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Thurstone Scale

Thurstone scale was the first formal

technique for measuring attitude. There are three types of scale

Equal-appearing intervals method

Successive intervals method

Paired comparisons method

Business Research MethodsPage 1

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Thurstone Scale

Write statements (positive and negative)

related to the attitude under study. Judges are asked to sort the statements

into eleven (11) stacks from most positive

to most negative.


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Neutral Most +tv /Favourable

Most -tv /Unfavourable

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Thurstone Scale

For each statement, plot the distribution

of points assigned by the judges.


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Median

Inter Quartile Range(Q3-Q1)

Choosethose itemsthat are at

equalintervals

(from 1 to 11)and that

have thesmallestinter quartile

range

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Thurstone Scale

For final selection of items of the scale,

sort the table of Medians and Interquartile Range 1st in ascending order by

Median and then in descending order by

Inter quartile Range. Select statements that are at equal

intervals across the range of medians.


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Thurstone Scale

We may select one statement for each of

the 11 median values. For the samemedian value, select the statement that

has the smallest Inter Quartile Range

(because this is the statement with the least variabilityacross all judges).

The median values of the statements are

weight of the statements. (Do not display the

weights in the questionnaire).

Questionnaire is ready.Business Research MethodsPage 5

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Thurstone Scale

Subjects are asked to tick the statements

that they agree.A Subjects score (agreement with

favourableness) is the average of the weights

of all the items that he/she agrees with.


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Semantic Differential

Semantic differential is a type of a rating

scale designed to measure theconnotative meaning (beyond the literal

meaning) of events, concepts or attitudes.

It measures people's reactions in terms ofratings on bipolar scales defined with

contrasting adjectives at each end.

For me skipping class is

Good _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Bad.


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Please rate car model A on each of the

following dimensions Durable_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Not durable

Low fuel cons. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _High fuel cons.


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A subject checks one blank indicating his

opinion. Blanks are scored 1-7. Groups ofsubjects can then be compared.


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Survey Research


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Survey Research

Survey research is used to quantitatively

describe specific aspects of a givenpopulation.

Data are collected from people and hence

they are subjective.

It uses a sample from the population and

the findings are generalized for the

population.


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Survey

A survey is a data collection tool for

carrying out survey research. It gathers information on the actions,

characteristics, opinions of people.

Survey is used to assess needs, demand,

examine impact of some action.

The term survey instrument is used to

distinguish Survey tool from the Survey

research that it is meant to support.


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Strength and Weakness of Survey

A large number of variables, including

peoples attitude can be studied throughsurvey.

Survey provides estimates for the true

population characteristics and not exactmeasurements for the population. Hence,

there is a chance of error in the estimates.


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Strength and Weakness of Survey

Survey estimates may have biases

(deviation from true value) due toLack of response from target participants.

Non-accurate responses of respondents.

Intentional misreporting of behaviour bysubjects.

Respondents not able to assess their own

behaviour or do not remember the situationsurrounding their behaviour.


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Classification of Survey Research

Method of communication

Personal Interviews

Telephone interviews

Self-administered interviews

Temporal basis

Longitudinal study

o Panel study

Cross-sectional study


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Classification of Survey Research

Structured and Disguised questions


Structured Unstructured

Undisguised Closed ended directquestions.

Open endedquestions in anexploratory survey.

Disguised Attitudinal studies. Projectivetechniques.

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Measurement Error

Variation in response which cannot be

attributed to the variable being measured. The measurement is expressed as M=T+e,

where M is the measured value, T is the

True value, and e is the error.

Types of Measurement Errors

Random

Systematic


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Random Error

All chance factors (uncontrollable) that

confound (get mixed) with measurementof any phenomenon.

They are expected to cancel each other

out in the long run: in direction andmagnitude.


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Total Error

RandomSampling

Error

SystematicError

Admin Error

Respondent Error

Non Response

Error

Response Bias

Sample Selection Error

Data Processing Error

Interviewer Error

Interviewer Cheating

Errors in Survey Research

Page 19 Business Research Methods

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ResponseBias

DeliberateFalsification

Unconsciousmisrepresentation

Acquiescence

bias

ExtremityBias

Interviewerbias

Auspicesbias

Socialdesirability

bias

Errors in Survey Research

Tendency to agree

Respondent influencedBy person collecting data

..


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Types of Random Errors

Transient qualities

Mood, motivation, degree of alertness,boredom, fatigue etc. of the individual.

Situational factors

Physical settingso Noise level, lighting etc.

o Presence of peers.


S i E

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Systematic Error

Factors that consistently / systematically

affect the variable being measured.Education.

