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Peace Bridge, Derry-Londonderry(Video case study)

The Footbridge,MediaCityUK Jarrold Bridge, Norwich Borough High Street Bridge,

London

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BridgesFrom Steelconstruction.info

Steel is widely used around the world for the construction of bridges from the very large to the very small. It is a versatileand effective material that provides efficient and sustainable solutions. Steel has long been recognised as the economicoption for a range of bridges. It dominates the markets for long span bridges, railway bridges, footbridges, and mediumspan highway bridges. It is now increasingly the choice for shorter span highway structures as well. Society gains in manyways from the benefits delivered by steel bridge solutions. Landmark steel bridges embody good design, they are fast tobuild, and have stimulated the regeneration of many former industrial, dock and canalside areas.

Steel bridges are an essential feature of a country’s infrastructure and landscape. Few man-made structures combine thetechnical with the aesthetics in such an evocative way. Look closely at the next ‘landmark’ bridge you see; the chances arethat it is made of steel.

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Gem Bridge, DartmoorNational Park Scale Lane Bridge, Hull Loughor Viaduct

Replacement, South WalesRiver Taff Central LinkBridge, Merthyr Tydfil

Contents

1 Attributes2 Forms of construction

2.1 Beam bridges2.2 Box girder bridges2.3 Truss bridges2.4 Arch bridges2.5 Cable-stayed bridges2.6 Suspension bridges

3 Materials4 Design5 Construction6 Durability7 Case studies8 References9 Resources10 See also11 External links12 CPD

Attributes

Main Article: Sustainable steel bridges

Modern steel bridges taking advantage of the latest advances in automated fabrication and construction techniques are ableto provide economic solutions to the demands of safety, rapid construction, aesthetics, shallow construction depth, minimalmaintenance and flexibility in future use. Steel also scores well on all the sustainability measures, and offers a broad rangeof benefits addressing the economic, environmental, and social priorities of the ‘triple bottom line’ of sustainability.

Economic prioritiesEfficient use of resourcesMinimum disruptionDurabilityAdaptability

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Prefabrication of steelwork(Image courtesy of Mabey Bridge Ltd.)

Recycling route diagram

Environmental prioritiesRecycling and re-useMinimum CO2 and energy burdensMinimum wasteLightweight construction

Social prioritiesSustainable communitiesHealth and safetyMinimum impactAesthetically pleasing bridges

The high strength-to-weight ratio of steel minimises thestructural weight of superstructures and thus minimises thesubstructure costs, which is particularly beneficial in poorground conditions. Minimum self-weight is also an importantfactor in the cost of transporting and handling components.Use of steel facilitates shallow construction depths, whichovercomes problems with headroom and flood clearances, andminimises the length and cost of approach embankments.

Steel is the most recycled construction material and choosingit for bridges represents a sustainable management of naturalresources. When a steel bridge reaches the end of its usefullife, the girders can be cut into manageable sizes to facilitatedemolition, and returned to steelworks for recycling. Some99% of structural steel either finds its way back into the

steelmaking process where it is used to create new steel products or is reused. There is no degradation in the performanceof recycled steel. Alternatively, component parts of steel bridges can be reused in other structures; entire bridges have beenrelocated and bridges can be designed with ease of future relocation in mind.

Steel has broad architectural possibilities. Steel bridges can be made to look light or reassuringly solid, and can besculptured to any shape or form. The high surface quality of steel creates clean sharp lines and allows attention to detail.Modern fabrication methods can easily provide curvature in plan and elevation. The painting of steelwork introducescolour and contrast, and repainting can change or refresh the appearance of the bridge.

Forms of construction

Main articles: Multi-girder composite bridges, Ladder deck composite bridges, Integral bridges, Half-through bridges,Box girder bridges, and Tied-arch bridges

Steel is a most versatile and effective material for bridge construction, able to carry loads in tension, compression andshear. Structural steelwork is used in the superstructures of bridges from the smallest to the greatest. There is a wide varietyof structural forms available to the designer but each essentially falls into one of four groups; beam bridges, arch bridges,cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges.

