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Murphy, Carol; Jenks, LynnGetting a Job--What Skills Are Needed? ResearchBrief.Far West Lab. for Educational Research andDevelopment, San Francisco, Calif.Natiortl Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.Nov 8120p.; Printed on colored paper.Reports - Research/Technical (143)

14F01/PC01 Plus Postage.*College Graduates; Communication kills; EducationalNeeds; *Education Work Relationship; *EmployerAttitudes; *Employment Potential; *Entry Workers;General Education; Higher Education; Job Application;Job Search Methods; Job Skills; Liberal Arts; Majors(Students); *Professional Occupations; VerbalAbility

ABSTRACTFar West Laboratory conducted a series of interviews

with employers to identify the characteristics of a successfulapplicant for entry-level professional employment. The jobopportunities investigated were possible avenues of employment forcollege graduates in general studies fields, and did not includethose requiring specialized degrees or courses of study. The employersample of 48 persons represented the six largest employment areas inthe San Francisco Bay Area (service, transportation, communicationand utilities, finance and insurance, government, retail, andmanufacturing) and included large and small companies and private andnonprofit organizations. The employers recommended that students geta "practical" minor such as business or computing, developtransferable skills, develop job-search skills, and get experience,possibly through internships, cooperative work programs, or volunteerwork. Employers stressed that students need both functional andadaptive skills for entry-level employment. In the area of functionalskills, they stressed communication and persuasion, organizationalmanagement, research and investigation, human service, informationmanagement, and design and planning. Adaptive skills cited asimportant by employers were in the areas of aptitude, attitude,self-management, and work habits. Good verbal and writtencommunication skills were often cited by employers as importantqualities that many job applicants lack. College faculty who wereshown the survey results responded that many of the skills desired byemployers are already being taught in liberal arts courses, but thatperhaps they could be made more specific and employment related. Theprofessors saw no need to change the curriculum but thought thatnecessary skills could be incorporated with a change of attitude.(KC)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *

* from the original document. *

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U S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL 'NJ:int ut I DuCAIION

V

RCH BRIEF

GETTING A JOB WHATSKILLS ARE NEEDED?

by Carol Murphy and Lynn Jenks

What does it take for a collegeCr. graduate to get a job in today'sCNJ competitive professional job market?4) What skills and attitudes are mostrw4 valued by employers?

Far West Laboratory has completeda series of interviews with employers

to identify the characteristics of asuccessful applicant for entry-levelprofessional employment. The job

opportunities investigated werepossible avenues of employment forgeneral studies graduates, and there-fore did not include those requiringspecialized degrees or courses of

study.*The term "entry-level professional

employment" was used in the study todesignate jobs at the beginning salarylevel which are filled by collegegraduates with no prior paid experiencein the field.

`k

*The general studies curriculum includesofferings in the natural sciences, socialsciences, humanities and fine arts. Thejobs described can be categorized as(1)apprenticeships where ti.e job holder

is at an hassistant" or "associate" levelwith a clear promotional track into asenior level position; (2)managementtrainee positions where the job holderis hired and placed in a 6-18 monthtraining program for a junior managementslot and the career track to a seniormanagement position is clearly outlined;(3)professional positions which are entry-

level positions with potential advancementwithin that category; they are eithermanagement or non-management positions.

-11ERMIS)110N to REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS /TEE N GRANTED BY

To THE EDUCATIONAL itEI-TOUTICESINFORMATION CE.N TER (ERIC)

November 1982

The employer sample of forty-eightpersons represented the six largestemployment areas in the San FranciscoBay Area:(1)service;(2)transportation,communication & utilities;(3)financeand insurance;(4)government;(5)retail;(6)manufacturing. The sample includedboth large and small companies andprivate and nonprofit organizations.The employers' responses and recommen-dations to students and educators re-garding qualifications and employmentpreparation form an important database for counselors and educators in-terested in increasing the employabil-ity of college graduates, especiallythose graduates with a degree in ageneral studies area.

While the number of employers weinterviewed was small, only forty eight,there was a notable consistency in their

responses which makes the data reliable

for use by prospective job seekers,counselors, and instructors as an indi-cator of employers' preferred skills

and traits. These findings, which arelimited to nontechnical job categories,may not be uniformly applicable acrossall jobs. It is also important to keepin mind that there could be biases inthe data, and it is possible thatdifferent responses might have beenencountered with a different set of

repondents.This research brief will present a

general overview of the findings re-lated to preparing for professionalemployment and making a successfulcollege-to-work transition. The specificskills and attitudes identified by

.(!OFAR WEST LABORATORY2

FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT1855 FOLSOM STREE T SAN FRANCISCO. CALIFORNIA 94103 (415) 565 3000

am COPY MAIM

employers as important faetors inobtaining professional employment willbe identified.*

EMPLOYERS' ADVICE TOSTUDENTS

The bulk of the suggestions, oradvice, offered to students by employ-ers can be summarized in the followingfour points:

1. Get a "practical" minor such asbusiness or computing or take asummer workshop or specializedcourses that focus on acquiringsome task-specific skills.

2. Develop certain skills which willbe "transferable" to many jobsituations. These will enhancethe applicant's overall appealor "marketability" at the outsetand will also help in the longrun as job-specific tasks changeor a person undergoes a changein career.

3. Develop good job search skills.Some of those mentioned wereresume writing, interviewing,and researching the current jobmarket opportunities and employ-ment trends.

