breaking up ls hard to do: nations, states, and...

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Activity 1: The Rise of Nationalism and the Fall of Yugoslavia '4 367

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Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nat ions, States,and Nat ion-States

l*" ACTIVITY 1:THE RISE 0F NATI0NALISM AND THE FALL 0F YUG0SLAVIA

Activitv 1 reouires vou to read six selections about the former Yugoslavia and thenunr*"i questi-ons about them. The first article (Goodrich, 1993) is f-rlmThe ChristianScience Monitor.It is one of several articles we have selected from the Monitorbecause of its world-famous coverage of international affairs-not because of itsreligious affiliation. The Goodrich arlicle provides a 1,500-year historical overwiewthat is not usually available in newspapers. We have added a few key points to thisarticle fin square brackets], and some useful maps (Figures 13.6-13.8, Table 13.1).

The second reading consists of excerpts from a United Nations research arti-cle by AIi Karaosmano$lu (1993) that offers a concise summary of how and why theformer Yugoslavia fell apart. It highlights the most important fact about the politi-cal geography of the area: that the former Yugoslavia was a multination state, butbreaking it into its inclividual republics (i.e., provinces) did not solve the problembecause both Bosnia and Croatia were also each a mi-r of nations.

In the third article, photojournalist Lee Malis of ?he Chrtstian Science Monitortells the harrowing tale of one young Muslim woman's nightmare at the hands ofthe Bosnian Serbs. We warn you of the graphic nature of this short feature article;you could flnd it disturbing. It should be emphasized that the Serbs were not theonly nation to engage in such war crimes.

Why not carve Bosnia up into three states, and let the Serbian part of Bosniajoin with Serbia and the Croatian part of Bosnia join with CroatiaP Why does therest of the world care about keeping Bosnia in one piece? This is the subject of thefourth reading, a short analysis by Laura Kay Rozen from The Christian ScienceMonitor in September 1996, at the time of the first-ever Bosnian elections. Fivekey points summarize why keeping Bosnia whole was important to the fbreignpolicies of other countries. Note that neither we (the textbook authors) nor the arti-cle author herself necessarily espouse all of these arguments. In fact, one of the pointsregarding a fear of Islamic terrorism from a Muslim-dominated Bosnian state is anexample of prejudicial thinklng. However, all five arguments frequentlywere heardon talk shows and seen on op-ed pages of the time.

The final reading consists of excelpts from two U.S. Department of State reportson the Kosovo (pronounced Koh-SOH-vah) crisis. The stated pu{pose of these reportswas to document the extent of ethnic cleansing by the Serbs against the Albaniansin Kosovo. Aerial photography and other forms of evidence accompanied thesereports, which were delivered to the Executive Branch of the U.S. government andCongress, U.S. allies, and the international community. They were important doc-uments in the decisions to use U.S. military power to stop the ethnic cleansing inKosovo and to justify the deployment of U.S. troops as peacekeepers. The reportswere also made available to the media and the public over the Internet. In readingthese excerpts, you should think about some of the geopolitical issues that couldexplain why the United States chose to intervene in this particular crisis but not in

O 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

368 i*" Chapter 13. Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nations, States, and Nation-stares

others. The Serbs have historically been allies with the Russians, who are also Slavswho follow an Eastern Orthodox form of Christianity. Other issues to consider arethe u.S.'s historic alliance with Western Europeans, the importance of not appear-ing to be anti-Islamic, and the power of media images of mass graves, burning ht-rrses,and refugees.

tt would take many newspaper articles to fill you in on all that happened in theaftermaths of the Bosnia and Kosovo crises. We wrap it up for you \^'ith; short sum-mary and map that updates you to early 2006.

F, ACTIVITY 1 READINGS

Goodrich, Lawrence j. 1993. Old Animosities, Exploited Today, Underlie Complex Balkans Puzzle. The Christian Science Monitor(Oct. 13. 1993):1-2.

Karaosmano$lu, Ali L. 1993. Cntsis in the Balkan,s. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. Research paoer no.22, UNIDIR/93/37. New York: United Nations.

