brown and saunders chapter 2. dealing with statistics
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8/9/2019 Brown and Saunders Chapter 2. Dealing With Statistics
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I f , a f t e r r e a d i n g
t h i s b o o k , y o u
c a n
u n d e r s t a n
d t h e s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s i s s e c t i o n s o
f t h e j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s y o u r e a d ,
a n d i f y o u h a v e
f o u n d o u t h o w
t o
m a k e s t a t i s t i c s w o r k f o r y o u , t h e b o o k w i l l h a v e
a c c o m p l i s h e d w h a t w e s e t o u t t o a c h i e v e .
I f y o u h a v e s u g g
e s t i o n s o n h o w t o i m p r o v e t h e b o
o k t o e v e n b e t t e r
m e e t y o u r n e e d s , p
l e a s e l e t u s k n o w .
R e v a B e r m a n B r o w n a n d M a r k N . K . S a u n d e r s
O x f o r d B r o o k e s U n i v e r s i t y
B u s i n e s s S c h o o l
W h e a t l e y , O
x f o r d O X 3 3 1 H X
A u g u s t 2 0 0 7
x
D e a l i n gwi t h S t a
t i s t i c s
A b o u t t h e
a u t h or s
R e v a B e r m a n B r o w n B A , M A , M S c , P h D w a s P r o f e s s o r
o f M a n a g e-
m e n t R e s e a r c h a t O x f o r d B r o o k e s U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e s h e s u p p o r t e d t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f f a c u l t y
r e s e a r c h c a p a c i t y a n d s k i l l s . S h e p u b l i s h e d
w i d e l y i n b u s i n e s s a n d
m a n a g e m e n t i n a r e a s a s d i v e r s e
a s a c c o u n t -
i n g , h u m a n r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t a n d m e d i e v a l J e w r y . R e v a w a s
a u t h o r o f D o i n g Y o u r
D i s s e r t a t i o n i n B u s i n e s s a n d M a n
a g e m e n t : T h e
R e a l i t y o f R e s e a r c h i n g a n
d W r i t i n g ( 2 0 0 6 ) , p u b l i s h e d b y S
a g e . P r i o r t o
h e r c a r e e r i n h i g h e r e d u
c a t i o n , R e v a w a s a t e a c h e r a t H e n d o n C o l l e g e
o f F u r t h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d b e f o r e t h a t a t S t G o d r i c ’ s C o l l e g e , L o n d o n .
R e v a a l s o s p e n t a f e w y e a r s a s a f r e e l a n c e j o u r n a l i s t .
M a r k N . K . S a u n d e r s
B A , M S c , P G C E , P h D , C h a r t e r e d F C I P D
i s
P r o f e s s o r o f B u s i n e s s R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s a n d A s s i s t a n t D e a n ( D i r e c t o r
o f R e s e a r c h a n d D o c t o r
a l P r o g r a m m e s ) a t O x f o r d B r o o k e
s U n i v e r s i t y .
H e i s a l s o a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t N e w c a s t l e B u s i n e s s S c
h o o l U n i v e r -
s i t y
o f N o r t h u m b r i a .
H e c u r r e n t l y
t e a c h e s r e s e a r c h
m e t h o d s t o
m a s t e r ’ s a n d d o c t o r a l
s t u d e n t s . M a r k h a s p u b l i s h e d a n u m b e r o f
a r t i c l e s o n r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s , s e r v i c e q u a l i t y , a n d t r u s t a
n d o r g a n i s a-
t i o n a l j u s t i c e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n
t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f c h
a n g e . H e i s
c o- a u t h o r o f R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s f o r B u s i n e s s S t u d e n t s ( 2 0
0 7 ) , S t r a t e g i c
H u m a n R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t ( 2 0 0 7 ) , E m p l o y e e R e l a t i o n s : U
n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e E m p l o y m e n t R e l a t i o n
s h i p ( 2 0 0 3 ) a n d M a n a g i n g C h a n g
e : A H u m a n
R e s o u r c e S t r a t e g y A p p r o a c h ( 2 0 0 0 ) , a l l o f w h i c h
a r e p
u b l i s h e d
b y
F i n a n c i a l T i m e s P r e n t i c e H a l l . H e h a s u n d e r t a k e n c o n s u l t a n c y i n t h e
p u b l i c , p r i v a t e a n d
n o t - f o r - p r o f i t s e c t o r s , p r i o r t o w h i c h h e w a s
e m p l o y e d i n l o c a l g o v e
r n m e n t .
A b o u t t h e a u t h or s
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C h a p t er 1
Wh y y o un e e d t o u s e s t a t i s t i c s i n
y o ur r e s e a
r c h
T h i s c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f s t a t i s t i c s , a n d w h y y o
u n e e d t o u s e
s t a t i s t i c s t o a n a l y s e y o u r
d a t a .