4. Get experience. Internships,coop ed programs, field-studycourses, volunteer work andextra-curricular activitieswere mentioned as helpfultransitions to the demands ofthe world of work.

The attitude of employers whenoffering this advice was one of supportand encouragement for obtaining adegree in general studies. Manysuggested supplementing a general

*Details of methodology and additionalresults are described in the final re-port of the project which is availablefrom Far West Laboratory, 1855 FolsomStreet, San Francisco, CA 94103. It

is also available through ERIC.

2

studies background with specializedcourses, but they did not advisestudents to avoid the general studiesprogram. In fact, many employers sawvalue in these courses both in termsof immediate and long-term benefitsbecause this type of program helpsstudents develop non-technical ortransferable functional skills. Theseskills, although they are sometimesmore difficult to identify or assess,are important not only for gettinga job but also for on-the-job training,advancement and later career change.

In addition to characterizingsuccessful applicants in terms ofspecific skills and attitudes, the em-ployers were 31so asked about thequality of the preparation for theworld of work that students were re-ceiving in college. On the whole, theygave favorable replies regarding thepreparation in content areas. Theywere, however, greatly disappointed inthe applicants' writing skills.

Negative comments referred togrammatical deficiencies as well as alack of "practical" or business writingskills. The point was made thatwriting .a term paper or an essay examis not the same as writing advertisingcopy or a business letter.

The other skill deficiencies citedwere in verbal communication andproblem-solving. Many employers re-ported they were prepared to offeron-the-job training for specificjob-related skills, but they expectedapplicants to have already developedgood verbal and written communicationskills. The practical side of thesegeneral skills was repeatedly em-phasized as being very important, andstudents were advised to get experiencein applying their skills in a realwork environment.

Along the same lines, employersreported another deficiency in collegeapplicants--the lack of understandingof the "processes and demands of theworkplace." They complained thatstudents do not know how to act in abusiness environment, they're often un-realistic and have poor work attitudes.They disagreed with the idea that anycollege graduate can be a manager becausemany don't have good business heads.

'A college education is notenough. You have to bewilling to work."

Their view was that too much "theorybecomes a liability if students don'tknow how to put it into practice

"Students don't realize thatpublishing isn't academic; itis really a profit-makingbusiness."

The employers used their strongestlanguage in describing this lack ofpreparation for the world of work.They called it "horrible", "poor","distressing", and "disappointing."

"Academe doesn't teach what reallife is about. They shouldteach getting to work on time."

"Colleges need to teach themto come to work on time, dressappropriately and put in a

good day's work."

Employers also stressed the impor-tance of preparing for the job inter-view and "selling yourself" during that

interview.

"Liberal arts majors makepoor sales pitchesforthemselves. They expectthe interviewer to guesshow wonderful they are."

Part of that "selling yourself"includes good personal appearance,knowing what you want to do, demon-strating an interest in the companyas well as a willingness to work.

"Some people have blown a lotof money on a college education.A college education is notenough. You have to be willing

to work. You have to walk in,sit down and say 'I want to

work.'"

4

EMPLOYERS' NON-TECHNICALSKILL PRIORITIES

Although several lists of "non-technical", "transferable", or "liberal"skills have been devised by educators,by researchers, or cooperatively byeducators and employers, they werenot used as a part of the interviewinstrument. The purpose of the inquiry

was to obtain the employers' priorities.The result was a list of non-technicalskill requirements that is unique inthat it represents employabilitycharacteristics named by the employerswithout their being prompted or influ-enced by any skill list or group discus-sion. The skills noted in the tablesthat follow are the verbatim responsesof the employers. Their choice of wordshas been retained even though thedescription is sometimes ratherspecific to a certain job or workplace.

Not surprisingly, most of theemployer-mentioned skills are found on

the other lists. The summary of theresponses presented here includes anindication of the number of times theskills were mentioned by employers. Inorder to minimize the possibility ofthe responses being incomplete orbeing biased by recent events on thejob, several questions were asked duringeach interview that would require therespondents to re-state the skill re-

quirements.Three types of skills are needed

for successful job performance-- -adaptive, functional and specificcontent skills. And since the focusof this inquiry was on the non-technicalskill requirements, data will be pre-sented on the two types of non-technicalskills, functional and adaptive.

Functional skills are task-relatedcompetences that are not limited to anyparticular setting. They include infor-mational and interpersonal skills whichare transferable across specific jobclassifications.* Sample functional

*Breen, Paul; Donlon, Thomas F.;Whitaker, Urban, Teaching and AssessingInterpersonal Competence--A CAELHandbook, Council for the Advancement

of Experientia Learning, 1977.

skills are questioning, organizing,analyzing, listening, forecasting, anddecision-making. For the purposes ofdata organization and display of theemployer-identified functional skills,the skill cluster format devised byMunce and similar to that of Breen wasadopted.* This classification schemais compatible with the employers'terminology, accommodates all thetask-oriented functions described,and provides a useful context fordiscussing the implications of thedata in terms of both job categoriesand learning outcomes. (see TABLE I)

Adaptive skills describe themanner in which the employees interactwith their environment, includingrelations to people, to organizations,to time and space, and to physicalconditions. They are closely relatedto personality traits and when usedin the appropriate environment, helpthe worker adapt to that environment.Sample adaptive skills are tactfulness,flexibility, creativity and assertive-ness. Again, for the purposes of datadisplay and also to facilitate subse-quent discussion of these skills interms of type as well as each indivi-dual trait, the employer responseswere organized according to the cate-gories and descriptors outlined inTABLE II.