Malis, Lee. 1993. Bosnia: The Flight from Ethnic Cleansing. The Christian Science Monitor (Feb. 17, lgg3):g-ll.Rozen, Laura Kay. 1996. Keeping Bosnia Whole: Why the World Cares. The ChNstian Science Monitor (Sept. lg, 19g6):5.U S. Depafiment of State. Iggg. Erasing History: Ethnic Cleansing in Kosoao: www.state.gov/www/regi,ons/eur/rpt_gg05_

ethnic_ksvo_toc.html ( May 1999).U.S. Department of State. 1999. Ethnic Cleansing in Kosoao: An Accounting: www.state.gov/r.wdglobaVhuman_rights/

kosovoii./homepage.html (Dec. 1999).

iK" OUESTIONS

(Note: Answers_to questions marked by * cannot be obtained directly in the read-ings. You'll need to think critically about the readings and apply concepts properlyto figure them out.)

A. History of Hatred

Refer to at'ticles by coodrich and Karaosmano{la and Figures 18.6 and ls.g.

1.1. what cultural trait, language or religion, divides the serbs and croats?

1.2. Name the religion of the Serbs and of the Croats.

1.3. What historical development is responsible for this religious divide between Serbsand Croats?

1.4. How did Muslims come to this region of Europe?

1.5. In what century did the Muslims defeat Serbia in the battle of Kosovo?

1.6. What other outside empire next dominated the northern parts of the regionthe several centuries prior to World War I?

in

@ 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

37O W Chapter 13. Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nations, States, and Nation-states

1,16. Why didn't the Serb-dominated governmentfight to keep Slovenia from breahng away?*

of Yugoslavia put up more of a

1.17, After Slovenia became independent, could it have been characterized as anation-state (see Figure 13.8)?*

1.18. The second war also started in the spring of 1991, but in Croatia. The twoandwaffrng natrons were

D. Bosnia

Use afticle by Rozen, Table 13.1, and Figures 13.7, 13.8, and 13.12.

To answer the next set of questions, you need to adjust your mental map. Afterbreaking up, the former Yugoslavia consisted of five states, not one. In addition toBosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia, the remaining two republics, Serbia andMontenegro, stayed together under the name of Yugoslavia. They were sometimesreferred to as the "rump Yugoslavia" to distinguish it from the former, largerYugoslavia. The third war within the former Yugoslavia began in Bosnia in the springof 1992.

1.19. Which was the dominant nation within Bosnia in terms of population?

1.20. Name the second and third most populous nations within Bosnia's borders.

1.21. Which, if any, of these two minority nations in Bosnia were irredenta of otherstates?*

L.22. After Bosnia established its independence, would it have been best describedas a state. a nation. or a nation-state?*

1.23. Why would the breakup of Bosnia worsen the refugee problemP


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374 ttt". Chapter 13. Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nations, states, and Nation-States

The Roman Empire adoPtedChristianity in the fourth century,and solit administration betweena westem half centered on Rome,and an eastem halfwhose caPitalwas Constantinople (now Istanbul,Turkev). The weitern half becamepredominantly Cathol ic, the easterniralF nredom inantlv Orlhodox. Thisdivicie still runs through the formerYusoslavia: Slovenes and Croatsare-mostly Catholic, while Serbs,Macedonians, and Montenegrinsare mostly Orlhodox.

b. Islam originated in Mecca tncurrent-day Saudi Arabia, butsoon spread to include what isnow Turkey. Centuries later, theOttoman Empire arose in TurkeYand snread Islam well into theBalkans and EuroPe. Current-day Bosnian Muslims are mostlYSlivs who converled to lslamduring the long reign oftheOttomans.

c. The outside power that controlledmost of the Balkans on the eveof World War I was the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In fact,World War I was triggered whena Bosnian Serb, irate over thelatest chapter of outsidedomination, assassinated theAustro-Hungarian ArchdukeFerdinand in Sarajevo on June28.1914.

