brand perception

Effect of Brand Image on Consumer Purchasing Behaviour on Clothing:

Comparison between China and the UKs Consumers

By Kwok Keung Tam

2007

A Dissertation presented in part consideration for the degree of MSc International Business

Table of Content

Page numbers Abstract i

Acknowledgements ii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 The importance of brand image on fashion clothing 1 1.2 Background information of China and the UK clothing markets 2

1.2.1 China clothing market 2 1.2.1.1 Chinese spending habits 3 1.2.1.2 Impediments to Chinas clothing brand development 4

1.2.2 UK clothing market 5 1.2.2.1 British spending habits 5 1.2.2.2 Characteristics of the UK clothing market 6

1.3 Theoretical framework 7

1.4 Objectives of the dissertation 7 1.5 Outline of the dissertation 8

Chapter 2: Literature review 10 2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 The important roles of brand 10

2.2.1 The characteristics of successful brands 11

2.3 Brand equity 12

2.3.1 Brand awareness 13

2.3.2 Perceived quality 15

2.3.3 Brand loyalty 16

2.3.4 Brand association 17

2.4 Consumer buying behaviour 19

2.4.1 Models of consumer behaviour 20

2.5 Summary 23

Chapter 3: Methodology 24 3.1 Introduction 24

3.2 Theoretical backgrounds 24 3.2.1 Review of different research traditions 24

3.2.2 Quantitative versus qualitative analysis 25 3.2.3 Reliability and validity of data 26

3.3 Justification of research method 27

3.4 Sampling 29 3.5 Interview schedule 31

3.5.1 Stage one 31 3.5.2 Stage two 32 3.5.3 Stage three 34 3.6 Administration 34

3.7 Analysis strategy 34 3.7.1 Grounded theory and its relationship to qualitative data

analysis

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3.7.2 Within-case and cross-case analysis 35

3.7.2.1 Within-case analysis 36

3.7.2.2 Cross-case analysis 37 3.8 Summary 37

Chapter 4: Research findings and discussion 38 4.1 Introduction 38

4.2 Backgrounds of respondents 38 4.3 Effect of clothing brand image on consumer buying behaviour 40 4.3.1 Significance of clothing brands on consumer purchasing

decisions

40





4.3.6 Consumer buying behaviour 54 4.4 Results 56

4.5 Summary 57

Chapter 5: Conclusions 58 5.1 Introduction 58

5.2 Conclusions 58 5.2.1 Significance of clothing brands on consumer purchasing

decisions

58





5.2.6 Consumer buying behaviour 61 5.3 Limitations 61

5.4 Implications 62

5.5 Recommendations for further research 64

References 66

Appendix 1: The 100 top brands 2006 79

Appendix 2: Interview questions 80

Appendix 3: Interview transcription 81

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Abstract

Brand is a powerful tool to attract more consumers to buy particular products.

Some may even regarded it as equity as it can add values to the products. This study examines the factors which contribute to brand equity in the clothing industry, comparing the consumer behaviour between the British and Chinese respondents based on the four respects of brand equity, namely brand

awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty and brand association.

Semi-structured interviews have been conducted to solicit responses from interviewees for analysis. The findings suggested that Chinese tend to have negative perceptions towards the quality of clothes produced in their own country. Having known that China has no influential clothing brands around the world, it is important that Chinese factory owners together with marketers should join hands to have better control over the clothes quality. In the UK, clothing brands are much better developed than its China counterparts, however, more emphasis should be placed on the marketing strategies such as rewarding customer loyalty with a view to enhance the sustainable development of the clothing brands.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Vicky Story, in assisting me to finish the dissertation. She has given me support as well as valuable comments throughout the consultation period so that I can manage to handle one of the hardest subjects in my university life.

In addition, I would also acknowledge my school-mates for their help in the data collection process. They have devoted their precious time for the

interviews voluntarily and their wholehearted support contributes to the

success of this dissertation.

Last but not least, I would like to extend my gratitude to my family members, especially my father Chun Shiu Tam who has devoted himself to the clothing industry for nearly half a century. He has not only inspired me to do this

dissertation, but also encouraged me to face the challenge ahead. This dissertation is dedicated to my family and I will try my best to do anything.