It is clear from the employers'responses that both types of skills,functional and adaptive, are needed.There is also a definite indicationof employers' preference for certaintypes of these skills. Almost 40% ofthe functional skill responses are inthe "communication and persuasion"category. This is over twice thenumber of responses for the nextcategory. The adaptive skills namedby employers cover a wide range ofattitudes, personality traits andwork habits. Without a job-orientedcontext, many of them seem abstract orsubjective, but in fact most of theseskills were described in terms of job

*Munce, John W. "Toward a ComprehensiveModel of Clustering Skills," NSIEEOccasional Paper, 1981. Breen, Paul,"76 Career-Related Liberal Arts Skills,"AAHE Bulletin, October, 1981.

4

performance, not personality. Forexample, a "non-perfectionist" and"quick learner" was needed to meetheavy production deadlines, and only a"self-motivated, aggressive and deter-mined person would qualify to be asales representative.

If job seekers were to take em-ployers at their word and orientthemselves accordingly, which skillsand traits should they acquire? The"top ten" functional and adaptiveskills preferred by the employers aresummarized in TABLE III.

Which Skills Are Most Important?It is a relatively straightforward

task to list the types of preferredskills, but it is more difficult todetermine the relationship betweenthe two kinds of skills. While theinterview instrument was not designedto provide data on the comparativevalue of the skills, the responses totwo of the questions offer some cluesas to the relative merits of theskills:

I. What is the critical differencebetween those who get hired forthis position and those who donot?

2. If the job market gets tighter,which of the skills you havenamed will be most valued?

Although self-presentation in theinterview and experience were bothimportant factors, the majority of therespondents said the critical differencein hiring was the applicant's non-technical skills (TABLE IV). Mostmentioned at least one non-technicalskill, and many cited more than one.Only five of the forty-eight employerscited task-specific skills as thecritical factor in hiring. Some em-ployers commented that coursework wasnot as important as certain abilities,attitudes or experiences. Many acr.vtedjob experience or extracurricularactivities as evidence of the qualities

TABLE I

FUNCTIONAL SKILLS REQUIRED FOR ENTRY-LEVEL PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT*

COMMUNICATION & PERSUASION (116)exchange, transmission and expressionof knowledge and ideas

communication (28)writing (28)verbal communication (23)listening (10)training (4)

selling ability (4)language (4)interviewing (3)asking questions (2)making presetations (2)negotiating (2)thinking on one's feet (2)conversational abilitydealing with publicpublic speakingteaching

ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT (57)direct and guide a group in completingtasks and attaining goals

problem solving (15)time management (8)decisionmaking (7)leadership (5)

meet deadlines (4)supervision (3)ability to motivate (2)

organization (2)coordination (2)administrationability to put theory into practiceability to delegateapply policiesgive directionsassume respor.sibilitytask discriminationinterpret policiesset priorities

RESEARCH & INVESTIGATION (38)the search for specific knowledge

analyze (13)research (9)reading (5)data gathering (4)critical thinking (2)data analysis (2)

observingoutline assumptionstheoretical skills

HUMAN SERVICE (37)attend to physical, mental orsocial-needs of people

interpersonal skills (24)group process (4)sensitivity to needs (4)empathize (2)

counseling (2)involvement in public activities

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT (31)arrange and retrieve data,knowledge, ideas

math skills (10)

organize information (10)

information management (4)

recordkeeping (4)

attention to detail (2)logical ability

DESIGN & PLANNING (13)imagine the future and describea process for creating it

anticipate problems (3)plan (3)

conceptualize (2)design programs (2)anticipate consequences of action:ecruit new ideasvisual thinking

*Number of multiple responses indicated in parentheses

5

TABLE IIADAPTIVE SKILLS REQUIRED FOR ENTRY-LEVEL PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT*

APTITUDE (19)capacity for learning

SELF MANAGEMENT (218)personal style & appearance

6

WORK HABITS (57)toward work characteristics of work performance,

Indicators of work orientation, work orientationwork values

understands teamwork(7) handles setbacks well (2)interest in work (8) precise (6) hardworking (2)commitment to job (7) handles pressure (5) makes extra effort (2)willing to work overtime (6) handles stress (4) takes risks (2)desire to work in field (5) handles conflict (3) task-oriented (2)willing to be trained (3) self-directed (3) good judgment

belief in agency (2) understands work generates ideas

dedicated (2) environment (3) gives others creditbelief that work is meaningful accepts criticism (2) goal-orientedsensitivity to job adheres to schedule (2) productivewilling to hold low status job follows through (2) punctual

good work habits (2) results-orientedtakes initiative

ith others (7) handles self well

toward others friendly (7) helpful

indicators of social values cooperative (6) inspires participationcompatible (4) inspires confidence

altruistic. responsive (3) makes a good impression

tblerant of cultural differences hospitable (3) people-oriented

social commitment public relations (2) presence

social concern put people at ease (2) sensitive to authenticity

sensitive to lifestyle differences charismatic understands peoplevalues self-motivated people