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Beam bridges

A beam and slab, or composite bridge is one where a reinforced concrete deck slab sits on top of steel I-beams, and actscompositely with them in bending. There are two principal forms of this beam and slab construction; multi-girderconstruction and ladder deck construction. Between them, they account for the majority of medium span highway bridgescurrently being built in the UK, and are suitable for spans ranging from 13m up to 100m. The choice between the twoforms depends on economic considerations and site-specific factors such as form of intermediate supports and access forconstruction.

Cross sections

Cross section of a multi-girder highway bridge Cross section of a ladder deck bridge

Examples

Twin multi-girder bridge structures, showing bracinglocationsLagentium Viaduct, Castleford(Image courtesy of Tata Steel(http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com) )

A twin ladder deck bridgeHunslett Viaduct, Leeds(Image courtesy of Tata Steel(http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com) )

Increasingly, such composite bridges are adopting ‘integral construction’, where the deck is rigidly connected to theabutments. This eliminates the need for expansion joints and bearings, which minimises future maintenance requirements.

In some situations, notably for railway bridges, the depth between the trafficked surface (or rails) and the underside of the

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General arrangement of a half-through bridge

bridge is severely constrained and there is little depth available for the structure. In these circumstances, ‘half-through’construction is used.

Box girder bridges

Box girders comprise two webs that are joined top and bottom by a common flange creating a closed cell that offers verygood torsional stiffness, which may be required on highly curved bridges. In beam and slab bridges, box girders are analternative to plate girders at the upper end of the span range, where they offer a lower steel weight, although this has to bebalanced against increased fabrication costs. Such composite box girder decks may take the form of multiple closed steelboxes, with the deck slab over the top, or an open top trapezoidal box, closed by the deck slab. Longer spans of 100 to 200m typically use either a single box or a pair of boxes with crossbeams. For such long spans andfor bridges such as lifting bridges, where minimising structural weight is very important, an all-steel orthotropic deck maybe used instead of a reinforced concrete slab. Above about 200m, box girders are likely to be part of a cable-stayed bridgeor a suspension bridge, where they are specially shaped for optimum aerodynamic performance.

Box girder bridges

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Variable depth trapezoidal closed top box girdersRiver Nene Viaduct, Peterborough

Open top box girders curved in planFossdyke Bridge, Lincoln

Truss bridges

A truss is a triangulated framework of individual elements or members which act primarily in tension or compression.Trusses have been used in a similar way to beams in composite decks (Oresund Approach Spans), as arches (SydneyHarbour Bridge), as cantilevers (Forth Rail Bridge) or as stiffening girders to suspension bridges (Forth Road Bridge).

Today, the truss girder form of construction usually proves expensive to fabricate because of the large amount of labour-intensive work in building up the members and making the connections, so they are seldom used for ordinary highwaybridges. However, for through or half-through forms, truss bridges do offer a very stiff, lightweight solutions withminimum structural depth. Hence, they are widely used in the UK for footbridges, demountable bridges (Bailey bridges),gantries and longer span railway bridges (over 50m).

Truss bridges

Half-through warren truss footbridge

Through truss railway bridge, New Cross Gate Flyover,London (http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-awards/2011/certificate-of-merit/new-cross-gate-flyover-

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(Image courtesy of Nusteel Structures Ltd.) east-london-line.html) (Image courtesy of Tata Steel(http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com) )

Arch bridges

In the traditional form, a steel arch has a similar structural action to old masonry arch bridges. The arch springs from thefoundations and exerts horizontal thrusts on them. The arch elements act primarily in compression. The deck may either besupported on struts, resting on arch below, or it may be suspended on hangers from the arch above.

A tied-arch or "bow string" arch is a particular development of the arch form. The horizontal thrusts from the archingaction are resisted by tension members between the arch springings. Effectively the deck acts as a tension tie, and issupported by hangers from the arch above. This form is suited to the soft soils of riverbanks, where the ground cannotwithstand the large horizontal thrusts from arching action.

In recent years, arches and tied-arches have become a little more common, partly because the use of an arch from which tohang the deck allows the construction depth of a suspended deck to be kept shallow, even at longer spans, and partlybecause arches make a clear architectural statement. Arches are sometimes skew to the line of the deck and sometimes thearch planes are inclined for dramatic visual effect.