Wh a t i s s t a t i s t i c s ?
P u t s i m p l y , s t a t i s t i c s i s
a r a n g e o f p r o c e d u r e s f o r g a t h e r
i n g , o r g a n i s -
i n g , a n a l y s i n g a n d p r e s e n t i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a .‘ D a t a’ i s
t h e t e r m f o r
f a c t s t h a t h a v e b e e n o
b t a i n e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c o r d
e d , a n d , f o r
s t a t i s t i c i a n s ,‘ d a t a’ u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a t h
a t a r e n u m-
b e r s . E s s e n t i a l l y t h e r e f o
r e , s t a t i s t i c s i s a s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o a n a l y s -
i n g
n u m e r i c a l d a t a
i n o r d e r
t o
e n a b l e
u s
t o
m a x i m i s e
o u r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d u s e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t s t
a t i s t i c s h e l p s
u s t u r n d a t a i n t o i n f o r m
a t i o n ; t h a t i s , d a t a t h a t h a v e b e e n
i n t e r p r e t e d ,
u n d e r s t o o d a n d a r e u s e f u l t o t h e r e c i p i e n t . P u t f o r m a
l l y , f o r y o u r
p r o j e c t , s t a t i s t i c s i s t h e s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s
o f n u m e r i c a l
d a t a , i n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i
g a t e o r d i s c o v e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g p h e n o m-
e n a s o a s t o e x p l a i n , p r e d i c t a n d
c o n t r o l t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e . T h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n f u s i o n
c o m e s f r o m
t h e f a c t t h a t n o t o n l y i s s t a t i s t i c s
t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d o n
q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a , b u t t h e s a m e
w o r d i s a l s o
u s e d t o r e f e r t o t h e n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s f r o m
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s .
I n v e r y b r o a d t e r m s ,
s t a t i s t i c s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o b r a n c h e s –
d e s c r i p t i v e a n d i n f e r e n t i a l s t a t i s t i c s .
1 . D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c
s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a a n d t h e
m e t h o d s f o r d e s c r i b i n g
t h e m . ( ‘ D a t a’ ( f a c t s ) i s t h
e p l u r a l o f
‘ d a t u m’ ( a f a c t ) , a n d t h e r e f o r e a l w a y s n e e d s a p l u r a
l v e r b . ) T h i s
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T h e a d v i c e a b o u
t a v o i d i n g t h e s e f o u r e r r o r s i s
t h a t y o u s h o u l d
q u e s t i o n e v e r y s t a g
e o f y o u r s t a t i s t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , f r o m
t h e d e s i g n
o f y o u r p r o j e c t , t h r o u g h t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s
o f y o u r d a t a , t o
t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
y o u r f i n d i n g s .
D a t a c ol l e c t i on
W e w i l l c o n s i d e r i s
s u e s o f p r i m a r y d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n
C h a p t e r 3 w h e n
w e d i s c u s s w h y y o u n e e d t o l i n k t h e c r e a t i o n o f y o u r q u e s t i o n n a i r e o r
i n t e r v i e w t o y o u r a
n a l y s i s p l a n s . I t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o p o i n t o u t h e r e t h a t
h o w y o u c o l l e c t y o
u r p r i m a r y d a t a a n d h o w y o u m a
k e s e n s e o f w h a t
y o u h a v e c o l l e c t e d
i n o r d e r t o c o m e u p w i t h c r e d i b
l e r e s u l t s a r e n o t
s o m u c h c o n n e c t e d
a s i n t e r t w i n e d .
Y o u w i l l a v o i d a
g r e a t d e a l o f a n x i e t y a n d a n g u i s h
i f y o u u n d e r t a k e
t h e p l a n n i n g o f y o u r a n a l y s i s a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s y o u u n d e r t a k e t h e
p l a n n i n g o f y o u r
d a t a r e q u i r e m e n t s . I t w i l l p r e v e
n t a n u m b e r o f
p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e
s s u c h a s s e l e c t i n g s e c o n d a r y d a t a t h a t w i l l n o t
e n a b l e y o u t o a n s w
e r y o u r q u e s t i o n s f u l l y o r , i n t h e c a s e o f p r i m a r y
d a t a , a s k i n g t h e w r o n g q u e s t i o n s , o r a s k i n g t h e r i g h t q u e s t i o n s i n t h e
w r o n g w a y , o r l e a v i n g o u t q u e s t i o n s y o u s h o u l d
h a v e a s k e d . I n
a d d i t i o n , i t s h o u l d
h e l p y o u a v o i d f i n d i n g t h a t y o u
d o n’ t k n o w h o w
t o a n a l y s e o r i n t e r p r e t t h e d a t a y o u h a v e g o t !