*Number of multiple responses indicated in parentheses

WORK HABITS (57)toward work characteristics of work performance,

Indicators of work orientation, work orientationwork values

understands teamwork(7) handles setbacks well (2)interest in work (8) precise (6) hardworking (2)commitment to job (7) handles pressure (5) makes extra effort (2)willing to work overtime (6) handles stress (4) takes risks (2)desire to work in field (5) handles conflict (3) task-oriented (2)willing to be trained (3) self-directed (3) good judgment

belief in agency (2) understands work generates ideas

dedicated (2) environment (3) gives others creditbelief that work is meaningful accepts criticism (2) goal-orientedsensitivity to job adheres to schedule (2) productivewilling to hold low status job follows through (2) punctual

good work habits (2) results-orientedtakes initiative

6

*Number of multiple responses indicated in parentheses

TABLE III

TOP TEN NON-TECHNICAL SKILLS NAMED BY EMPLOYERS(n= 48)

FUNCTIONAL ADAPTIVE

Communication 28 Tactful 21

Writing 28 Assertive 11

Verbal skills 2 Outgoing 9

Interpersonal skills 24 Fast learner 9

Problem solving 15 Positive attitude 8

Analysis 13 Interested in work 8

Listening 10 Good appearance 8

Math skills 10 Motivated 8

Organize information 10 Self-promoting 8

Research 9 Good self-presentation 8

TABLE IV

WHAT IS THE CRITICAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THOSEWHO GET HIRED AND THOSE WHO DO NOT?

(n= 48)

SKILLS 63

Adaptive* ?4

Functional** 24

Task-specific 5

INTERVIEWPRESENTATION 15

EXPERIENCE 14

*Adaptive skills mentioned more than once:commitment, interest, initiative, fitting in,assertiveness, enthusiasm, and intelligence.

**Functional skills mentioned more than once:communication, interpersonal skills, meetingdeadlines, ability to answer questions.

they were seeking, i.e. leadership,problem-solving, positive attitudeabout work.

Some of the respondents noted thatthe desired combination of skills andcharacteristics could be demonstratedby the applicant during the job inter-view through good verbal presentation,a positive and professional attitudeand a sincere interest in the job andthe company.

Toward the end of the interview,question 2 was asked in order to deter-mine which skill(s) employers considered

most valuable for an applicant to havein view of the current overall jobmarket situation. This question,although more genera' in nature thanthe first one, elicited a similar re-sponse in that both types of non-technical skills were listed as beingimportant. (TABLE V) The number offunctional skills named for the secondquestion, however, was almost twicethat of the first. But in each case,the two most frequently mentioned werecommunication and interpersonalskills.

7 8

TABLE V

IF THE JOB MARKET GETS TIGHTER, WHICH OF THE SKILLSYOU HAVE NAMED WILL BE MOST VALUED?

(n=48)

FUNCTIONAL 43 Skills mentioned more than once: communication,interpersonal skills, analysis, writing, verbalability, research and ability to sell.

ADAPTIVE 31 Skills mentioned more than once: good self-presentation, aggressive, energetic, sensitive,assertive, quick learner, articulate, and desireto work.

TASK-SPECIFIC 6 None mentioned more than once.

Which. Skills Are DevelopedOn- the -Job?

The relationship between the twotypes of skills can be further exploredby considering employers' responses tothe question of which skills are devel-oped on-the-job.

Twenty-eight (28) employers offeredtraining in job-specific or technicalskills which for the most part involvedknowledge about the policies or pro-cedures of their company. Thirty-two(32) employers trained for specificfunctional skills. It is interestingthat of the fifteen different functionalskills mentioned in TABLE VI, sevenare in the category of organizationmanagement. This is not surprisingsince some of the jobs described weremanagement trainee positions. But italso may be an indication of an im-plied hierarchy in the functionalskills with the more basic skills ofwriting, verbal communication, andsimple problem-solving as entry-levelskills and with administration, manage-ment and supervision as the more advan-ced skills developed through trainingor experience.

Not one adaptive skill was cited aspart of a training program. As severalemployers put it, "we can't teachpersonality," and "they have to havethe appropriate personality ahead oftime." So the adaptive skills are nota formal part of any training program,although some cf those relating tointerpersonal style and work habitsmay be informally acquired on the job.

8

TABLE VI

WHICH SKILLS ARE DEVELOPED ON THE JOB?(n=48)

FUNCTIONAL

Management 8

Supervision 5

Writing 4

Organization 3

Communication 2

SellingResearch 1

Conflict management 1

Listening 1

Administration 1

Budget 1

Group dynamicsCounseling 1

Interviewing 1

Time management 1

72-

TECHNICAL/TASK SPECIFIC

Technical skills (unspecified) 9

Information about the company 9

Use of equipment 2

Retail procedures 2

Computer skills 2

Knowledge of the product 2

Labor laws 1

Public safety 1

28

AI

What Skill-Related ProblemsDo Employees Have?

Adaptive skills are, however, acrucial part of the review and pro-motion process. When employers wereasked about the types of problems theyencountered with entry-level employees,they cited 41 adaptive skill deficien-cies as opposed to only 21 functionalskill deficiencies. (TABLE VII)

The employers' responses to thesequestirns indicate that adaptive skillsare a critical factor both in gettinga job and in on-the-job performance.

They also show that although some maybe informally acquired on-the-job,they are not a part of any formaltraining program. Students as pro-spective job applicants should beaware of the importance of theseskills before they begin their jobsearch efforts. They should also beencouraged by faculty or advisors toseek opportunities either on-campusor off-campus that will help themacquire or practice these skills.