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 The importance of brand image on fashion clothing Clothing, as a matter of fact, is a kind of necessity that helps keep our bodies warm. Human beings cannot live without the protection from clothes in adverse conditions and this signifies how important clothing is for us. Nowadays, in addition to the basic functions, clothes can also serve as fashion items, which

can tell how significant an individual is, express the status an individual has and what their personal image is like (OCass, 2000). Thus, clothing can help represent our personal identity.

Shopping for clothes is one of the popular pastimes among people from all ages, different genders and cultural backgrounds. Owing to the proliferation of brands in the clothing sector, consumers need to take serious consideration during the buying processes. As mentioned by Rayport and Jaworski (2003), the purchasing processes can be divided into three stages, namely pre-purchase, purchase and post-purchase. Each stage is of equal importance that can alter the consumer buying decision. Once consumers make a purchasing decision, consumers may need to recognize their personal needs, read product information, decide which and where to buy, determine whether

to buy again from the same retailer, choose the buying modes, show satisfaction to the services or product quality and finally be loyal to the brand.

These highlight the complication of buying processes and the potential impact a brand could impose in between them.

Several brands, under the influence of globalization and concerted efforts from media advertising, have become popular not only in their country of origin, but also in other markets with high potential. Having a strong and remarkable brand image could help establish an identity in marketplace (Aaker, 1996),

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widen the profit margins, encourage greater intermediary co-operation as well as increase the chance for further brand extension (Delgado-Ballester and Munuera-Aleman, 2005). In accordance with Delong et al. (2004), consumers appear to rely on the brand image as long as they have little knowledge about the brand. In this way, managing brand image is of utmost importance. In order to differentiate one brand from another, marketers would develop retail brands

with unique image so as to continue to gain popularity and market share (Abend, 2000; Ailawadi, 2001; Corstjens and Lal, 2000).

The importance of brand image has inspired many marketing scholars and practitioners to begin researching the concept of brand equity (Aaker, 1991, 1996; Keller, 1993, 1998, 2003). Under this concept, brands are regarded as valuable assets which can help the companies generate lucrative revenues. In this paper, the concept of brand equity would be utilized as a theoretical

framework, which would be illustrated in the following chapters.

1.2 Background information of China and the UK clothing markets China and the UK are entirely different in their economic structures. Being an advanced developing country, China tends to be more dependent on labour-intensive production activities rather than natural resource-based

activities (Greenaway and Milner, 1993). This may probably explain why China is now becoming one of the most influential countries within the clothing sector. On the other hand, the UK has transformed from an industrial country to a well-developed country in the recent decades. The differences in their

economies have triggered the interest of my study towards their consumer buying behaviour in the clothing sector.

1.2.1 China clothing market The clothing industry is one of the most important and hence heavily invested industry in China, contributing to 74.16 billion US dollars in terms of export value and leading it to become the second largest clothing export market in

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2005 (WTO, 2006). With the accession of World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, the development of clothing industry in China becomes even much faster. It is believed that China could make use of its competitive advantages, for instances low labour costs and large portions of usable land, to further strengthen its position in the clothing sector. Nowadays, China plays a role as a producer, wielding the techniques and human resources to finish the orders placed by the foreign counterparts. As stated by Cui (1997), China is known for the manufacture of basic goods in large volumes and foreign registered brands are often designed elsewhere and produced in China. It is undeniable that the entry of WTO would provide business opportunities for China. However, this would also engender intense competition since foreign firms are allowed to sell their products directly to China.

1.2.1.1 Chinese spending habits According to a research conducted by the Hong Kong Trade Development Council (HKTDC) (2002), Chinese customers show divergent opinions with respect to purchasing clothes. It is shown that they would prefer buying middle-priced range clothes from Hong Kong and luxury brand-named clothes made in foreign countries. However, the Grey China Base Annual Consumer Study (Bates, 1998) reveals that over two thirds of the consumers regard domestic brands as their first priority. This points out the fact that a large majority of Chinese is still in favor of domestic brands in low-priced range.