Figure 13.6 Threc rnajor empires that divided the Slavic-speaking peoples in the Balkans'

lliterally "land of the southern Slavs"] in 1918. Serbia was the dominant p"tt""j, which

led to constant friction with the Croats. The new courtry never had a chalrce. Nazi Germany

invaded in l94t and set up a fascist Croatian puppet state. [The Croatian] Ustashe troops

committed terrible atrodities against Bosnian and Croatian Serbs lmurdering approxi-

mately 350,000 Serbsl. Serbiarinatlonalist guerrillas, the Chetniks, retaliated in hnd.

- Pre-Breakup YugoslaviaW Eastern Roman EmpireV- Westem Roman EmPire

ffi'**"*"7",

- Pre-Breakup Yugoslaviait:.831 Aooroximate Extent of'?wlEJ tie ottoman Emoire

flfl5)\-rJ

Mediterranean

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! Austria-HungaryY p1s-$1s6kup Yugoslavia

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376 u* Chapter 13. Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nations, States, and Nation-States

TABTE 13.1 Percentages of Prewar Ethnic Populations, by Repuhlic or Autonomous Region

Albanians Croats Muslims Serbs Slovenes Others

Bosnia 1B 40 r ) r )q

Croatia l r) 12 l3Kosovo 90 10Macedonia 23 z 67 Macedonians

8 Others

Monte 7 1 15 o 68 Mon

Serbia 20 2 65 13Slovenia a z 90 5Vojvodina DO 21 Hungarians

23 Others

FormerYugoslavia(all republics) I4 20 o .to l { )

Sources: fames Goq "DeconstructingYugos]lavia," Sun:iual33:293 (1991); EncqclopediaBritannica;CIA Factbook; and PC-Globe software (1989)

But without Tito's personal magnetism and willingness to use force, the systemsoon began to break down. After communism collapsed in the former Soviet Unionand Eastern Europe, the Yugoslav federation began to dissolve as Croats and Slovenesdemanded independence, paftly in pursuit of historic aspirations but also in fear ofSerbian President Slobodan Milosevic's repression of the Albanian minorityin Kosovo.Mr. Milosevic and Croatian President Franjo Tirdjman made things worse by theirinflammatory rhetoric and their policies of grabbing land from neighboring republics,to create a greater Serbia and a greater Croatia, and to expel other groups. [By thetime the fighting died down, Yugoslovia had broken into five new states.] (Figure 13.7b.)

The region remains a tinder box: Greeks are neryous about the former Yugoslavrepublic of Macedonia; Montenegrins, still unitedwith Serbia in rump Yugoslavia. aregrowing restless; and serious tensions persist between Hungarians and Romanians.

The most dangerous area is Kosovo province in Serbia. An historical Serbianheartland, it is now inhabited mostly by ethnic Albanians, who have seen their rightssuppressed by the Milosevic government. Almost half the Albanians in the worldlive in Serbia; should the Serbs start an ethnic-cleansing campaign, it is doubtfulAlbania could stand by. Such a conflict could ignite tensions between Greece, whichlikely would side with the Orthodox Serbs, and Turkey, which would support theMuslim Slavs and mostly Muslim Albanians.

The question now is whether the US can provide the leadership that will take theBalkans in the direction of peace or whether the region will sink deeper into disaster.

, iY" THE UNITED NATIONS INSTITUTE FOR DISARMAMENT RESEARCHUNIDIW93/37, Research Paper No. 22, 1993. Reprinted by permission.

Excerpted from "Grisis in the Balkans"by Ali L. Karaosmanoglu

The 19th and 20th centuries have undoubtedly left scars that are difficult to cure.But the immediate cause of the present Yugoslav crisis is neither external power


