyingfrom the tipi$aka itself. Even the practice of meditation waswrongly practiced. King Mongkut found that the way of calm andof insight meditation was practised incorrectly–conjoined withdelusion– ‘as though one might borrow the nose of someone elsefor breathing’ (or blindly rely on a blind guide). The teacherspreached about Dhamma neither openly nor clearly, nor in a waythat would stimulate faith among those who were learning. The

18 ‘Kot Phra Song (Sangha Enactment)’ in the Code of Three Seals No. 568-9

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teachers sometimes get angry when pupils asked them questionsor their explanation ended in short by referring to the AncientTeachers’ tradition such as !cinnakappik#, meaning ‘the greatones have done like this.’19 Meditation, therefore, was practicedless to clarify the mind but to gain supernatural power. Still therewere a great many monks who lived as hermits, submitting theirbodies to ascetic rigours, and taming the birds and timid deer ofthe forest with their gentleness.20

When monks were leading erroneously lay people, too,practised accordingly. It is stated in the Sangha Enactment (KotPhra Song) of King Rama I that ‘nowadays people in all walks oflife when they listen to the Mah!vessatara J!taka instead oflistening to it with a great faith and respect in the content theyonly look out for useless jokes and pranks. Monks who deliverthe sermon are not learned in the P!li tipi"aka but good at proseand poetry instead in order to use it in their rude jokes and pranksfor their own advantages and make living out of it. They do notstudy Buddhism and as a result it conduces to the decline ofBuddhism and become careless in the teachings of the Buddha.’21

Moreover, the erroneous beliefs and misunderstandings ofBuddhism were conducive to so many erroneous practices that,as Griswold22 states, ‘some misguided zealots killed themselvesor cut off a finger as a sacrifice to the Buddha.’ In general, thelack of study by both monks and laity led to belief in ‘superstition,amulets, horoscopes and propitiation of the ancient earth-spirits.’23

19 His Majesty King Rama the Fourth Mongkut, p. 4020 A.B. Griswold, King Mongkut of Siam, p.10321 Ruang Kotmai Tra Samduang (The Code of Three Seals), p. 54522 A.B. Griswold, King Mongkut of Siam, p. 12323 A.B. Griswold, King Mongkut of Siam, p. 121

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3. Monastic education: Monastic education in the earlyRatanakosin period was influenced extensively by political unrestas the warfare with Burma was still proceeding. It was not runningsmoothly because the state was engaged in the warfare. Griswold(1968: 103), author of King Mongkut’s biography writes, ‘the warwith Burma had caused inestimable disaster. The old capital,Ayutthaya, had been the chief seat of monastic learning; and whenit was destroyed in 1767, most of its monasteries, together withtheir books, went up in flames...’ The status of monastic educationof that time was similarly illustrated in the Sangha Enactments ofKing Rama I: ‘monks are not studying the tipi"aka and not obedientto teachers and preceptors which lead to ignore the book ofdisciplines. They just pretend to be in the discipline and practisingmeditation and boasting about supernatural power to gain peoples’faith on them.’24

Dilapidation of monastic education continued during theperiod of King Rama III. He felt sad about its status as it wasrecorded that25

‘he wishes to have well versed monks and novices in tipi"akain order to give royal patronage to them as a symbol of hisfaith in the religion. In attempting to find such monks, hepersonally attended the examination of monastic education(pariyatidhamma) for 25 days only to find that none of themonks and novices was able to pass any grade of Ek, Tho,Tri or Catw!. He was disappointed and extremely concernedabout it. He felt that it has not reached even half of the ageof Buddhism (2500 years) but a well versed person in thetipi"aka has vanished. This signifies that Buddhism isdisappearing soon as it is mentioned in the discourse of fivedisappearances (antaradh#na)’.

24 ‘Kot Phra Song (Sangh Enactment)’ in The Code of Three Seals, p. 545,54925 Question No. 5 in Collections of Royal Interrogations [in Thai], p. 206

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Moreover, there is also another record which states that KingRama III complained about senior monks (Phra R#j# Ga"a) ofthe time26 that ‘they are not paying attention in training andencouraging monks and novices to study tipi"aka so he pleads thesangha under the leadership of the supreme patriarch to providemonastic education for monks and novices to able to study thetipi"aka and pass the examination at least 5-6 monks per year’.

26 Collections of Royal Interrogations [in Thai], p. 207-8

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Perspective of Thai Buddhismbefore the Reformation

King Mongkut entered the monkhood, like most members of theRoyal Family. He first sought instruction courses of meditationfor short period. Once he had decided that he would be in themonkhood for an uncertain period of time he then followed upthe practice of meditation which he learnt at the starting of hismonkhood. As King Mongkut had a habit of implacability, whenhe began something he persevered the end. Subsequently, whenhe began to learn meditation he studied intensely with therenowned meditation masters of the time. As a result of hisrigorous study he discerned that the meditation study and practiceat that time were doubtful and full of illusions. The meditationmasters did not understand their own practices. When anexplanation was required the masters often referred to ‘ancientteachers’ tradition’ and were unable to relate intellectually thepractice to theory (normative canonical basis). After one year KingMongkut decided to pursue the scriptures himself as he wasdetermined to read the P!li texts as the first hand source and satisfyhis inquisitive mind. With his vigorous study of P!li tipi"aka itdid not take too long for him to become an expert in these fields.