Arch bridges

Arch skew to the line of the deckHulme Arch, Manchester

Tied-arch bridgeRiver Usk Crossing, Newport(http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-awards/2005/award/river-usk-crossing-newport-southern-distributor-road.html)

Tied-arch bridgeInfinity footbridge, Stockton(Image courtesy of Tata Steel(http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com) )

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Swansea Sail Bridge(http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-

awards/2004/award/the-swansea-sail-bridge-river-tawe-swansea.html)

Humber Bridge

Cable-stayed bridges

In this form of bridge, the main girders are supported at intervals along theirlength by inclined tension members (stays) connected to a high mast or pylon.There may be either a single plane of stays down the centre of the bridge, ortwo planes; one on each side of the bridge. The towers act in compression andcan have a variety of forms (A-frame, H-frame or columns). The deck girderssustain compression forces as well as bending forces.

Recent developments in the modelling and analysis of dynamic behaviour andthe use of sophisticated damping against oscillation have extended the realm ofthe cable-stayed bridge to spans in excess of 1000m, which had previouslybeen the almost exclusive domain of suspension bridges. The visual appearanceof stayed structures can be very effective, even dramatic. They are frequentlyconsidered appealing or eye-catching. On a more modest scale, cable-stayedconstruction is sometimes used for footbridges, to give support and stiffness toan otherwise very light structure.

Examples of cable-stayed bridges include:

Newport City FootbridgeThe Footbridge, MediaCityUKThe Sidings Bridge, Swansea(http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-awards/2008/commendation/the-sidings-bridge-swansea.html)Cathedral Bridge, Derby (http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-awards/2010/commendation/cathedral-bridge-derby.html)Pont King Morgan, Carmarthen (http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-awards/2007/commendation/pont-king-morgan-carmarthen.html)River Suir Bridge, N25 Waterford Bypass (http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/design-awards/2011/commendation/river-suir-bridge-n25-waterford-bypass.html)

Suspension bridges

A suspension bridge is fundamentally simple in action: two cables aresuspended between two supports (‘towers’ or ‘pylons’), hanging in a shallowcurve, and a deck is supported from the two cables by a series of hangersalong their length. The cables and hangers are in simple tension and the deckspans transversely and longitudinally between the hangers. In most cases thecables are anchored at ground level, either side of the main towers; often theside spans are hung from these portions of the cables.

In addition to its action in carrying traffic, the deck acts as a stiffening girderrunning the length of each span. The stiffening girder spreads concentratedloads and provides stiffness against oscillation; such stiffness is neededagainst both bending and twisting actions.

Because of their fundamental simplicity and economy of structural action,suspension bridges have been used for the longest bridge spans. The gracefulcurve of the suspension cable combined with the strong line of the deck and

stiffening girder generally give a very pleasing appearance. The combination of grace and grandeur in such situations leadsto the acknowledged view that many of the world’s most exciting bridges are suspension bridges.

One recent example of a smaller suspension bridge is Peace Bridge, Derry-Londonderry

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Scunthorpe plate mill control room(Image courtesy of Tata Steel

(http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com) )

Materials

Main articles: Material selection and product specification and Weathering steel

Structural steel is a high-quality material that is readilyavailable worldwide in certified grades, in products ofvarious shapes and sizes. Prefabrication of steelwork incontrolled factory conditions leads to high quality workat minimum cost. The excellent quality control isachieved through a thorough testing regime at the steelmills and during the fabrication processes of cutting anddrilling, assembly, welding, and protective treatment.The quality assurance that is attained should giveconfidence to all clients and engineers who specify steelfor their bridge project.

Steel material is supplied in two product forms – ‘flatproducts’ (steel plate and strip) and ‘long products’(rolled sections, either standard open sections such asbeams, channels, angles, etc or hollow sections). Forstructural use in bridges these products are inevitablycut (to size and shape) and welded, one component toanother. In the structure, the material is subject totensile and compressive forces. Structural steelgenerally responds in a linear elastic manner, up to the‘yield point’ and thereafter has a significant capacity for plastic straining before failure. All these aspects of steel materialare utilised by the designer of a steel bridge.

The selection of an appropriate grade of steel for a bridge requires an awareness of the steel manufacturing process, anappreciation of the relevant product standards and an understanding of several issues including:

Material propertiesDesign requirementsAvailability and cost of steelProduct specifications

Steel derives its material properties from a combination of chemical composition, mechanical working and heat treatment.The yield strength is probably the most significant property that the designer will need to use or specify. The achievementof a suitable yield strength whilst maintaining other properties has been the driving force behind the development ofmodern steel making and rolling processes.