378 W Chapter 13. Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nations, States, and Nation-States

corridors to link up ethnic Serbian enclaves in Croatia and in Bosnia-Herzegoinawith Serbia. These policies were (and still are) extensively applied to Bosnian Muslims

and Croats. The victims were either directly driven out or intimidated to flee theirhomes. The methods of intimidation included murder, rape, and imprisonment in

concentration camps. The Yugoslav conflict brought more than two million refugees

and displaced persons. Countries such as Croatia, Austria, Italy, Germany,Hungary Slovenia, and Turkey were put under migratory pressure. Serbia reset-

tled ethnic Serbs in areas that were ethnically cleansed, thereby using refugees tochange the demographic composition of regions and thus contributing to the cre-

ation of a Greater Serbia. . . .The Kosovo problem constitutes one of the most dangerous crisis areas

in Yugoslavias ongoing process of disintegration. The origins of this problem canbe traced back to the creation of an independent Albanian state after the defeat ofTirrkey in the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913. The independent Albania included only50 percent of the Albanian population in the area. A great number of Albaniansremained in Kosovo, an Ottoman province, most of which was given to Serbia. Today

there are more than 2 million Albanians in Kosovo (an overwhelming majorityof them are Muslims; the figure includes 15,000 Turks) and they account for over90 percent of the population, the remaining 10 percent being Serbian andMontenegrin. However, the Serbs regard Kosovo as their historic heartland. Kosovowas the cradle of the medieval Serbian state. [See Figure 13.9.] It is the historicbattlefield where the Serbs fought against the Ottomans in 1389. It is also a region

containing many Orthodox churches and monasteries. These factors make theprovince icnltrrial and spiritual centre for the Serbs. Kosovo has greatly contributedto the formation of a Serbian collective memory and consciousness, and this has

3,"r:,::mffiilil,r significant in the process of building a Serbian state based on

While the Serbs view Kosovo as a part of the Serbian historical patrimony thatcannot be negotiable, the Albanians base their claims on self-determinailon. Kosovowas in fact a seH-goverrring province of Serbia in terrns of the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution.Kosovo had its semi-autonomous status gradually eroded by the central govetnmentin Belgrade in 1990-1991. The basic cultural and educational rights of the Albanian

itr":'ilTff xH:,::f ifr l;,:;:'i:ff "$:x':n'"';:,1:51l:f,f#r:ia,'Jffi ;serbianized. ielgrade also reinforced the local se'curity force by sending in Serbian andMontenegritt

-ilitury units. Moreover, the economy was almost entirely serbianized.

Most of the Albanian workers and managers were replaced with the Serbs.The Albanians, for their part, took measures to set up their own state organi-

zation in a gradual and clandestine manner. In September 1991 they held a refer-endum in which theyvoted for a "sovereign and independent" Kosovo. In May 1992they held elections fand elected the moderate intellectua] Ibrahim Rugova]. Theyalso set up an underground school system financed by parents. Despite these efforts,the Kosovars have not been able to develop an effective means to defend them-

11:xHtl}:i?i+:':Hi'i*:*:;"'iTf #ll[iT'[:ilt#Tl,"*Th";:noted thaithis feeling of insecurity. combined with the measures of democratiza-tion in Albania and Kosovo, increased the assertiveness of Albanians. As a matterof fact, the democratic elections in both countries have further increased popularpressure for an Albanian-Kosovar reunion


Activity 1: The Rise of Nationalism and the Fall of Yugoslavia .,4 375

Communist paftisans rmder Josip Broz Tito, armed by the Nlies, fought the Germansto a standstill, broke with the Chemils, and took power at the end of the war. fPost-WorldWar II Yugoslavia had the same erternal boundaries as before, but internally it wasdivided into six republics: Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia,and Montenegro (Figure 13.7a). There was some attempt to define these republicsalong ethnonational lines, but of the sir, only Slovenia was even close to being ethni-cally pure; see Table 13.1 and F igure 13.8.] Communist rule under Marshal Tito kepta tight lid on ethnic feuding, but it continued to smolder. fUnder communist rule, Serbiawas transformed from an agrarian to an industrial society.J When Tito died in lg80,he left in place a collective presidency of Yugoslavia that rotated among the sir republics.

a.Figure 13.7 (a) Pre-breakup Yugoslavia; (b) Post-breakup Yugoslavia

b.

\4:

" .7 *:-tab bo;dat lv I /

Provincesinii,6i"ir s.Autonomous eReg ons o 25 50

* Capita Cty -tiE,

,? :=lo"7 istateboundary - l /

Regions

capblCi ty ]

Figure 13.8 Prewar ethnic distribution in the former Yugoslavia.