The HKTDC (2002) research also reports on the average annual spending on clothing. On average, people spend 7.3% of their income on buying clothes with women professionals having the highest demand and students spending the minimal amount. This disparity is probably due to the fact that

professionals have higher spending power than the students. Regarding the criteria for buying clothes, respondents rank fitness as their prime concern, followed by cutting, pricing, quality and finally trendiness. Chinese brands have competitive advantage in fitness and pricing (Delong et al., 2004), however,

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people still tend to buy luxury clothes produced in the foreign markets. This is possibly owing to the fact that Chinese brands are confined to low- to middle-priced range market without fully penetrating to the luxurious level. Such findings provide insights to the future development of local brands in China.

1.2.1.2 Impediments to Chinas clothing brand development China has competitive advantages in terms of production factors such as low labour costs and growing technology, however, the lack of globally influential brands is one of the main reasons why China lags behind in the clothing industry with respect to brand development (Delong et al., 2004). According to a report published by Business Week (2007), none of the Chinese brands can enter the 100 Top Brands in 2006 (see Appendix 1) in which Nike was ranked 31, followed by adidas in 71 and the Spain-found clothing company ZARA in 73. Lim and OCass (2001) explain that people in the west tend to have negative perception towards brands from emerging economies and hence the number of famous clothing brands in China is limited. Besides, Cui (1997) points out that customers would only justify a brand through its image as long as they know little about it. This spells out the need for China to establish its own brands with good reputation.

China has been connoted with the reputation of low-cost products in the overseas markets for decades. The originally advantageous factors, however, become a major hindrance to the global brands development process. Schmitt and Pan (1994) state that Chinese customers could not be able to differentiate between US and European apparel brands. Also, they often find Hong Kong and Taiwan brand names confusing. The lack of brand knowledge is probably attributed to the geographical and political differences. However, such confusion does not affect the overall perception towards brands in other

countries. They tend to perceive US brands positively as US has a reputation in technological development and high fashion. When it comes to the case

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about the perception of China-produced foreign brands, it is ironic that most respondents find that they are less authentic, regardless of their quality. The image of China-produced products needs improvement in this sense.

According to a research reported by Hargrave-Silk (2005, March 25), nearly two thirds of the companies in China would like to establish their own global brand. The key motivation for doing so is to build up a global image so as to enhance the companys international reputation and it is suggested that quality is the major determinant for the overseas customers to make their buying decisions. With such impetus and the concerted effort from the industry

members, the overall image of Chinese brands could become better in the future.

1.2.2 UK clothing market The UK is a European country with population of around 60 million, which is 21

times less than that of China (Economist.com, 2007). Regarding its GDP growth, because of its mature economic structure, it is pursuing a stable rather than aggressive GDP growth rate. In addition, the business services and finance sector are the most important source of gross domestic products, contributing to nearly 30% of the total domestic products (Economist.com, 2007). The manufacturing sector, including the clothing industry, pales in comparison with the development of the business sector and even has a sign of recession in the recent decades. This can be revealed by the gradual decline of employment rate within the UK clothing industry (Jones and Hayes, 2004).

1.2.2.1 British spending habits Spending seems more welcome than saving among the British people. According to a research conducted by Weekes (2004), just around one-third of female respondents and less than half of the male respondents express that

they have the saving habits. Among the respondents, females are more likely

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to spend on clothes than males, with nearly half of female respondents saying that they have at least one store card and nearly two-thirds of them own one or

two loyalty cards. This may possibly explain why shopping is a gendered activity (Dholakia, 1999; South and Spitze, 1994), and occasionally, women may even shop for mens clothing (Dholakia, 1999).

Store cards and loyalty cards are common promotional tactics to solicit consumers loyalty. However, the same research shows that store cards may

not be regularly used even though special offers are often given to the cardholders (Weekes, 2004). This could be explained by the fact that store cards sometimes have much higher interest rates than that of the credit cards and personal loans (Mintel, 2002).

1.2.2.2 Characteristics of the UK clothing market Like most of the developed economy, the UK clothing industry has shifted its manufacturing section to other countries with low labour costs and skilled labour, leaving alone the design centre with well-trained designers. Such move can probably account for the significant drop in employment rate and amount of output in the clothing sector (Jones, 2003). However, this is found to hinder the development of British clothing design due to lack of manufacturing facilities (Dagworthy, as cited in Carruthers, 2004).