S355 steel is predominantly used in highway bridge applications, as it is readily available, and generally gives the optimumbalance between stiffness and strength. S275 steel is often used on railway bridges, where stiffness rather than strengthgoverns the design, or where fatigue is the critical design case. S420 and S460 steels can offer advantages where self-weight is critical or the designer needs to minimise plate thicknesses. However, the use of such steels confers no benefits inapplications where fatigue, stiffness or the instability of very slender members is the overriding design consideration.These steels are also less readily available in the UK for plate thicknesses exceeding 50mm.

Other mechanical properties of particular importance to the bridge designer include ductility, toughness, weldability, andcorrosion resistance.

All structural steels, with the exception of ‘weathering steel’, have a similar resistance to corrosion. In exposed conditionsthey need to be protected by a coating system. There are no special requirements of the steel material for ordinary coatingsystems, including both aluminium and zinc metal spray. However, if the steel is to be galvanized, then there is a need tocontrol the alloy content (notably the Silicon content).

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A typical weathering steel bridge over the A1 at Wetherby(Image courtesy of Tata Steel

(http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com) )

A wealth of design guidance

Weathering steel is a high strength low alloy steel thatin suitable environments forms an adherent protectiverust ‘patina’, to inhibit further corrosion. The corrosionrate is so low that bridges fabricated from unpaintedweathering steel can achieve a 120 year design lifewith only nominal maintenance.

Design

Main articles: Bridges - initial design, Modelling andanalysis of beam bridges, Design of beams incomposite bridges, Shear connection in compositebridge beams, Design for half-through construction,Fatigue design of bridges, Bracing systems, Stiffeners,Connections in bridges, Bridge articulation andbearing specification, Plan curvature in bridges, Skewbridges, and Specification of bridge steelwork

Designers of steel bridges are well supported with a wealth of guidanceto assist them in designing the most economic solution for their clients.This extends from initial concept design, through detailed designverification and on to appropriate specification.

In the concept design stage, the designer takes the outline requirementsof the alignment engineer (the road, rail or pedestrian layout, crosssection and vertical profile) and derives a structural solution that suitsthe topography and restrictions of the site, whilst minimising both costsand risks. There may be little detailed calculation at this stage but thereshould be consultation with steelwork contractors and main contractors.Most bridge construction in the UK currently takes place undercollaborative arrangements and thus access to steelwork contractors andmain contractors should be readily available to the designer. In theabsence of a collaborative arrangement, designers should at leastdiscuss the options with a steelwork contractor at an early stage.

While minimising cost may be the most obvious consideration whenembarking on the design of a steel bridge, the health and safety of allthose concerned in the construction of the bridge and in its maintenancethroughout its life is the responsibility of all those people makingdecisions about the procurement of the bridge. So, as well as aiming fora structurally efficient solution, designers should consider how the steelwork will be fabricated and erected, how the deckwill be completed (i.e. design for construction), and how the bridge will be maintained. The chosen bridge erection schemewill clearly have a big influence on the type and location of any connections.

Preliminary sizing is part of the concept design, and is often based on crude estimations of load distribution, and resultingbending moments and shear forces. However, for steel composite highway bridges, preliminary design charts and anassociated software tool are available to facilitate far more accurate initial girder sizes

Detailed design is effectively design verification to the Eurocodes, which is more of a checking process than originalcreative design. Modelling and analysis is carried out for the selected structural arrangement for the various loadingconditions (including fatigue) taking full account of any curvature and skew. The adequacy of the main members

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CAD model of a multi-girder bridge(Image courtesy of Mabey Bridge Ltd.)

(composite beams, half-through beams, and box girders etc.) is then checked in detail to ensure that they are adequate tocarry the applied moments and forces. Details such as shear connection, stiffener sizes and bracing member sizes, etc, arechosen at this stage to suit the global actions of the main members.