King Mongkut’s study did not stop there. In addition to P!liand other important Buddhist scriptures, he further studied manyother languages namely Latin, English, Sansakrit, Khmer, Malayu,Burmese, Vietnamese, and Hindi as well as modern sciences e.g.Science, Geography, Astronomy and Astrology. He also studiedcomparative religion with the missionaries who were in Thailandat the time. After studying Buddhism and modern science, KingMongkut viewed Buddhism differently. He became more open

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and receptive than other contemporary scholars. His perspectiveon Buddhism can be briefly summarised as follows:

1. Adherence: King Mongkut saw that the Thai people’sadherence to Buddhism was erroneous because they were justcustomary Buddhists. They took Buddhism for granted without atrue understanding which was not true adherence to Buddhism.He states,27 ‘people these days do things vulgarly without properthinking. Religious adherence is merely based on the parentalaffiliation not knowing the Buddha, Dhamma and the Sangha.They have only heard that the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha areas their refuge. They are only told that one would gain merits byoffering goods to people who dress in yellow robes. Having heardthat they offered goods to them without even knowing the meaningof merit (bun) or how one can gain merits. They do not know whyon earth one adheres to Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. Andwithout giving a proper thought they just adhere to Buddhism byfollowing their parents.’ King Mongkut saw that Thai people atthat time believed in Buddhism based only on faith without usingtheir wisdom or rationality.

2. Preaching: King Mongkut saw that the trend in thepreaching of Thai monks tended to primary emphasize the subjectof generosity (d#na). It looked as though the monks were leadingpeople astray and it caused corrupt monks to become religiousparasites. He noted,28 ‘in many Buddhist literary scripturesdescribe about merits endlessly. A person gets happiness orsuffering as a merit of what he offers to monks. Because he offeredsuch and such and gave such and such to monks he has receivedsuch a result. For example, a scriptural text on merits of all kindsof donations illustrates the merits of generosity in a voluminous20 sheaves but nothing on morality, meditation and wisdom.’

27 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 128 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 23

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3. Monks’ belief: Perhaps most importantly, even monks’belief in the texts was erroneous as they did not use wisdom toinvestigate. King Mongkut saw the serious detrimental effect thishad on Buddhism. He pointed out that there were many erroneousand doubtful explanations in the scripture texts but no one wasconcerned about it. Moreover, they were accepted and adhered totraditionally. For example, it was believed that it is a sin (b#p) fora monk to die dressed in his yellow robe because robes belong tothe Buddha. Therefore, even the Silent Buddha (pacceka-buddha)needed to be defrocked prior to his death to prevent him fromdying dressed in yellow robe. It was believed that the monk whowas well versed in the scripture should be pardoned because ofhis expertise with the texts even if he had committed seriousoffenses in his monastic discipline. King Mongkut even felt thatpeople sometimes over praised the King. They did so beyondreality until a story had been concocted as praise the king as theBuddha-to-be (bodhisattva) and one who is about to attainenlightenment etc.29

In sum, King Mongkut saw that the Buddhism which Thaipeople believed and practiced at that time was ‘customaryBuddhism’ which meant upholding Buddhism as it was inheritedfrom his/her predecessors without giving it an analytical thought.Monks, too, believed in their teachers completely. They justfollowed the teachings and practices that their teachers hadobserved from generation to generation. King Mongkut labeledsuch belief and practice as !ci""akappikanik#ya or CustomaryBuddhism.

The mores and rites of customary Buddhism were handeddown over the centuries from teacher to teacher with little, if any,reference to the tipi$aka. For the most part, these customs taught

29 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 24-27

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monks to live a sedentary life in the village monastery, servingthe local villagers as doctors or fortune tellers. Monastic disciplinewas loose. Occasionally, monks would go on a pilgrimage calleddhuta! ga which bore little resemblance to the classic dhuta! gapractices. Instead, it was more of an undisciplined escape valvefor the pressures of sedentary life. It was simply an alternativeThai word called ‘dern dong’ meaning ‘walking in the forest’.Moreover, monks and lay people practiced forms of meditationthat deviated from the path of tranquility and insight outlined inthe tipi$aka. Their practices, called vichaa aakhom or incantationknowledge, involved initiations and invocations used forshamanistic purposes, such as protective charms and magicalpowers. They rarely mentioned nirvana except as an entity to beinvoked for shamanic rites.