As far as the UK fashion retail sector is concerned, there is a trend for own

brand development, concentrated markets, strong competitive activities, a polarized marketplace, short-life-cycle products, as well as fluctuating consumer demand (Marciniak and Bruce, 2004; Siddiqui et al., 2003). As mentioned by Moore (1995), fashion retailers tend to create product differentiation in which they can distinguish themselves from their potential competitors in terms of product features like design and price. Although the UK is overwhelmed with fashion brands, the market is characterized by products

with small differentiation (Birtwhistle and Freathy, 1998; Moore, 1995). In

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addition, the retailing sector is fragmented, composing of independent, family-owed businesses and some large scale chain stores, with the later one contributing to the largest proportion of market share (Easey, 2001; Marciniak and Bruce, 2004; Mintel, 2003). Compared with other retailed sector, the fashion retailing sector is found to incorporate the largest number of indigenous chains such as Next plc (Marciniak and Bruce, 2004). Such phenomena have stimulated the emergence of brand name development in the competitive UK clothing market.

1.3 Theoretical framework

With a well-known brand name, consumers would appear to be more likely to

purchase the products in much higher prices. As far as the same level of product quality is concerned, consumers would prefer buying brand-name products (Bello and Holbrook, 1995). This phenomenon spells out the concept of brand equity.

According to Aaker (1991), brand equity is mainly derived from four elements, namely brand awareness, brand loyalty, perceived brand equity and brand

associations. The theoretical framework adopted in this dissertation would be

based on the concept of brand equity and the details of each element are to be

discussed and analyzed later in chapter four.

1.4 Objectives of the dissertation The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the effect of brand image on consumer purchasing behaviour in clothing, with the comparison between the Chinese and British consumers. Having found out the relationship between brand image and consumer purchasing behaviour, marketers and practitioners could devise strategies to increase the sales revenues.

The clothing sector is particularly chosen in this research. As stated by Bearden and Etzel (as cited in Hogg et al., 1998), clothing is a kind of public

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necessity with weak reference group influence on the product category but strong reference group influence on the brand choice. In this way, results obtained from the research on brand image could be more conspicuous.

In addition, Chinese and British consumers are going to be compared in this research since China and the UK have been targeted by many clothing retailers due to their enormous customer base. Famous clothing brands like H&M and ZARA have already obtained their footholds in these two markets

that underlie their significant contribution to these companies (H&M, 2007; ZARA, 2007). China, being an emerging country with high potential on clothing brands, is on the lookout for extensions, whereas the UK is a mature market in

which consumers are more experienced in purchasing brand-name clothes. The results of such comparison would offer meaningful insights for further brand development in both China and the UK.

Two assumptions are made throughout the dissertation. First, brand image should have an impact on the consumer buying behaviour of clothing and second, there are differences in buying behaviour for consumers in China and the UK.

1.5 Outline of the dissertation The structure of the dissertation is shown as follows:

Chapter 1 is the introductory section, containing the background information of China and the UK clothing industry, the research objectives and the dissertation outline.

Chapter 2 will incorporate the review of previous studies, mainly concentrating on clothing industry and consumer buying behaviour. It is believed that this chapter could provide readers with general information like theories and issues in relation to consumer buying behaviour for clothes so as to make them more

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understandable in the forthcoming sections.

Chapter 3 delineates the research methodology, focusing on the description of research design and justification of data.

Chapter 4 is the core of the dissertation in which research findings are presented and discussed. Whether brand image would affect the consumer buying behaviour in the clothing sector is shown and also the similarities and differences regarding the circumstances in China and the UK are investigated.

Chapter 5 would draw conclusions on the findings from the previous chapters. Implications towards the business environment and research limitations are

also included. Recommendations would be made with regard to the limitations so as to provide further directions in the future studies.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Consumer behaviour refers to the activities in which people acquire, consume and dispose products and services (Blackwell et al., 2001). Owing to the proliferation of brands in the recent decades, there is a growing number of research conducted in the field of consumer buying behaviour. However, most of them concentrate on a single country study, regardless of the importance of cross-country comparisons which will inspire innovative ideas for

understanding the fast-changing consumer habits. This dissertation is going to investigate the differences of British and Chinese in purchasing clothes under the influence of brand image.