Personal style of individual to make

response.o Social desirability - a tendency to give a favourable

impression of oneself.

o Acquiescence - a tendency to agree with

statements irrespective of their contents.

o Deviation - a tendency to give unusual or

uncommon responses.


S i E

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Systematic Error

Personal style .(continued)

o Contrast error - a tendency to rate others asopposite to oneself in regard to a particular trait or

characteristics.

o Halo effect - a tendency to be unduly influenced by

a single favorable trait.o Error of leniency - a tendency to rate too high or to

always give favorable response.

o Error of severity - a tendency to rate too low or to

always give unfavorable reports.

o Error of central tendency - a tendency to rate in the

middle, thus avoiding any extreme positions.


C i i i h d

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Communication with respondents

Human interactive media.

Electronic interactive media.

Non-interactive media.


I t ti di

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Interactive media

Personal interview

More information due to face to faceinteraction.

Clarification of doubts.

Probing.Less non-response.

Use of aid.


I t ti di

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Interactive media

Personal interview

Door-to-door interviewo Better sample space.

o Less non-response.

o Household information. Intercept interview


I t ti di

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Interactive media

Disadvantages of Personal interview

More time and cost.Skilled interviewers.

More respondent bias on issues that they do

not want to share and get exposed.


I t ti di

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Interactive media

Telephonic interview

Interviewer can remain in a central place.Fast and cost effective.

Absence of face to face contact is helpful in

collecting some sensitive data.Not 100% people have telephone.

Interview can end abruptly.


N i t ti di

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Non-interactive media

Self administered questionnaire

Mail questionnaireEmails

Internets


S lf d i i t d ti i

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Mail questionnaire

Cover large geographical area.Respondents answer at own convenience.

Comparatively low cost.

Answering sensitive questions easier due toabsence of any interviewer.

Response rate is usually low.

Usually structured questionnaire.

A follow up call letter can be used.


S lf d i i t d ti i

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Emails

Low cost.Can reach only those having emails.

Can be useful for a within company survey.

Risk of same respondent sending multipleresponse.

Easy to follow up.


S lf d i i t d ti i

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Internet survey

Low cost and high speed.Easy for the respondents to fill questionnaire.

Can be useful for a very specific group of

respondents.Easy to follow up.


Observational techniques

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Observational techniques

Direct observation

Pantry auditOptical scanner

Bar codes

Monitoring web site traffic

On-line purchase.


Pantry audit

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Pantry audit

It is a method to estimate consumption of

goods at consumer level. Types, quantity and price of goods

purchased are captured.

Objective is to find out what type of

consumer buys which brand (preference).

Can be misleading when promotional or

other offers are present.


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Sampling

Population & Sample

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Population & Sample

Population

All elements of interest in a study.

Samples

A representative subset or part of the

population.

Sampling theory is associated with

finding out the unknown population

characteristics with the help of samplesdrawn from it.


Population & Sample

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Population & Sample

Population

Sample


Name of all residents of a city, asappears in the telephone directory.

A few residents of a city, selectedfrom the telephone directory.

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

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Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

All units in the population have equal

probability of selection.All units are assigned an unique identity.

Sample of predetermined size is chosen

from the population.


Simple Random Sampling Example

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Simple Random Sampling - Example

Draw a sample of 10 customers from 40.

Write name of each customer in a piece ofpaper.

Put them in a box.

Pick up ten pieces of paper from the box.


Simple Random Sampling Example

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Simple Random Sampling - Example

Draw a sample of 10 customers from 40.

Assign numbers 1 to 40 to customers.Chose a Random Number from (1,40).

Suppose the number selected is 23.

The customer with number 23 assigned isselected.

Repeat the process.


Advantage / Disadvantage

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Advantage

SimpleAnalysis of data is reasonably easy.

Disadvantages

If population is heterogeneous estimates

have large variance.


Stratified Sampling

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Stratified Sampling

This is done when population is

heterogeneous w.r.t. the characteristic wewant to measure.

The population is sub divided into

mutually exclusive groups or STRTA, sothat each Stratum is nearly homogeneous.

Samples from each Stratum is selected

based on SRS.


Stratified Sampling Example

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Stratified Sampling - Example

A cell phone service provider wants to

increase market share. In order to capturecustomers voice, wants to make a survey

What extra benefits do the customers desire.

Customers could be divided into Stratabased on income group / Age /

Occupation.



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Advantage

Stratification produces a gain in precision inthe estimates.

Disadvantage

Strata formation is based on characteristics.


Systematic Sampling

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Systematic Sampling

Each unit of Population is assigned a

serial number. Selection of 1st unit in the sample is

based on SRS.