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Modern Trend of Study of Buddhism

During his monastic tenure, King Mongkut engaged in intensivestudy of P!li scripture and practice of insight meditation until hebecame proficient. He was knowledgeable not only in Buddhismbut also erudite in several branches of sciences. He pioneered thefirst intensive study of science in Thailand. Accordingly, he waspraised as Thailand’s father of science. It would not be wrong toassume that his expertise on Buddhism and modern science causedhim to perceive Buddhism differently from others. He also beganthe modern trend of study of Buddhism in Thailand. As noted inhis biography, he was an explorer and dared to experiment. Hewould not judge anything to be right or wrong which he had notexperimented with himself. He requested that others test forcorrectness if he was unable to finalize a proof himself. Hisprogress in studying Buddhism is easily evident from reading hisbiography.

Ordained as a monk in 1824, King Mongkut first soughtinstruction not in the scriptures but in courses of meditation. Beingof an earnest disposition he took his studies very seriously.However, he was disenchanted with this training because histeachers could not provide him with the doctrinal and canonicalexplanations for the practices they taught. The teachers did notexplain about cause so that the students could understand withwisdom. They wished the students to listen only to their own wayand to practice without reason. This is not the way of teaching toestablish the principles of meditation, and it is a waste of time aswell. When sitting in meditation this was only the cause of a painin the back.

King Mongkut then returned to study the P!li language so

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that he would be able to study and understand the doctrines directlyfrom the tipi"aka. There he could get answers for his practicalquestions on meditation and Buddhism directly from the originalsource thereby preventing himself from getting misinformationfrom others.

King Mongkut became an expert in P!li tipi"aka and otherBuddhist texts. He detected that even in the tipi"aka importantBuddhist teachings were not in line with the principles of theBuddha, non Buddhist elements having been seamlessly mixedin30. For example, King Mongkut saw that the final phrase of therecollection of Sangha (see footnote)31 insinuate the gain ofworldly material which is contrary to an important principle ofBuddhism. King Mongkut writes, ‘the real doctrines (sutta) anddiscipline (vinaya) are teachings for attaining supramundane statesor commanding to observe precepts or monastic disciplines in itspurest form32.’ On the contrary, King Mongkut emphasizes33 that‘commentaries need to be scrutinized before believing in it.’ Healso finds that ‘majority of people ignore the original sources ofP!li but believe in description of commentaries and sub-commentaries instead.’

30 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 2231 ‘Esa bhagavato... that is the Sangha of the Exalted One’s disciples, worthyof gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, who should be respected;the incomparable field of merit for the world’32 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 2133 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 410: tasmimpanaa""hakath!v!de uppajjitv! ciram ti""ham!ne "#k!cariyak!lato pa""h!yay!vajjatan! kañci pa$"itam s#sam ukkhipantam na pass!ma na su$omaaññadatthum te te tantank!likatantamdesik! s!sanak!rak! tameva a""hakath!-v!dam p!litopi atibalavataram katv! p!lim anuddissitv! tameva ukkhipitv!bhiyyo bhiyyo ummattak! viya hutv!.

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King Mongkut suggested34 that in studying scriptures oneneeds to scrutinize carefully. Any narrative not in line with thetipi"aka should be surmised to be wrong and should not be easilybelieved in. Regarding belief, he also instructed35 that first, oneshould believe in the tipi"aka or in the words of Buddha, secondlyto one who collected the dhamma36 (dhamma-sangahakac!rya)and thirdly to commentators and others.

This shows that King Mongkut’s trend of study of Buddhismis37 ‘to give a good analytical thinking with one’s own wisdombefore accepting anything. When it is convinced through wisdomthat such religion, group, or party can be one’s refuge then oneshould practice and follow that religion. One should not acceptanything based upon mere excitement, hearsay, traditions. Norupon one’s fear or joy. Therefore, one should not be wondered onevents and just accept it based upon traditions’. King Mongkut’strend of study is to strictly follow important doctrines of K!l!masutta.

34 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 390: atha panabhiyyopi s!dh%hi attano m%lag!he da&ham a"hatv! dhammavinayemahantamg!ravam purakkhitv! sukhumena ñ!$ena sukhum!ya satiy!sakalampi vinayam ogayha punapunam upparikkhitabbova sace yujjati sametianupa"ipajjitabbo... yadi upaparikkhiyam!no p!"hato sunadarak!ra$al!bhenana yujjati na samet#ti dissati evam sante duggahitam imeh#ti cha""hetabbo.35 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 366: atha khop!l#va pam!$atar! tattha balak!ra$!ni laddh! vuccam!no vinayavinicchayosuda&ham saddh!tabbo hoti.36 The first 500 monks who conducted the first Council after the Buddha’sdeath.37 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 387

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The Dhammayut:One Who is Always Ready forImprovement and Learning