TABLE VIIWHAT KINDS OF PROBLEMS DO YOU HAVE WITH

NEW, ENTRY-LEVEL EMPLOYEES?(n = 48)

FUNCTIONALSKILL PROBLEMS*

21 responses

Lack of interpersonal skills (6)Unable to meet deadlines (5)Unable to set nrioritiesUnable to delegateInconsistent leadership styleInattentive to detailUnable to write lettersLack of organization skillsPoor problem-solving abilityFailure to acquire needed informationPoor writingLack of research and analysis skills

*Number of multiple responsesindicated in parentheses.

ADAPTIVESKILL PROBLEMS*

41 responses

Unwilling to do extra work (4)Negative attitude (3)Tardiness (3)Does not understand the demands

of business environment (3)Laziness (2)Interpersonal conflict (2)Unprofessional (2)

Unable to learn quickly enoughDoing personal work on company

timeDoes not know what is expectedDoes not anticipate enoughDoes not have personal goalsGets discouragedGets boredViolates company policyWorks too slowlySelf-centeredMorale problemPoor concentrationIrresponsibleJob burnoutPersonal problemsInflexibleLacks follow throughUnable to fit inUnwilling to do drudge workUnable to work without structureUnable to correct deficienciesLacks precision

9

EMPLOYERS' ADVICETO EDUCATORS

Colleges have many purposes andstudents have many different reasonsfor attending them, including intel-lectual development, a broad under-standing of various fields of study,personal fulfillment, and learningfor its own sake. But if making asuccessful transition into a satis-fying and productive career is alsoa desirable outcome, then planning acourse of postsecondary study shouldtake into account the perceptions andexpectations of employers and businesspeople.

In addition to offering advice tostudents on how to prepare for asuccessful transition to the environ-ment of the workplace, the employersalso made some suggestions to educatorsinvolved in program planning and imple-mentation. Their recommendations, whichcover a wide range of the postsecondarypreparation process included:

I. Help students develop or improvetheir non-technical skills.

2. Help students develop job searchand self-presentation skills.

3. Help students define theircareer goals in terms of currentand projected job market trends.

4. Help students develop anawareness of the demands of theworkplace.

5. Offer students opportunities toapply their skills through intern-ships or work experience.

6. Provide certain business-orientedcourses in the general studiescurriculum.

7. Work cooperatively with represen-tatives of business and industryon employment-related issues.

A selected group of postsecondaryfaculty was asked to respond to thesesuggestions as well as to the list of

10

employers' skill priorities. Theircomments and recommendations for actionare the subject of the second part ofthis research brief.

EDUCATORS RESPONDTO THE DATA

A group of six postsecondary facultyand administrators were asked to respondto the employers' skill priorities.*Their views were sought regarding theimportance of the issue of non-technicalskill development as well as the useful-ness of the data from the employerinterviews. They also made some recom-mendations as to how these non-technicalskills could be developed within exist-ing curriculum guidelines. At the sametime, they noted some of the conditionsor obstacles which might influence aninstructional strategy aimed at non-technical skill development.

Each of the respondents felt thestudy data offered information thatcould stimulate stronger interest inemployability development for studentsin the general studies curriculum.

"The results support theimportance of the generalstudies curriculum forsuccess in almost any jobarea."

According to one respondent, "thetrick is to tie employability concernsto academic concerns"-- a "trick" thatis not difficult since the functionalskills sought by employers are closeto the standard goals of universities.Each of the educators felt that at leastsome of the employers' skill priorities,such as verbal and written communication,problem solving, critical thinking,analysis and organization of materials,"seem to correspond quite closely tothe general features of a liberal edu-cation." And this correspondence wouldseem to indicate there are "extensive

*The six respondents are faculty membersor program administrators in the generalstudies divisions of four-year colleges.

grounds for discussion between academicsand employers about the conduct ofhigher education."

These postsecondary educators feltthe results were valid and consistentwith their own "impressions of necessaryjob skills" or with findings fromstudies conducted at their own insti-tutions. One respondent said that theresults reported here seemed "accurateand realistic" but business has failedto convey these needs to prospectiveemployees by overstressing the need forspecialized technical experts. And "ifbusinesses were actively recruitinggeneral studies graduates, seniorswould have a less defeatist attitudeabout what they have to offer thebusiness world."

"The results suggest thateducational goals and theinterests of prospectiveemployers are in manyways consonant."

Although the data were favorablyresponded to as being "excellent,balanced, sensible, and encouraging,"certain qualifying comments were alsomade: (1) faculty would need morespecific information to help them focuson the issue; (2)employers' definitionsof certain skills may not be the same asfaculty's; (3)there is probably a "gapbetween the board room where liberalskills are appreciated and the personneloffice where recruiters are more narrow-minded."

The content of these remarks seems tosuggest that while information about em-ployers' requirements is welcomed byeducators, there is a commue,cation gapbetween the two sectors which will benarrowed only as a result of direct ex-changes and cooperative efforts betweenthem.

Are Educators Concerned aboutEmployability of Students?

r7 six respondents felt there wassome concern about the employability oftheir graduates among faculty and admin-istrators, but it was not a high prior-ity at the present time.

"It is not a major concernand will not be. even if itshould."

The concern may grow, however, out ofnecessity if general studies programscontinue to lose students.

"More and more liberal arts facultyare concerned with this issue be-cause they don't want to lose alltheir students to the school ofbusiness. And students now believethey need a degree in business toget a job."