Subsequent units selected are every nthunit. (n is a predetermined number).


Systematic Sampling - Example

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Systematic Sampling - Example

A bank want to get feedback from

customers on their service quality. 1st customer is selected based on SRS.

Next, every 10th subsequent customer in

the queue is selected, till a pre decidedsample size.



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Advantage

Easy procedure.Often more precise than simple random

sampling as more evenly spread over the

population.Disadvantage

In certain cases leads wrong result due to

periodic selection of sample.


Cluster Sampling

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Cluster Sampling

The population is divided into Clusters.

Sample from each Cluster is drawn basedon SRS.

Units within a Cluster are not

homogeneous (as in the case of StratifiedSampling).

Each Cluster is a small representation of

population.


Cluster Sampling - Example

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Cluster Sampling - Example

Government wants to find out

effectiveness of immunization program. Entire population is divided into localities

(Clusters).

Sample is drawn from each cluster.



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Advantage

Easy procedure.Cost effective.

Disadvantage

Formation and selection of cluster plays animportant role.


Sampling

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Sampling

Sample provides only anEstimate of the actual

population parameters.


Sample Size

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Sample Size

We need an idea about the standard

deviation of the variable under study.We have to decide on the Precision of

estimate desired (error).

We have to decide on the Confidencelevel (%) with which we want to make the

estimate.


Sample Size

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Sample Size

The formula is,

Sample size=

Where, Z( /2) is the Normal ordinate for the

confidence Level.Generally taken as 1.96 for prediction with

95% confidence.

2

2

ErrorAllowable

Z

n


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QuestionnaireDesign

Questionnaire Design

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Questions to be asked.

Phrasing/ Type of the questions. Sequence of questions.

Questionnaire layout.

Pretest of questionnaire.



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Make a list of variables.

Background variablesDependent variables

Independent variables

Anticipate how data will be analyzed.


Questions to be asked

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Management questions

Basically the management dilemma.Research questions

The questions for which the researcher must

find answers based on facts and provideanswer to the management questions.

Investigative questions

Specific questions that the researcher mustanswer to provide details to the research

questions.



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Measurement questions

Questions that are put to the questionnaireand respondents provide answers.


Types of Questions

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Types of Questions

Pre-coded, single-choice questions.

Open-ended questions. Presence-absence questions.

Rank-ordering questions.

Likert-type questions.


Pre-Coded Single-Choice

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Pre Coded Single Choice

Pre-coded, single-choice questions ask

respondents to indicate which onecategory applies.

Answers are pre-coded for easy data entry.

If all options can not be listed, include acategory Other with a space to indicate

what the Other category implies.

Pleasespecify ______________

Categories should be mutually-exclusive.

No categories overlap with one another.Business Research MethodsPage 60

Open-Ended Questions

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Open Ended Questions

Open-ended questions do not have pre-

set answers.Use open-ended questions when

Too many response categories.

Dont know the possible categories.

Qualitative data collection.


Open-Ended Caution

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Open Ended Caution

Do not have too many open-ended

questionsTime-consuming to code.

Responses have large variations.

More likely to be left blank.May decrease response rate

Takes more time to complete questionnaire.

Use opinion-seeking questions sparingly.

Place open-ended questions towards theend.


Presence-Absence Questions

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Presence Absence Questions

Presence-absence questions ask

respondents to choose which items in alist do or do not apply to them (or they

agree or disagree).


Rank-Ordering Questions

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Rank Ordering Questions

Rank-order questions ask respondents to

indicate an ordering of response items -from most preferred to least preferred.

These types of questions should be

avoided or minimized because they taketime.


Questionnaire Development

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p

Use a brief statement to introduce the

survey to the respondentWho is conducting/sponsoring the study

Assure confidentiality and anonymity

Place easy to answer/salient questions at thebeginning

Avoid double-barreled question.Question that covers more than one issue.

Avoid Leading / Loaded questionLeading questions imply answer. Loaded

questions suggest a desirable answer.


Questionnaire Development

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p

Decide on question sequence.Order bias.

o Ordering of questions may lead to respondentmaking biased choice of options.

o Simple to Complex / General to specific questions(Funnel technique).


Pre-test

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Pre-test the questionnaire

May start by filling out the survey yourself.Ask for feedback on the questionnaire.

o Is it too long? Any problem with wording?

Pilot studySend questionnaire to a small sample of

respondents.

Use response data to make modificationo Modify unclear questions, create pre-coded,

single-choice questions based on responses to

open-ended questions etc.

brm lecture 16-19, 22-23

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