Based on the above mentioned principle, King Mongkut lay downthe modern trend of the study of Buddhism as follows38 : ‘oneshould not attach to the traditional beliefs but should hold truedoctrines and disciplines (dhamma-vinaya) instead. One shouldalways keep reviewing one’s belief all the time. Being proved it tobe accurate one should keep on practise but if one finds that it isinaccurate and against the principle of true doctrines anddisciplines of the Buddha then one should give it up.’ Theseprinciples become the main characteristic of Dhammayut Order,disciples of King Mongkut. Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavororasonce praised Somdet Phra Vanarat (Buddhasiri), one of the tenpioneer monks who founded the Dhammayut Order that39: ‘SomdetPhra Vanarat likes changing, a true nature of Dhammayut Order.’This means that it is characteristic for Dhammayut monks to alwaysseek to learn, investigate for accuracy and change for accurateness.

38 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 389-390: iti khoayam amh!kamadhipp!yo tena tena p!liyam !gata""h!nena dassit!yabuddhak!le pavattiy! sam!niyam!no yutto samo viya dissati atha pana bhiyyopis!dh%hi attano m%lag!he da&ham a"hatv! dhammavinaye mahantam g!ravampurakkhitv! sukhumena ñ!$ena sukhum!ya satiy! sakalampi vinayam ogayhapunappunam upparikkhitabbova sace yujjati sameti anupa"ipajjitabbo evamsante anupa"ipajjitum asakkontehipi buddhassev!yam bhagavato adhipp!yoanumoditabbo.39 Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa, Phra Pravat Tarus Lao, p. 64

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Griswold notes characteristics of Dhammayut monks similarly:40

‘they (Dhammayut monks) rejected all practices that had noauthority other than custom. They accepted all canonicalregulations, not merely following them mechanically, butendeavouring to keep their significance ever present inconsciousness. They were expected to understand the formulasthey recited, the reasons for the rules they were subject to, and themeaning of the acts they performed. In short, the Doctrine theywere to adhere to was the Doctrine exactly as the Buddha hadtaught it, stripped of all apocryphal additions.’

King Mongkut’s trend of study of Buddhism is to detach fromthe teachers’ tradition or !cci""akappik#41 meaning ‘the greatones have done like this’ and instead to investigate the originalsources of P!li tipi"aka. Moreover, the tipi"aka should beinvestigated thoroughly to discover which teachings are originallythe Buddha and which were added later. Therefore, according toKing Mongkut ‘the most essential thing for all of Dhammayutmonks is a thorough knowledge of the scriptures42 (tipi"aka).’ Tofacilitate such study King Mongkut instituted a school of P!listudies at the Wat Bovoranives Vihara to encourage his disciplesgenuinely to study P!li. As a consequence, it is recorded that P!lischolar monks of that time could speak the P!li language fluently.43

In addition to his focus on P!li studies, King Mongkutencouraged his monks to study English. He provided AmericanProtestant missionaries to teach English at Wat Bovoranives Vihara

40 A. B. Griswold, pp.115-641 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 510: tattha!ci$$akappikanik!yik! n!ma yesam p!lia""hakath!d#su !gatavacanamappam!$am sakadesan#v!sinam pa"ipattiyeva pam!$am te ca evam vatt!ro yamyam por!$akam tam tam p!lia""hakath!d#hi viruddhampi hotu.42 A.B. Griswold. P. 11643 Chronicle of Wat Bovoranives Vihara, pp. 15-16

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as well. Simultaneously, King Mongkut also allowed themissionaries to preach Christianity to any monks and laity whowere interested.44 This helped Buddhists to gain a wider view ofthe world, particularly in the field of comparative religion.

Based on King Mongkut’s trend of study it is obvious that healways emphasized the critical analysis of a subject using theK!l!ma sutta as a guide. He also urged all Buddhist students touse rationality in studying and practicing Buddhism. Hediscouraged holding on to customs, traditions and AncientTeachers’ traditions, rather hold on to the core teaching of theBuddha by stripping off all outer coverings.45

King Mongkut’s modern trend of study of Buddhism isprincipally based on the P!li tipi"aka. The commentaries and laterliterary works should be consulted as only secondary sources.Descriptions in commentaries are to be accepted only when theyare in line with the P!li tipi"aka.46 King Mongkut’s view was thatevery scripture needs thorough investigation because even in thetipi"aka there are errorness statements. Such statements were theresult of later mixtures and go against the main principles taughtby the Buddha. All doctrines (dhamma) and monastic disciplines(vinaya) aim for the supramundane state, and all other teachingshould be compared with the foundational teachings of theBuddha.

King Mongkut was also of the opinion that ‘all teachingscould be verified directly to the tipi"aka without referring tocommentaries. The teachings in the tipi"aka are self-proved and

44 Siam in Three Periods from the view of William L. Bradley [Thai translation],p. 11545 Royal collection of Thai articles by King Mongkut vol. 1, p. 2846 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 512: ...tasm!"#k!ya !gatavacanam a""hakath!samantameva gahetabbam a""hakath!ya!gatampi p!liy! samentameva gahetabbam.