1 0
D e a l i n gwi t h S t a t i s t i c s
C h a p t er 2
Un d er s t an
d i n g
s t a t i s t i c al l an g u a g e
T h i s c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s t h e
t e r m s t h a t y o u a r e g o i n g t o c o m e a c r o s s w h e n y o u
s t a r t o n y o u r s t a t i s t i c a l j o u r n e y .
B a s i c s t a t i s t i c a l v o
c a b ul a r y
B e f o r e y o u b e g i n t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e t h r e e W s – w h i c h s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t ,
w h e n t o u s e i t , a n d w
h y– y o u n e e d t o k n o w
t h e m e a n i n g o f f i v e
i n d i s p e n s a b l e w o r d s : p o p u l a t i o n , s a m p l e , p a r a m e t e r ,
s t a t i s t i c a n d
v a r i a b l e . B r i e f l y , a p o p u
l a t i o n i s t h e c o m p l e t e s e t o f c a s e
s t h a t a r e o f
i n t e r e s t t o y o u ; a s a m p
l e i s t h e s m a l l e r p a r t y o u h a v e s
e l e c t e d f r o m
t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o e x a m
i n e ; a p a r a m e t e r i s a n u m e r i c a l m e a s u r e t h a t
d e s c r i b e s s o m e c h a r a c t e
r i s t i c o f a p o p u l a t i o n ; a s t a t i s t i c i s a n u m e r i c a l
m e a s u r e t h a t d e s c r i b e s
s o m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f y o u r s a m p l e ; a n d a
v a r i a b l e i s a n y a t t r i b u t e
, t r a i t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i n t e r e s t t h a t v a r i e s i n
d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s
o r b e t w e e n c a s e s .
V a r i a b l e s a n d d a t a
V a r i a b l e s a r e t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f y
o u r a n a l y s i s .
O n c e y o u h a v e t h e c a s e s o f y o u r s a m p l e , a s f a r a s
s t a t i s t i c s i s
c o n c e r n e d , y o u a r e g o
i n g t o p r o d u c e a s e t o f n u m b e r s r e l a t e d t o
w h i c h e v e r o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s y o u a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n .
S a m p l e s a r e
m a d e u p o f i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , a n d t h e s e c o u l d b e p e o p l e ,
c a r s , m o n t h s
o f t h e y e a r , d e p a r t m e n t
s o f a n o r g a n i s a t i o n , o r w h a t e v e r
e l s e y o u a r e
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C h a p t er 3
L i nk i n g d a
t a c ol l e c t i on
wi t h an al y
s i s
T h i s c h a p t e r c o n s i d e r s l i n k i n g t h e c r e a t i o n o f y o u r q u e s t i o n n
a i r e o r i n t e r -
v i e w t o y o u r a n a l y s i s p l a
n s , a n d e x p l a i n s w h y y o u s h o u l d d o
s o . H o w e v e r ,
i f y o u a r e u s i n g s e c o n d a r y d a t a t h e n y o u s h o u l d s t i l l r e a d t h i s c h a p t e r a s i t
w i l l b e h e l p f u l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h o w
t h e d a t a y o u
a r e u s i n g w e r e o r i g i n a l l y
c o l l e c t e d a n d t h e a n a l y s i s y o u i n t e n d
t o u n d e r t a k e .
M a t t er s of m e a ni n g
B e f o r e w e b e g i n t o d i s c
u s s l i n k i n g y o u r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n s t r u m e n t o r
i n s t r u m e n t s t o y o u r a n a l y s i s , a s m a l l r e m i n d e r t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , y o u r
r e s e a r c h i s g o i n g m o v e f r o m
t h e d e s c r i p t i v e , w h e r e y o
u a c c u r a t e l y
s h o w
t h e p e o p l e , e v e n t s a n d s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a r e t h e o b j e c t s o f y o u r
r e s e a r c h , t o t h e i n t e r p r
e t a t i v e , w h e r e y o u s u g g e s t m e a n
i n g s t h a t g o
b e y o n d j u s t d e s c r i p t i o n
.
T h e u n d e r l y i n g q u e s
t i o n o f a l l r e s e a r c h i s ‘ ‘ W h a t d o e s i t m e a n ? ’ ’
‘ M e a n i n g’ c a n d e n o t e f o u r t h i n g s :
+
e x p l a i n i n g w h y t h i n
g s h a p p e n a s t h e y d o ( c a u s a t i o n ) ;
+
e s t i m a t i n g f u t u r e o u
t c o m e s ( p r e d i c t i o n ) ;
+
d r a w i n g c o m p a r i s o n
s ;
+
e v a l u a t i n g .