The main output from the design process is often seen as a set of drawings, but designers should also recognise theimportance of an appropriate specification. It is important that a project specification (and the accompanying drawings)should express clearly the particular requirements for a structure and, where standards allow options and alternatives,which additional requirements apply. Failure in clarity will lead to extra provisions for risk and extra costs in resolvingqueries. The project specification should also avoid over-specification, requiring unnecessary quality and excessively tighttolerances will lead to higher costs. The project specification should generally follow recognised industry standards, suchas the Specification for Highway Works[1].

Construction

Main article: Design for steel bridge construction

Offsite prefabrication of steel components means thatconstruction time on site, often in hostile environments,is minimised. The speed of bridge construction madepossible by steel allows disruption to road and rail usersto be kept to a minimum, if not eliminated, withsignificant positive knock-on effects for the UKeconomy. The relatively low weight of structural steelcomponents permits the erection of large sections; insome circumstances complete bridges can be movedinto position overnight. Speed of steel bridgeconstruction also benefits main contractors even on‘green field’ sites, as it allows them to establish andmaintain access for haul roads.

One of the key drivers behind the success of steelbridges in the UK since the 1980s has been thecontinuous investment by steelwork contractors inautomated fabrication equipment for cutting anddrilling, girder assembly and welding steel. Productionefficiencies are further enhanced within modernfactories by working on a number of projects in parallelto achieve profitable utilisation of the space, equipmentand permanent workforce. The fabrication process begins with 3D modelling the bridge steelwork with CADCAMsoftware, which creates a list of components (girder webs and flanges, stiffeners and bracing elements etc.) required for thestructure and produces the programs for the automated fabrication equipment. The model is also used to locate and rectifyconflicts and can even carry out a virtual trial erection. Once the steelwork has passed through the factory, it is usually thenblast cleaned and painted prior to transportation to site.

A wide range of construction methods and sequences are available for steel bridges. They can be lifted, piece-by-piece, bycranes or strand jacks; they can be launched by sliding or rolling from the abutment; or they can be slid or transported intoposition. In some instances a combination of erection methods are needed; these are called ‘Hybrid schemes’. Steel offersflexibility in terms of erection sequence and certainty in terms of the programme and, once erected, the steel girdersprovide platforms for subsequent deck construction operations.

The involvement of a steelwork contractor during the concept design and detailed design stage depends very much on theform of contract, but even with relatively ‘ordinary’ structures it is desirable to seek their advice at an early stage. Thesteelwork contractor can provide assistance with design for construction, i.e. the definition of the structural concept,steelwork detailing and planning the proposed erection scheme. This ensures that the costs associated with steelworkcontract are minimised.

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Erection of Lagentium Viaduct, A1(M) Darrington to Dishforth(Image courtesy of Mabey Bridge Ltd.)

Forth Rail Bridge

Videos of bridge construction:1. Borough High Street Bridge, London(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xk2g8RIBr1U)being installed using specialist transporters.2. Mallard Bridge (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlCS44w8f1U&feature=youtu.be) on White RoseWay, Doncaster being installed over the East CoastMain Line using one of the largest mobile cranes in theUK.3. Arch lift on the Central Link Bridge(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nO7OOd6scpM)in Merthyr Tydfil.4. Loughor Viaduct Replacement(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6ogsu5eIjw) nearSwansea shows a 15 hour bridge slide in 70 seconds.

Durability

Main articles: Corrosion protection and Weatheringsteel

Steel bridges now have a proven life span extending to well over 100 years. A notable example is the imposing Forth RailBridge in Scotland, which was completed in 1890. The scale and size of this significant landmark was a major achievementin construction engineering, and the structure has stood the test of time.

Steel has a predictable fatigue life and the structural elements are visible and accessible. Any signs of deterioration arereadily apparent, without the need for extensive investigations. Corrosion is a surface effect, which rarely compromises thestructural integrity of a bridge, and any problems may be swiftly addressed by repainting the affected areas. Advances incoating technology and an industry commitment to the training of coating applicators mean that the latest protectivesystems are expected to last well beyond 30 years before requiring maintenance. Furthermore, the use of unpaintedweathering steel, which requires almost no maintenance, is increasingly popular, as it is recognised as the ultimate lowmaintenance option for bridge construction.