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support each other throughout. For example, there are manydiscourses that work as an explanation of other discourses. Somediscourses have similar similes and examples. Therefore, KingMongkut said that the teachings in tipi"aka can be verified byitself.’47

King Mongkut’s observation was that in the past Buddhisteducation in Thailand placed more importance on secondaryscriptures like commentaries with little interest in tracing back tothe original P!li. This was one cause for the arising of wrongancient teachers’ traditions and led to the wrong practice ofBuddhism. In some cases the inaccuracy of the commentarieswas obvious, there was no dissention until the people followedaccurate teachings without any feeling of guilt. Therefore, KingMongkut’s Buddhism is the P!li tipi"aka which has the notion ofa single, universal and all encompassing truth instead of popularThai Buddhism with the layered or hierarchical notion of truthunderlaying traditional Buddhist teachings.

47 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 447:

tatthaññam "h!namaññassa th!nassa hoti va$$an!aññamaññasarikkhani p!"hud!hara$!ni ca"h!na"h!nakañ!$ena sukhumeneva sabbasosallakkhetv! sam!netv! vic!retv! tath! tath!p!liyoyeva niss!ya k!tabbo dhammanicchayo

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Reformation of Thai Buddhist Study

In a Buddhist study, one should always be open to accepting thetruth from one who knows the truth, and always be ready to changeand improve for rightness and correctness. King Mongkut statedin his letter to the Sri Lankan Order that ‘people should not attachso much to the traditional beliefs but should hold true doctrinesand disciplines instead. One should always keep reviewing one’sbelief all the time... Your venerable monks are always welcometo remind us both with your personal visit and with your letters toour temple. If we see that it is a right thing to do we will surelyobserve it.’48

Moreover, King Mongkut also laid down the trend of studyfor Dhammayut monks that they should not limit their study totheir religion alone, but expand it to encompass other religions aswell. This will help them understand Buddhism better. It will alsohelp them comprehend the essence and identity of Buddhism. Hestated in his second letter to Sri Lanka: ‘When we Dhammayutmonks, who are searching for the core to accept it as the ultimaterefuge, having scrutinized beliefs beyond Buddhism and afterlearning them well we found that there is no other beliefs whichcan be better refuge than Buddhism... still, we search for the core

48 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 390: atha panabhiyyopi s!dh%hi attano m%lag!he da&ham a"hatv! dhammavinaye mahantamg!ravam purakkhitv! sukhumena ñ!$ena sukhum!ya satiy! sakalampi vinayamogayha punappunam upparikkhitabbova sace yujjati ... amh!kam sayam v!!gantv! s!sanam v! pahi$itv! satupp!do kara$#yo sundaram k!ra$am laddh!anuvattiss!ma.

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and beneficial teachings.’49 This attests that King Mongkut wasthe first to lay down the study of comparative religion withinBuddhist education in Thailand.

Having understood the essence of Buddhism it attests thereis no such thing as a miracle, supernaturalism, superstition,reasonlessness or irrationality in Buddhism. Buddhism teachesthat everything has cause, rationality and explanation. Whenpeople do not know the cause of something is not known it mightbe called a miracle. As with watching magic, when magician’stricks are understood they are not wondered about anymore.Buddhism tells us there is no such thing as accident in this world,every conditioned phenomenon is a dependent arising. It comesinto being in dependence upon causes and conditions, abidesbecause of causes and conditions and disintegrates because ofcauses and conditions. King Mongkut laid down the trend of studyin Buddhism that one who studies Buddhism thoroughly wouldnot believe in superstition, black magic or dote on miracles. Thisdoes not mean such things do not exist, rather than we shouldstudy the true causes behind them. One should not merely believeirrationally as this is not a way of Buddhist wisdom nor a Buddhisttrend.

49 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 444:Evam santepi amh!kam dhammayutikav!dinamPati""h!n!raham ante s!ramattham gavesatamN!n!titth!yatenesu viññ!tesu anekadh!N!nappak!rake dhamme samm!vopaparikkhatamAññ! pati""h! nattheva huram gotamas!san!Tasm! evampi bh%tasmim tasmim cirena !bhateS!raññevatthamattampi pubbe dassitalakkha$amSandi""ik!nisamsam v! atha v!pi apa$$akamNiccampi pariyes!ma nicchay!ma yath!raham.

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Another important trend of study in Buddhism King Mongkutlaid down was to hold onto the principle of truth and accuracyinstead of revering any sect or individual. King Mongkut modeledthis trend as he searched for the accurate practice of monasticdiscipline (vinaya). He first investigated the practices of Thaimonks compared with the book of discipline he had previouslystudied. Noting differences in practice from the scriptures, hefurther compared Thai practice with the way Mon and Burmesemonks practiced those same disciplines. Once he was convincedthat the practices of Mon monks were the most accurate incomparison to the principles in the scripture of discipline, he thenfollowed the practices of these Mon monks. He did not stop hisstudy there but further investigated original Buddhism tocontinually deepen his accurate understanding.