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m
e a n i n g c a n f o c u s o n :
+
f u n c t i o n ( w h a t r o l e
d i d d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s p l a y ? ) ;
h e u n d e r l y i n g q u e s
t i o n o f a l l r e s e a r c h i s ‘ ‘ W h a t d o e s i t m e a n ? ’ ’
‘ M e a n i n g’ c a n d e n o t e f o u r t h i n g s :
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F i n a l c omm en t s
T h e m o r e c a r e f u l y
o u a r e a b o u t l i n k i n g d a t a c o l l e c t i
o n w i t h a n a l y s i s ,
t h e e a s i e r i t w i l l b e t o u n d e r t a k e y o u r a n a l y s i s , t o
u n d e r s t a n d w h a t
t h e d a t a a r e t e l l i n g
y o u , t o d r a w i n t e r e s t i n g a n d v a l u a b l e c o n c l u s i o n s
f r o m
y o u r f i n d i n g s
, a n d , t h e r e f o r e , w r i t e y o u r p r o j e c t r e p o r t .
H o w e v e r , b e f o r e
w e m o v e o n t o t a l k a b o u t p r e s e n t i n g a n d a n a l y s -
i n g d a t a , t w o w a r n
i n g s :
+
A l w a y s c h e c k t h e d a t a h a v e b e e n e n t e r e d c o r r e c t
l y b e f o r e s t a r t i n g
y o u r a n a l y s i s . I t i s f a r e a s i e r t o c o r r e c t d a t a b e f o r e y o u s t a r t y o u r
a n a l y s i s , r a t h e r
t h a n h a v i n g t o b o t h c o r r e c t y o u
r d a t a a n d r e d o
y o u r a n a l y s i s !
+
W h e n y o u s t a r t
y o u r a n a l y s i s b e c a r e f u l t h a t y o u d o n’ t m a k e t h e
c o m m o n m i s t a k
e o f a n a l y s i n g t h e c o d e s t h a t y o u
h a v e s e l e c t e d f o r
y o u r n o m i n a l v
a r i a b l e s ( e . g . g e n d e r , d e p a r t m e n t )
a s n u m b e r s . W e
h a v e o n n u m e r
o u s o c c a s i o n s s e e n p r o j e c t r e p o r
t s w h e r e g e n d e r
w a s c o d e d m a l e 1 f o r m a l e s a n d 2 f o r f e m a l e s , w h i c h t a l k a b o u t
a n a v e r a g e g e n d e r o f 1 . 6 ! T h i s i s w h y w e h a v e
i n s i s t e d t h a t y o u
a l w a y s u n d e r s t
a n d w h a t t y p e s o f d a t a y o u r v a r i a b l e s c o n t a i n
b e f o r e y o u u s e
a n y s t a t i s t i c s .
3 8
D e a l i n gwi t h S t a t i s t i c s
C h a p t er 4
P r e s en t i n g
d a t a
T h i s c h a p t e r s h o w s w h i c h
t a b l e s a n d g r a p h s t o u s e t o p r e s e n t y
o u r s t a t i s t i c a l
d a t a .
T h e m a i n r e a s o n s w h y
y o u s h o u l d b e u s i n g t a b l e s a n
d g r a p h s t o
d i s p l a y y o u r d a t a a r e :
+
( i n
t h e e a r l y s t a g e
s o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s ) t o e x p
l o r e a n d
t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e d a t a
;
+
( w h e n p r e p a r i n g a r e p o r t o r a p r e s e n t a t i o n ) t o m a k e
y o u r p o i n t s
c l e a r l y .
T a b l e s a n d g r a p h s w i l l
e n a b l e y o u t o d e s c r i b e , c o m p a r e
a n d c o n t r a s t
v a r i a b l e s , s h o w
r e l a t i o
n s h i p s b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e s , a n d p r e s e n t i n a
‘ p i c t u r e’ w h a t w o u l d t a k e a g r e a t m a n y w o r d s t o d e s
c r i b e . A s , i n
g e n e r a l , c a t e g o r i c a l a n
d n u m e r i c a l d a t a ( F i g u r e 2 . 1 ) u s e d i f f e r e n t
t a b l e s a n d g r a p h s , w e h a v e s t r u c t u r e d t h i s c h a p t e r t o r e
f l e c t t h i s .
P r e s en t i n g c a t e g o
r i c a l d a t a u s i n g t a b l e s
T a b l e s p r e s e n t i n f o r m a t i o n i n r o w s a n d c o l u m n s , a n d s h o u l d b e u s e d
w h e n y o u w a n t t o s u m
m a r i s e i n f o r m a t i o n s o t h a t s p e c i f i c v a l u e s c a n
b e g r a s p e d q u i c k l y a n
d e a s i l y . B e s i d e s ‘ n o r m a l ’ t a b l e
s t h a t d o n’ t
r e q u i r e a n y c a l c u l a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n p e r c e n t a g e s , t h e r e a r e o t h e r s
w h i c h p r o d u c e t h e r e s u
l t s o f s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s i n a c o m p r e
h e n s i b l e a n d
c o n c i s e w a y .