Activity 1: The Rise of Nationalism and the Fall of Yugoslayl6 ";ii 36g

1.7. A country called Yugoslavia (Land of the Southern Slavs) first came into beingafter World War I. Which of its member nations dominated Yugoslavia at that timei

1.8. What happened during World War II that further increased Serb-Croat hatredand added to the Serb sense of victimhoodP

B. The Pre-Breakup Situation

Refer to afticles by Goodrich and Knraostnanoglu, Figures is.T and 13.8,and Table 13.1.

After World War II, Yugoslavia adopted a federal system of govemment. The coun-try was divided into six "republics," similar to the 50 U.S. statesprovinces, but with one important difference. In Yugoslavia, the

and 13 Canadiangovernment tried

to define the republics along ethnonational lines.

1.9. Which republic was most ethnically uniform?*

1.10. Which republic was

1.11. Prior to its breakup,multination state?x

least ethnically uniform?*

was Yugoslavia a nation-state, a multistate nation, or a

1.12. The prewar state of Yugoslavia referred to its component regions as "republics."would a political geographer have called them states, nations, or provinces?*

1. 13. From World War II until its breakup, Yugoslavia had what kind of government-communist, capitalist, or monarchy?

C. The Breakup

Refer to article by Karaosmanoglu, Figures 13.7 and 13.8, and Table i3.1.

From 1991 to 1993, slovenia, croatia, Bosnia, and Macedonia all claimed inde-pendent status. In fact, the breakup of Yugoslavia consisted of three wars, not one.

1.14. Did Yugoslavia break up because of ethnonationalism or irredentism?*

1.15. The first war, which lasted only ten days, was between Slovenia and the Yugoslaviarrgovernment after Slovenia declared its independence in the spring of 199i. Wouldthe declaration ofindependence by Slovenia be described as an act ofirredentism orsecession?*


372 *t ' Chapter 13" Breaking Up ls Hard to Do: Nations. States. and Nation-States

F. All's Not Quiet on the Balkan Front

Refer to U7:dnte by authors and Figure 13.8

1.32. Is there still a state called Yugoslavia?

If not, what is it called nowP

1.33. Aside from the smoldering conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo. what other polit-ical geographic issues remain that might break up an existing state and create

" n"*

state in the region?

F" ACTIVITY 1 READINGS

tr, THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE M0NlT0R

0ld Animosities, Exploited Today, Underlie Complex Balkans Puzzle3by Lawrence J. Goodrich, staff writer of The Christian Science Monitor.October 13, 1993. Reprinted by permission.

Boston-As the likelihood grows that American forces will be directly involved intryang to restore the peace in the former Yugoslavia, many Americans are askinghow the slaughter there began.

Unfortunately, what is happening today in the Balkans is nothing new. It isthe continuation of the ethnic and religious hatreds that have swept the regionfor centuries, made worse by radical nationalists' cynical exploitation of theseanimosities.

The ethnic mirture of the Balkans began to form about the 5th century A.D. Vasttribal migrations swept across Europe:

-Germanic tribes came west, foilowed by

Slavs to their east. In succeeding centuries Maglrars (Hungarians), Mongols, Tatars,and Bulgars ranged over the Balkans. Between Western and Eastern Europe, agreat gulf developed. Rome had fallen, but the Roman Empire in the East, with itscapital at Constantinople (Blzantium), lasted another 1,000 years. The Roman churchwithout a state and the Byzantine church subseruient to the emperor split overlong-standing political and theological disputes. This chasm went right through theBalkans: Hungarians, Slovenes, and Croats were Roman Catholic, while Romanians,Bulgarians, Greeks, and Serbs were Eastern Orthodox fsee Figure 13.6a].

"Adapled b; the authors.