Later when King Mongkut became familiar with Sri Lankanmonks he studied and compared their practices with those of theMon monks. He found that some of the practices of the Mon monkswere erroneous e.g. the P!li pronunciation. Similarly, some of thepractices of the Sri Lankan monks were incorrect relative to thediscipline of the scriptures.

King Mongkut, therefore, began the process of reforming thepractices of Thai monks to bring them in line with the scriptures.He reformed himself first, however, by observing these practices.Perhaps most importantly, as King Mongkut would to reform ThaiBuddhism he did not strictly follow any group, sect or individualas his model. Although he accepted that most of the practices ofthe Mon monks were accurate, he still found some errors in theirpractices. Although he did not follow the practices of Sri Lankanmonks, he accepted that some of their practices were precise andhe used them as his model. When he did not have a group orindividual from whom to learn, he referred back to the P!li tipi"aka.King Mongkut called this trend ‘Dhammayutik!,’ meaning

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‘adhering to the truth or accuracy as principle’. King Mongkut’strend attracted a small but strong following of like-minded monksand lay supporters, and in this way the Dhammayut (lit.,inAccordance with the Dhamma) movement was born.

Not all Dhammyutik! monks and novices in the period ofKing Mongkut’s monkhood were his apprentices. There weremany like-minded monks who were simply studying and practicingcorrectly as was King Mongkut. He considered these monks alsoto be Dhammayut or Dhammayutik! monks. King Mongkut calledthis group of monks as ‘pur#"asahadhammika,’ meaning ‘onewho have been practicing the Dhamma together from thebeginning’. On the other hand, the Dhammayut monks who wereKing Mongkut’s apprentices were called ‘Phra sit lhuvong derm,’meaning ‘original apprentice.’ This illustrates that King Mongkut’strend of study of Buddhism was to hold onto the principle ofcorrectness instead of revering any sect, group or individual. Theessence of King Mongkut’s trend in studying Buddhism was touse one’s wisdom as the means of understanding the truth oraccuracy of Buddhism.

Dhammayutik!, therefore, was the direct consequence of KingMongkut’s study and practice which later grew to become a groupof monks who adhered to King Mongkut’s trend. Subsequently,the Dhammayut Order, or Dhammayutikanik!ya is not anindividual or a group rather it means correct trend. TheDhammayut monks of the first generation held that if anyoneunderstood the accurate principle of doctrines and disciplines,and observed them appropriately, they were Dhammayut monksregardless of their residency and teachers’ lineages.

It was King Mongkut’s strong conviction that Buddhisteducation is completed only when both theoretical (pariyatti) andpractical (pa$ipatti) studies are properly carried out. He set himselfas a good example for others to follow. Having studied and become

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an expert on scriptural (pariyatti) Buddhism, he also continuouslypaid serious attention to the practice. Every dry season KingMongkut wandered into the forest (dhuta! ga) to find solitude anda calm environment for the cultivation of his mind and the practiceof meditation. As a result, the first generation of his disciplesmostly conducted themselves as a ‘forest-monk’ or ‘meditation-monk.’ Later, wandering into remote places for the practice ofdhuta! ga, or austere practices, became a popular practice amongThai monks.

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Implications of King Mongkut’sTrend of Study of Buddhism

King Mongkut’s trend of study of Buddhism continues to havesignificant religious implications today, both in the study andpropagation of Buddhism in Thailand. Following King Mongkut,the first generation of his students brought great change to thefield of study of Buddhism in Thailand. Assigning importance tooriginal scriptures, emphasizing rationalism and rejecting popularforms of religion became bold characteristics of King Mongkut’sreformed group. With regard to the study of Buddhism, a methodof analytical and selective study became the standardized meansof study. This modern trend of study had implications for bothmonks and laity in the wider society.

Venerable Phra Amarabhirakkhit (Kerd Amaro) of WatBoromniwas was a first generation apprentice of King Mongkutwho himself modeled and expanded King Mongkut’s legacy. Hewas well versed in the scriptures and well trained in meditationpractices. He passed P!li 9, the highest examination of Buddhisteducation of the time, and he was fluent in English too. When heled a monk emissary to Sri Lanka he was praised by the Sri Lankanpeople for speaking English just like a native. He was renown forhis practice of meditation. In 1860, he wrote a book on monasticdiscipline entitled ‘Pubbasikkh!va$$an!’ which was used as atextbook for Thai monks and novices until it was replaced in 1913by another book entitled ‘The Entrance to the Vinaya,’ authoredby Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa who was the son of KingMongkut.