But for the most part, this issueloses out to concerns about departmentalturf." And in many institutions it iseasy for faculty to avoid the issue bysaying it is non-academic or by assumingsomeone in administration or studentservices is responding to the need.

"The concept of 'skills' is not apopular one here.'Abilities' seemsa bit less loaded."

When they were asked if this issue ofemployability skills should be a majorconcern of faculty, th7Fiipondents allsaid yes, but added certain qualifica-tions, such as "it should be a concerninsofar as it fits into the curriculum,"or "as long as it corresponds to thesubject matter already being taught."There was, however, general agreementthat many of these skills are beingacquired by students.

"Fortunately the prejudiceof faculties against 'career'and 'work' isn't fatalbecause a good liberaleducation happens to be agood career education."

It was also proposed that employabil-ity should be a major concern only forsome faculty, and these faculty "shouldIT-issigned that concern by the institu-tion. This could take the form of acampus-wide board or committee similar

in scope to committees which alreadyexist for library or computer services,research, or community service."

The point was also made that ratherthan attempting to make the issue amajor concern, "perhaps a more realis-tic and compatible way to address theproblem is to help students translatetheir general studies skills to non-technical employability skills. Andthere are many equivalencies."

And finally, one respondent observedthat "many institutions are alreadyconcerned with the skills, but notnecessarily with their development."

"Colleges and universitiesare very concerned aboutcommunication skills, butthey are not necessarilycommitted to teachingthem."

Can these skills be taught? Whichones belong in the general studiescurriculum? What does it take to helpstudents acquire or develop them?

Skill DevelopmentWhat CanBe Done?

All six educators agreed that someof the non-technical skills, bothadaptive and functional, are developedin the curriculum, but that "institu-tions have not clearly formulated theirapplication to the job market." In

some cases it is only a question ofanalyzing the course activities andoutcomes and translating them into thelanguage of non-technical skills. Andsome courses could "with minimal re-vision" develop specific skills.

When asked which skills are mostappropriate for development in whichcourses in the general studies curricula,the educators gave the responses quotedon the facing page.

These responses indicate that manyof the non-technical skills could bedeveloped in several different coursesor even across disciplines. They alsoinclude some interesting process sugges-tions for faculty, e.g. the importance

12

of classroom discussions, essay exams,term papers, definite deadlines, oralpresentations, group work--all sugges-tions related not only to skill devel-opment but also to active learning andpractical application.

This theme was reiterated when therespondents were asked about includingthe development of employability skillsin the actual course design. Their re-sponses indicated that it was not aquestion of course design but ratherone of attitude, general instructionalapproach, and sometimes of includinga specific learning activity or event.Course re-design would not only meetwith faculty resistance and possibleadministrative difficulties, but alsowould be unnecessary since many of theskills are already being taught.

What is needed is increased awarenessby both faculty and students of howthese non-technical skills enhancestudents' employability.

"Faculty need to relate the impor-tance of these skills beyond thediscipline, to life and work ingeneral."

"I don't think it's a question ofadding much to the existing curric-ulum but rather of cnmmunicatingto faculty that what they areteaching is important on the job.That's what's missing now in lib-eral studies. Students believethat technical knowledge is moreimportant than writing and speakingeffectively. They don't see howwriting a term paper involvesskills they will use on a job."

In addition to recognizing they havethese skills, students also need tounderstand "how to communicate to em-ployers the valuable skills they have."

"There are many courseswhich, with minimal revi-sions, could developspecific skills."

_A.3

Skill DevelopmentWhat Can Be Done?

SIX EDUCATORS RESPOND

"Successfully completing college, it seems to me, requires developingsuch functional skills as time management, setting priorities, andmeeting deadlines. Any course requiring term papers would developinformation management skills and most research and investigationskills. We are weakest in developing human service and design andplanning skills."

"In terms of communication skills, courses in English and Speechand Communication Studies most obviously meet these needs. Organi-zational, interpersonal and small group communication are coursestaught in speech communication which deals with most of the skillslisted in the first four functional skill categories and with mostof the adaptive skills which are not directly work-related. Manycourses in sociology and psychology develop research and informationgathering skills. Courses in philosophy are particularly gearedtoward developing critical thinking skills."

"Some institutions ac;ually have courses with competency objectivesin such things as problem solving and critical thinking. But most

will require matchups like: communication /persuasion in speechdepartments; research/investigation in history and English; humanservice in psychology, counseling and social work; information manage-ment in business. But organizational management and design/planningmay not actually have sources in any coursework at some campuses."

"The basic functional skills of writing, reasoning, and organizationof data form some part of every college course if properly designedand conducted. Every course requiring written examinations andterm papers necessarily demands exercises in writing skills; seminarsoffer opportunities for sharpening verbal skills as well as coopera-tive activities; organization of data and shaping arguments are essentialboth in classroom discussions and in written exercises. It is not alwaysthe case that instructors emphasize sufficiently the importance of clearwriting and reasoning, but this lack is becoming more and more a topicfor discussion and revision within the university."

"If individual departments recognized their responsibility for thegeneral education of all students, then the communication skills,problem solving skills, and information organizing skills could betaught across the disciplines. In fact, all of the top ten functionalskills would be good candidates for campus-wide attention, with theexception of interpersonal skills. There is a real reluctance byfaculty members to address this as an explicit educational goal."