O 2OOG John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Activity 1: The Rise of Nationalism and the Fall of Yugoslavia .u:t 373

All across Europe nation-states began to form around the most powerful tribes.But in the l4th and 15th centuries, a series of catastrophes struck the Balkans. Firstthe Ottoman Turks defeated Serbia at the battle of Koiovo in l38g. Constantinople(now Istanbul) fell in 1453. lThe Ottoman Turks introduced the Muslim (i.e., Islamic)religion into the region.] By \529 the Turks had fought their way to the gates ofVienna, which they besieged again in 1683 isee Figure 13.6b]. All political, cultural,and economic evohrtion in those parts of the Balkans under Turkish rule stoppedunder the oppression of the Turkish sultan.

For the next 400 years, the history of the Balkans was a history of rivalry amongthe ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires. croats, slovenes, andTransylvanian Romanians lived under the influence of Vienna and Budapest lseeFigure 13.6c]. Romanians, Bulgarians, Macedonians, Serbs, and some Albanians clungtenaciously to their Eastern Orthodox faith, which became entwined with theiinational aspirations. Most Albanians and some Slavs, however, converted to Islam.

The Balkan peasantrywas kept impoverished as agricultural riches were shippedoff to feed the Ottoman Empire. The Turks played off tribes, clans, and familiesagainst each other, poisoning the political culture.

Christianity was barely tolerated.None of the subsequent development of western and central Europe-the

growth of guilds and the middle class, the decline of feudalism, the Reformationand the Counterreformation, the Renaissance and the Enlishtsnmsnf-fsuchedthe Balkans.

By the 19th century the Ottoman Empire was in serious decline. Most of theBalkan ethnic groups began to agitate for independence and their own states. Buttheir villages were often scattered among each other.

Little by little each group threw off Turkish rule. Russia felt a special calling tohelp its Orthodox Slav brethren, the Serbs and Bulgarians, and provided politicalor military support.

But the rule of the Balkans is: Ever;.thing for my ethnic group and noth-ing for yours. The group on top now governs at the expense ofthe others;the groups out of power wreak vengeance when the power balance shlfts. Peoplesee themselves as Serbs, Croatians, or Albanians first and as individuals second.

This attitude is presewed by the region's economic backwardness and low edu-cational levels. It is especially true in rural areas. While cities may be ethnically mixed,villages usually are ethnically pure, or nearly so.

lln 1908, Austria-Hungary directly annexed Bosnia, inciting the serbs to seekthe aid of Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece in seizing the last Ottoman-ruled landsin Europe. In the ensuing Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, Serbia obtained northern andcentral Macedonia, but Austria compelled it to yield Albanian lands that would havegiven Austria access to the sea. Serb animosi$z against Austria-Hungary reached aclimax on June 28,I9L4, when the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assas-sinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip-the spark that lit the pow-der keg of World War l.al

After the Turkish and Austrian Empires collapsed at the end of World War I, thevictorious Allies carved up the remains into a series of new, artificial Balkan states. Thesouthern Slav groups were lumped together in what o{ficially was christened Yugoslavia

aU.S. Departrnent of State, Bureau of European Affairs. 1999. Baakground Notes: Serbia and. Montenegro:rwrnv.state.gory'www/background_notes/serbia_9908 bgn.html (August lggg).


Activity 1: The Rise of Nationalism and the Fall of Yugoslavia w 377

intervention nor traditional ethnic animosities. The latter could well be preventedfrom escalating to a bloody conflict situation if moderate policies were aiopted bythe conflicting regional entities. First of all, Serbia's, and its extreme nationalist leaderMilosevics, ambition to create a "Greater Serbia" constitute the major cause of thecrisis.tslTo some extent, the crisis is also the product of the Croatian and Bosnianpolicies of independence which failed to show sufficient consideration for the largeSerbian communities in both countries.

Yugoslavia's nations had "very different and often mutually exclusive needs andaspirations." For the Serbs iwho were the dominant power], Yugoslavia's futuredepended on further and tighter centralization. The non-Serb majorities, on the con-trary were in favor of creating their own sovereign states, or at least a confedera-tion of sovereign states. . . .