The influence of King Mongkut’s modern trend of study ofBuddhism was not limited to the circle of monks and novices, but

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also influenced lay followers. One of the most remarkable layapprentices following King Mongkut’s legacy was Chao PhyaThipakon, better known as Chao Phya Phraklang. He was theMinister of Foreign Affairs under the monarchy of King Mongkut.He published a book in 1867 entitled ‘Kitch!nukit’ or ‘a bookexplaining many things’ in which he posited modern views onBuddhism and other religions. The first book printed and publishedby a Thai without foreign help, it was written in the form ofquestions and answers, it addressed all the modern sciences whichmissionaries used as tool to criticize Buddhism. The book becamevery influential for modern Buddhism among both Thais andforeigners. Later, Henry Alabaster translated some part of thatbook into English under the title of ‘Modern Buddhist’ andpublished it in London in 1870. This became the first book onBuddhism written by a Thai Buddhist to be published in the West.It played an influential role in giving the Western world a verymodern and true picture of Buddhism .

Another significant and widely known apprentice of KingMongkut was the Supreme Patriarch S! Pussadevo who studiedwith King Mongkut from the time he was a novice. At the age of18 he passed the highest examination of P!li 9. He was the firstnovice to pass the P!li 9 examination in the Ratanakosin period.He was fluent both in P!li and Sanskrit. He translated manydiscourses from the tipi"aka into sermon form for monks andnovices to use in delivering sermons. Another unique contributionSupreme Patriarch S! Pussadevo made was writing a book on thelife of the Buddha entitled ‘Pathamasambodhikath!.’ In his versionof the life of the Buddha all magical and non-human elementswere stripped away and a plain, human version of the Buddha’slife was presented. Therefore, this version is sometimesprejudicially called the ‘Dhammyut version of life of the Buddha.’

The full implication of King Mongkut’s legacy was utilized

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by Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa. He was a secondgeneration apprentice of the Dhammayut Order. Following hisfather, King Mongkut, he proclaimed very clearly his point thatBuddhist education should be based on the doctrines of the K!l!masutta. He states,50 ‘I should like to make it plain to you that I amsatisfied with the K!l!ma sutta as the word of the Exalted Buddha.’Prince-patriarch Vajiranyana-varorasa was expert in the P!litipi"aka and in Sanskrit as well as in English, no lesser than hisfather. The depth and breath of his knowledge on Buddhism wasevident by his writings of many Buddhist textbooks, modernBuddhist books and through the monastic education system ofThailand he founded still in use today.

Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa’s trend of study ofBuddhism was clearly analytical and selective. He mentions that51

‘My habit is not to believe all the words which are found in thescriptures, but rather believing the reasonable words; ...The basisof my writing is that which is found to be reasonable and thisshould be taken as credible evidence, while what is defectiveshould be opposed whether coming from the P!li or from theA""hakath!. With this in mind I have given some opinions so thatVinaya-experts may continue these researches and I hope that thiswill happen for the progress of knowledge. If we believe only inthe way of ‘disjunction from knowledge’ (ñ#"a-vippayutta) theincrease of knowledge will be impossible.’

As a consequence of his analytical and selective study ofBuddhism, Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa began a newtrend of study of Buddhism i.e. ‘applied Buddhism.’ He appliedBuddha’s teachings to many different aspects of society. This wasconsidered to be a new development of Buddhist study in Thailand.

50 The Entrance to the Vinaya vol. 1, p. xiii51 The Entrance to the Vinaya vol. 1, p. xiv

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Modern Educational Institutions

Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa was just 33 when he foundeda brand new curriculum for monastic education in Thailand in1893. He also founded a new educational institute named‘Mahamakut Royal Academy’ to organize the new trend ofeducation for monks, novices and laity. Through Mahamakut RoyalAcademy he educated them not only in Buddhist and Thai studiesbut in foreign knowledge too.

His main goal in instituting Mahamakut Academy was tofound a Buddhist university but he died before his dream cametrue. However, 26 years after his death, Prince-patriarchVajiranyanavarorasa’s dream of establishing a Buddhist universitywas accomplished by his disciple Supreme PatriarchVajiranyanavong. On 31 December 1945, the first Buddhistuniversity was founded at Wat Bovoranives Vihara named‘Mahamakut Buddhist University.’ Two years later the secondBuddhist university was instituted at Wat Mahadhat, Bangkok.

Besides establishing two Buddhist universities, KingMongkut’s trend of study of Buddhism gave birth to many greatThai Buddhist scholars. For example, Sujib Punnyanbhap or SujivoBhikkhu played a great role in expanding Prince-patriarchVajiranyanavarorasa’s ‘applied Buddhism.’ He was one of the keyfigures in the establishment of the first Buddhist University.Additionally, his Buddhist novels and Buddhist books were veryinfluential in Thai society.