"Of course instructors should be concerned with communication skillsproblem solving, research and analysis. Formal oral presentations andgroup work would help develop personality skills and assertiveness andwould actually make the teaching less demanding for the section leader.Setting up debates would require the students to take a stand (decisionmaking), meet strict guidelines as to time and form, and seek to bepersuasive (assertive). Since debates are generally conducted by teams,it would require division of labor, cooperation, and compromise. It

would make learning active rather than passive. I see this format as

applicable to any academic subject. The design of assignments is crucial.Too many assignments seem disconnected from any practical application."

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As a part of the instructionalapproach, several of the respondentssuggested including some field-basedlearning activities in the course.Their comments are included in theabove table. These learning activitieswould give the students a chance toapply their skills and to discover forthemselves what the employers valueand how "transferable" their academicskills are.

"No matter what the sub-ject matter, we arebound or should beto teach clear thinkingand writing."

EDUCATORS RECOMMEND: INCLUDE FIELD-BASED ACTIVITIES

"Where possible, have students apply the skills via internship orfield studies or invite guest speakers and panels from business."

"The means for accomplishing competency outcomes ought to be a calculatedindividualized mix of experiential and traditional learning modes. In

order to implement this approach I would recommend much greater use oflearning opportunities in the workplace. In institutions where many(or even most) students have jobs, we are losing a major opportunity toutilize the workplace as an internship."

"In terms of course design, I would recommend getting students involvedin academic work as opposed to academic study; that is, get studentsinvolved right in research projects, policy studies, lab experimentsand include that major piece of academic business--manuscript and memopreparation. If students were subsequently given workplace experiencein non-academic settings--through internships--then the students themselvescould make informed judgments about the transferability of academic skillsto non-academic workplaces."

"I have designed a one unit class called a 'mentorship' which can beattached to any three unit course in the humanities. For the mentorship,the student identifies someone in a career of interest to him or her andworks with that person on a project in which they apply what is leaned inthe classroom to a work setting. The mentorship is designed for lowerdivision students who are trying to identify a career. It can then befollowed by an internship in which on-the-job experience is gained. I

would take this approach rather than suggesting faculty re-design theircourses around employability skills."

The following two instructional"scenarios" illustrate the theme ofthe respondents' recommendations re-garding course structure and process.The first is by a professor of historyand the second by a humanitiesprofessor.

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Skill DevelopmentWhat Can Be Done?

TWO INSTRUCTIONAL SCENARIOS

"Set up classes around a set of important questions, e.g. why the RomanEmpire fell. Present competing interpretations, relevant background,pertinent evidence. Then require the students to use the material to"solve" the question in a paper and an oral presentatioin. Rather

than just a grade at the end of the class, there ought to be constantfeedback from the teaching assistant, the professor and possibly other

students. Professors would be available for "interviews." Studentswho failed to ask the right questions would not get the important in-formation. Students would be graded for the persuasiveness of theirposition, not its closeness to prevailing academic opinion. The entire

class would be less professor-centered than student-centered. Learning

would seem more practical and applicable to other problems and situations."

"I would recommend that critical writing be made part of the requirementsof all substantial courses without regard to subject field. But even

this demand would be less than effective if the instructor is not willing

to subject students' writing to careful scrutiny and comment. Courses

should be designed so as to allow written exercises to be related intrin-sically to educational goals and also to allow adequate time for consul-

tation, review, and revision as required.

Students respond well to group assignments, and I would suggest that

discussion courses provide opportunities for students to design and carry

out assignments for oral reports or research projects. Lecture courses

should make provision for discussion sections if at all possible. In short,

designs should attempt to incorporate as many and as varied opportunities

for students to generate projects of their own as the general structure

of the course can accommodate."

What Are the Barriers?The barriers or impediments to

implementing the above suggestionsinclude considerations about timeand money, training, administrativerequirements, and teacher autonomy.

But the most significant barrier,according to these educators, wasattitudinal: "At least 80% of theneed is a change in attitudes."Many faculty and administrators feelemployability development is not appro-

priate to the uniy:Tsity, that it is

distinct from academic development.Money and faculty time, which are

always in short supply, are especiallyso right now. The respondents recog-nized that some of the suggestions theymade will require additional resources,for example, providing supervision ofstudent writing or including discussion

sections to supplement lecture sessions.

It was also recognized that students

have a limited amount of time for each

class.

"Another barrier is the extremeshortage of time which studentshave to devote to each particularclass. The result is superficial,sloppy work which professors cometo accept as the norm. Students

ought to be forced to redo and re-do until the result is excellent.In this way they would learn what

excellence means."

Some financial support may also berequired for training of teachers orteachers' assistants to supervise thecritical writing exercises or the off_

campus learning activities.

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What Are the Barriers?"One obstacle is the general lack of receptiveness of university teachersto the notion that they should try to train students for the job market.I don't believe that the obstacle is as insurmountable as it might seem,largely because it is built on stereotyped ideas, mostly unexamined in a

long time. But also because most faculty members are concerned about theirstudents' welfare and will respond cooperatively if it is pointed out thata good deal of what they are doing already can be of help in preparingstudents for future employment."

"Large research universities pride themselves on being more "pure" at heartthan the business world into which most of their students will graduate.This has several consequences, one of which is that faculty members do notlike to see themselves as workers and are reluctant to look at academicwork as a craft which they themselves practice and have learned to practice.Without a willingness to see what they do as work, it is hard for facultymembers in these institutions to positively identify with the employers whowill be hiring their students. They think they are in an adversary relation-ship rather than a collaborative one. In colleges and universities understress, of course, some of this reluctance will come unglued. Decliningenrollments, student activism, declining financial resources can all bringan institution to a position of great vulnerability, within which all sortsof new ideas can be seen as promising, including the development of employ-ability skills."