Steel bridges are readily adaptable to changes in road configuration and increased loading that would render other types ofstructure obsolete ahead of their original design lives. One notable example is the Tamar suspension bridge in Plymouth,which needed widening and strengthening due to increased traffic loads and volumes. The solution was to replace theconcrete deck with a new lightweight steel one, and add steel cantilever sections. The result was that the widened 5-lanebridge was only 25 tonnes heavier than the old 3-lane structure, and was able to accommodate 44 tonne trucks.

Steel bridges also lend themselves to easy and rapid strengthening or repair in the event of accidents, with well proventechniques like heat straightening ensuring that damaged structures are soon back in use.

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Tamar Bridge widening,Plymouth

(Image courtesy of AECOM)

Airless spray application of paint(Image courtesy of Mabey Bridge Ltd.)

The fundamental requirements to fully realise the potential durability of a steel bridgeinclude:

An understanding of the corrosion processGood design and detailingThorough surface preparationUse of high quality coatingsCorrect coating applicationAppropriate specificationsInspection and quality control

The majority of steel bridges inthe UK are protected againstcorrosion by the use of paintcoatings. Modern specificationsusually comprise a sequentialcoating application of paints oralternatively paints applied overthermally sprayed metal coatingsto form a ‘duplex’ coating system. The protective paint systemsusually consist of primer, intermediate coat(s) and finish coats. Eachcoating ‘layer’ in any protective system has a specific function, andthe different types are applied in a particular sequence of primerfollowed by intermediate/build coats in the shop, and finally the finishor top coat on site. Hot-dip galvanizing is an alternative durablecoating that is sometimes used, although its use is generally limited tosmaller bridges due to the nature of the application process.

Case studies

A40 Perryn Road Footbridge Bishops Bridge Road Bridge Clyde Arch Bridge, Glasgow Infinity Footbridge, Stockton

Peace Bridge, Derry-

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Newport City Footbridge Sheppey Crossing M53 Bidston Moss Viaductstrengthening

Londonderry(Video case study)

The Footbridge,MediaCityUK Jarrold Bridge, Norwich Borough High Street Bridge,

LondonNorthside Bridge,Workington

Adur Ferry Bridge,Shoreham-by-Sea Pansport Bridge, Elgin London Bridge station

redevelopmentGem Bridge, DartmoorNational Park

Scale Lane Bridge, Hull Loughor ViaductReplacement, South Wales

River Taff Central LinkBridge, Merthyr Tydfil

References

1. ^ Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works (MCHW). Volume 1: Specification for Highway Works.Series 1800 Structural Steelwork. August 2014, TSO(http://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/ha/standards/mchw/vol1/pdfs/series_1800.pdf)

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Resources

Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C. (2010) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in steel bridge construction (5thIssue). (P185). SCIIles, D.C. (2004) Design guide for steel railway bridges (P318) SCIIles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design. (P356 including corrigendum, 2014). SCIIles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design: Worked examples. (P357 including corrigendum, 2014). SCIIles, D.C. (2012) Design of composite highway bridges curved in plan. (P393). SCIIles, D.C. (2012) Determining the buckling resistance of steel and composite bridge structures. (ED008). SCISteel Bridges: A practical approach to design for efficient fabrication and construction, 2010, (Publication no.51/10), BCSA,Guide to the Erection of Steel Bridges, 2005, (Publication no. 38/05), BCSACarbon footprint tool for steel composite highway bridgesPreliminary steel bridge design charts:

Chart finderSpreadsheet toolUser manual

All three of which can be found on the BCSA web site(http://www.steelconstruction.org/resources/technical/bridges-preliminary-design.html)

See also

Sustainable steel bridgesMulti-girder composite bridgesLadder deck composite bridgesIntegral bridgesHalf-through bridgesBox girder bridgesTied-arch bridgesMaterial selection and product specificationWeathering steelBridges - initial designModelling and analysis of beam bridgesDesign of beams in composite bridgesShear connection in composite bridge beamsDesign for half-through constructionFatigue design of bridgesBracing systemsStiffenersConnections in bridgesBridge articulation and bearing specificationPlan curvature in bridgesSkew bridgesSpecification of bridge steelworkDesign for steel bridge constructionCorrosion protectionWeldingPreloaded boltingAccuracy of steel fabrication

External links

Highways Agency DMRB (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges)(http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/index.htm)Highways Agency MCDHW (Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works)

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(http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/mchw/index.htm)

CPD

Weathering steel bridges

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