King Mongkut’s legacy continues to have significant religiousimplication into the present day. King Mongkut’s son and founderof the Thai monastic education system, followed his father’semphasis on returning to the original teaching. He repeatedly stated

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that he hoped others would make further explorations in the directstudy of the tipi"aka as a source for spiritual guidance, and thatthe commentaries would be accepted only when they were in linewith the tipi"aka. Today, many scholars write that popularizingthe notion of advancing knowledge in Buddhism rather than simplyelaborating on inherited tradition was a necessary condition forthe twentieth century scholarly contributions of PhraBrahmagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto) and for the innovative doctrinalinterpretations of Buddhadasa (see Th!nissaro 1997; Swearer1999:202).

In addition, King Mongkut’s emphasis on meditation createdthe foundation for a strong tradition of deep meditation practicewhich in turn led to the establishment of the Thai forest tradition,later led by renown meditation masters such as Venerable PhraAjarn Mun. Meditation Master Ajarn Mun Bhuridatto (1870-1949)is the most renowned figure in the Thai meditation lineage. AjarnMun was the student of Ajarn Sao Kantisilo (1861-1914); AjarnSao was the disciple of Venerable Devadhamma Mao who wasthe direct apprentice of King Mongkut. Therefore, all forest lineageof the present Thai meditation masters began with Ajarn Sao,Ajarn Mun and even Ajarn Cha, the meditation master affiliatedwith the Mahanikaya. All descended from King Mongkut’s trendof study of meditation, still very influential today in Thailand andabroad.

In 1932 Somdet Phra Maha Viravongs (Uwon Tisso), theecclesiastical governor of Nakhon Ratsima at the time, envisionedthe significance of a systematic education in meditation practices.He ordered Venerable Phra Ajarn Singh Khattiyamo, a maindisciple of Venerable Phra Ajarn Mun, to send meditation monkmasters to teach meditation to both monks and laity all over thecountry. This is the reason meditation is currently so popular inThailand.

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Similarly, Somdet Phra Phutthacharn (Arch 'sabho) of WatMahadhatu saw the importance of education of Buddhistmeditation. In 1951, while holding the ecclesiastical position ofPhra Phimaladhamma, he sent some monks from his monasteryto train in vipassana meditation practices in Myanmar. He set upa meditation centre at Wat Mahadhatu in 1953 so vipassanameditation practices could be widely taught in Thailand. Sincethen both the Thai tradition of meditation and the Burmesetradition of vipassana meditation have been very popular inThailand among both monks and laity.

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Conclusion

Due to King Mongkut’s trend of study of Buddhism there are twotrends or groups of Thai Buddhism: Buddhist trends of'cci$$akappikanik!ya and of Dhammayutikanik!ya.52

The followers of 'cci$$akappikanik!ya do not hold strictlyto the text in the P!li tipi"aka and commentaries, neither theyadhere to the practices of monks in their own countries. Theybelieve that at the present time it is apposite to follow theirpredecessors’ trend of practices regardless of what the scripturessay.

The followers of Dhammayutikanik!ya do not believe in thepractices of ancient teachers or customary Buddhism. Instead theyfollow the words in the sub-commentaries providing they are inline with the commentaries, and follow the words in thecommentaries providing they are in line with the primary sourceof the P!li tipi"aka if it is the blameless P!li.

52 Royal collection of P!li articles by King Mongkut vol. 2, p. 510-515:Imasmimpi sy!mara""he bhikkh%nam dve nik!y!va honti por!$ar!jak!lato

y!vajjatan! dv#hi laddh#hi pavatt! !ci$$akappikanik!yo ca dhammayutika-nik!yo ca ga$issaratherasamuhavasena pana catt!ro ga$! honti.

Tattha !ci$$akappikanik!yik! n!ma yesam p!lia""hakath!d#su !gata-vacanam appam!$am sakadesaniv!s#nam pa"ipattiyeva pam!$am te ca evamvatt!ro yam yam por!$akam tam tam p!lia""hakath!d#hi viruddhampi hotu...

Dhammayutikanik!y! n!ma ye evamv!dino por!$!nam !ci$$asam!-ci$$am na sabbaso pam!$ato gahetabbam... tasm! t#k!ya !gatavacanama""hakath!samentameva gahetabbam a""hakath!ya !gatampi p!liy! samenta-meva gahetabbam p!liyampi katthaci kehici va""hetv! likhitam g!rayha-"h!nampi bhagavato vacanalakkha$am atikamma a""h!nadh!vanavasenapavattam!nam na gahettabbam.

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The modern trend of exploring Therav!da Buddhism initiatedby King Mongkut was considered a daring innovation in Thailand.It gave birth to a group of ‘progressive’ Buddhist monks who arealways seeking to learn and who dare to do new things to upholdthe correctness and purity of Buddhism. King Mongkut’s examplewas later followed by many new Buddhist scholars such as Prince-patriarch Vajiranyanavarorasa, and Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. Theyled the Thai sangha to it’s focus on studying modern secularsubjects until Buddhist universities were established in Thailand.Today both monks and laity can be equally educated both inBuddhism and modern sciences.

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