A series of events in 1990-91 contributed to the deterioration of the crisis. In April1990, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and the Democratic United Oppositionof Slovenia (DtrMOS) came to power as a result of multi-parly elections. Both polit-ical parties were centre-right and pro-independence. During the election campaign,the}{DZ advocated a "Greater Croatia" that would annex Croat-populated regions ofBosniawhile condemning "greater Serbian hegemony' li.e., dominance]. This createdconsiderable concelrr among the Serbian population living in the border areas of Croatia.The Serbian perception of this threat was reinforced, on the one hand, by the increas-ingly secessionist stance of Croatia, and on the other, by the expulsion of Serbs fromgovernment positions. Moreover, the Croatian authorities threatened the Serbs by say-ing they would take measures to weaken Serbian economic position in the republic.These moves of the Croatian govemment led to growing Serbian fears, and, eventu-ally, to insurrections and armed clashes. . . .

In February fserbian President] Milosevic and fCroatian President] Tudjmanagreed on Serbian and Croatian annexations in Bosnia. . . . [A Bosnian referendumon independence] was held in March 1992 without Serbian participation. TheMuslims and Croats voted in favor of a "sovereign and independent Bosnia andHerzegovina" while the Serbs were erecting barricades around Sarajevo.

So far there have been three wars in the Yugoslav succession. The first took placein Slovenia in the Spring of 1991 and lasted for 10 days. The Serbian minority inSlovenia is only 2.47o of the population and is not implicated in the Serbian designof creating a "Greater Serbia." The conflict remained local without regional or inter-national implications. The second war fbetween Croats and Serbs from Croatia andSerbia] started in Croatia in the spring of 1991. The hostilities were resumed againin February 1993 while the UN and EC representatives were working on a peaceplan. The third began in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the spring of 1992 and is stillbeing waged.

The last two conflicts had a significant similarity. One of their common featureswas the application by the Serbs oIpolicies of "ethnic cleansing." This invo]ved chang-ing the demographic composition of villages, towns, and regions and clearing land

[sAs Roskin and Berry (1997) point out: "It's easy to blame the Serbs, but understand where they are comingfrom psychologically. The Serbs argue: 'All right, you bastards who murdered us during World War II, if youwant an independent Croatia and Bosnia, we have the right to pull the Serb areas out ofyour republics andgather them into a Greater Serbia, where they will be safe.' The attitude of Serbs closely parallels that ofIsraelis: 'We have historically been the victim of massacres, and we aren't going to take it anymore."' In fact,there's plenty of blarae to go around in Yugoslavia.l

@ 2006 John llilev & Sons, Inc.

Act iv i ty 1: The Rise of Nat ional ism and the Fal l of Yugoslavia 'n 379

Nevertheless, in spite of popular pressure, Albanian authorities in both coun-tries prevented numerous incidents from escalating to all-out conflict. lRememberthat this was published in tggg.] Moreover, many Albanians seem willing to acceptsome form of autonomy within a new Yugoslavia. But this type o{'settlement isabhorred by the Milosevic administration which still views Kosovo as an integraloart of a unitarv Serbia.

The Albanians are careful not to provide the Serbian authorities with an excusefor a violent crackdown and the Albanian government has been urging the Kosovarsto contribute to a peaceful solution of the Kosovo problem. But Albanian leadershave repeatedly declared that ethnic cleansing in Kosovo would not be toleratedby Tirana fAlbania's capital] and would lead to Albanias military intervention.

ht, THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE M0NlT0RFebruary 17, 1993; Copyright O 1993 Lee Malis/Spectrum Pictures. Reprinted by permission.

Bosnia: The Fl ight f rom Ethnic Gleansingby Lee Malis(photos by Lee Mahs)

Trar,'nik, Bosnia-Herzegovina-The war in Bosnia continues. Diplomats still talk aboutwhat needs to be done, and how to make it stand once it is agreed upon. But thetelevision news broadcasts say the bombings continue in Sarajevo. Another Bosnianvillage with a strange name falls to Serbian militias, and another massacre occursin an unfamiliar place. Muslims try to retake eastern towns, and Serbs block UNattempts to break through with aid.

Figure 13.9 Former borders of Serbia.


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