Administrative constraints associatedwith accrediting policies and courseoutline regulations were mentioned butdid not seem to pose much of a problem.One respondent pointed out that in-structors were "perfectly free to actwithout special permission and implementcourse changes without anyone excepttheir students noticing it." But theother side of this "freedom" is thatwhile the "courses are usually theprovince of individual faculty members,that alone is a barrier to having thememphasize anything other than their ownperceptions."

One final and very importantobstacle that was cited is faculty'slack of experience in dealing with thebusiness world, of knowing its expec-tations and practices. This situation,one respondent felt, creates an artifi-cial environment for the students whichmakes them slow to adapt to the demandsof the business world.

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"I am more and more convinced thatacademic performance is related tolife performance, but that theacademic environment is extremelyartificial. There is far too muchemphasis on test-taking in oursociety. Performance should berewarded, not test taking skill.Businesses and law firms and hospi-tals do not give tests to getthings done. They do not pitpeople against each other, butrather make them work with eachother. Nothing critical is done inspans of one hour or three hours.One barrier to making general

studies more useful in teachingemployment skills is that academicsgenerally have no firsthand exper-ience in the business world them-selves. Professors ought to bebrought into the job placementproblem themselves. They ought tobe encouraged to spend summers andsabbaticals in the business world."

All of the above insights into thereality of the academic world underscorethe need for postsecondary faculty toengage in cooperative efforts with re-presentatives of the business communityfor the purpose of exchanging views onthe nature of the employability skillsissue and of defining some mutuallysatisfactory means of approaching itsresolution.

"All of the top ten func-tional skills would be goodcandidates for campus-wide attention."

In summary, the educators' responsesto the employers' skill priorities in-cluded the following points:

o The lists of non-technical skills

named by the employers were con-sistent with their own impressionsof necessary job skills.

o The employability of collegegraduates is not a major concernamong faculty and administrators,but the issue is attracting morewidespread attention among them.

o Many of the non-technical skillsare already being developed in

the general studies curriculum.

o Course re-design is not needed

to teach non-technical skills.

o Faculty should be encouraged toexamine their instructionalprocedures or processes and toemphasize writing skills, oralcommunication, group work, andmore active learning.

"Course design Is not theway to go."

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"Many of these skills arealready being taught."

o Faculty should be willing tosubject students' communicationskills (writing, speaking) toextensive scrutiny and comment.

o Field-based activities helpstudents acquire and apply thefunctional and adaptive skillsneeded in the workplace.

o The academic environment can bemade less "artificial" by de-creasing emphasis on test-taking,encouraging cooperative studentprojects, and avoiding 1 to 2hour time spans for activities.

o The most significant barrier toplanned development of employabil-ity skills is a negative facultyattitude.

o Some kind of institution-wideagency or committee should be re-sponsible for making informationabout employability skills avail-able to students.

o Faculty themselves could benefitfrom increased contact with repre-sentatives of the business commun-

i ty.

The educators' message--although theywere concerned with the employabilityissue--was not "teach for employability."Their recommendations for action seemedto be more along the lines of "identifythe skills related to the academic workinvolved and teach those well." Studentswill get the remaining skills they needthrough other courses, extracurricularactivities or work experience.

8

One of the educators proposed a kindof exercise for instructors which makesuse of the non-technical skill listsand forms a basis for the skill identi-fication and development process.

"Colleges are workplaces forfaculty members, and they shbuldbe encouraged to identify theskills required to do the workof an academic. I would havefaculty assess the skills re-lated to their own work in termsof the sets of skills which theemployers identified. I thinkthe commonalities would suggest

a number of ways to proceed.Then, I would have themcommunicate this informationto students in their courses,and assess the present levelof ability of their students.Having gone through that process,I think there would be a set ofskills which would be crucial tothe pursuit of academic goals,to employability development,and may also be underdevelopedin the student population. If

faculty could focus on these--

and alert students to pick upthe others somewhere else--we'dbe way ahead."

The authors would like to acknowledge the support throughout the studyof Ronald Bucknam, NIE project manager. We are again grateful to JanePermaul, Jon Wagner and Urban Whitaker for their careful review andcontributions to the project. Mercilee Jenkins, Donald Friedman andSteven Novak offered additional faculty expertise. Project staffmembers, Rita Costick, Ted Kildegaard, and Barbara Monty conductedthe employer interviews. A special thanks to Bob Peterson of Far WestLaboratory for his valuable insights and for his generosity of spirit.

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Additional Research Briefs on topics related to education, work, and

productivity are available from Far West Laboratory:

Developing Good Workersby Robert M. Peterson

Summarizes factors that seem to account for individualdifferences in employability and productivity. Based

on published taxonomies and data gathered from interviews

with young workers and employers.

Employment Practices Affecting Entry-Level Workers-My Karen Chatham

A summary of findings from interviews with personnelofficers in San Francisco Bay Area companies in theprivate sector.

Teaching about Work in the Social Studiesby James N. Johnson

A summary of a workshop attended by social studies teachers

and university faculty.

The project reported herein was performed pursuant to a grant from theNational Institute of Education, Department of Education. However, theopinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position orpolicy of the National Institute of Education, the Department of Educationor the Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, andno official endorsement by these agencies should be inferred.

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