In this chapter, the literatures concerning the roles of brand and brand equity are to be reviewed so as to provide a theoretical framework for the

aforementioned analysis.

Brand serves a pivotal role for distinguishing goods and services from those of the competitors (Aaker, 1991; Murphy, 1998). The emergence of brand equity underlies the importance of brand in marketing tactics and hence provides useful insights for managers and further research (Keller, 2003).

2.2 The important roles of brand Brand is a name in every consumers mind (Mooij, 1998) and it is characterized by a noticeable name or symbol which can differentiate the

goods and services from the rivals (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1998). In addition to a specific brand name, a brand is also composed of products, packaging, promotion, advertising, as well as its overall presentation (Murphy, 1998). From the consumers perspective, brand is a guarantor of reliability and quality

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in consumer products (Roman et al., 2005). Added to this, consumers would like to buy and use brand-name products with a view to highlight their personality in different situational contexts (Aaker, 1999; Fennis and Pruyn, 2006).

Nowadays, consumers have a wide range of choice to choose from when they enter a shopping mall. It is found that consumers emotions are one of the major determinants which affect their buying behaviour (Berry, 2000). According to a research conducted by Freeride Media LLC (1998) on shopping habits, nearly one-forth of the respondents are likely to impulse-buy clothes

and accessories. When deciding which products to purchase, consumers would have their preferences, which are developed in accordance with their

perceptions towards the brand. Successful branding could make consumers aware of the presence of the brand and hence could increase the chance of

buying the companys products and services (Doyle, 1999).

2.2.1 The characteristics of successful brands

A brand can be an everlasting and lucrative asset as long as it is maintained in a good manner that can continue satisfying consumers needs (Batchelor, 1998; Murphy, 1998). Although successful brands can be totally different in nature, they share something in common, for instances well-priced products and consistent quality (Murphy, 1998).

As mentioned by Levitt (1983), there are four elements for building a successful brand, namely tangible product, basic brand, augmented brand and potential brand. Tangible product refers to the commodity which meets the basic needs of the customers. Basic brand, on the other hand, considers the

packaging of the tangible product so as to attract the attention from the potential customers. The brand can be further augmented with the provision of credibility, effective after-sales services and the like. Finally and most

importantly, a potential brand is established through engendering customer

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preference and loyalty. By doing so, the image of the brand could be well instilled in the customers mind.

2.3 Brand equity The term brand equity refers to a set of assets and liabilities associated with a

brand, including its name and symbol, which could impose beneficial or detrimental effects on the values arising from the products or services (Aaker, 1991; Yasin et al., 2007). Added to this, Keller (1998) points out that brand equity signifies the unique marketing effects imposed on the brand. Concerning the positive side of brand equity, it happens when consumers are willing to pay more for the same level of quality just because of the attractiveness of the name attached to the product (Bello and Holbrook, 1995). However, brand equity could be ruined if it is not properly managed. For instance, poor product quality and customer services could adversely affect

the brand image, giving rise to a reduction in sales volume.

One of the quintessential examples regarding brand as a kind of equity is the imposition of laws to protect intellectual property (Murphy, 1998). In countries with well-established legal system, the values of brands have been recognized to both the consumers and producers. In order to combat piracy, many

countries have set up laws to protect trade marks, patents, designs as well as copyright. In addition, brand is also a tradable product with measurable financial value (Murphy, 1998). It is not uncommon to find some familiar brands listed on the stock markets in which they could be bought or sold. Brands like HSBC, Marks and Spencer, Vodafone, Sainsbury and Tesco are all listed on the FTSE 100 index (London Stock Exchange, 2007). It is found that the volatility of stock market could affect consumers purchasing mood, not to mention the growth or declines of retail sales (Blackwell, 2002). This is supported by the fact that brand equity depends on the number of people with

regular purchase (Aaker, 1996).

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The above examples highlight the values of brand equity for both consumers and the firm. For the consumers, brand equity could provide them with

information about the brand which influences their confidence during the purchasing process. There is a high propensity for consumers with good perceptions to buy from the same shop again than those with poor perceptions. Past purchasing experiences and familiarity with the brand could be attributable to the perceptions generated from the consumers (Aaker, 1991). As for the firm, brand equity could also be a source for the firm to generate cash flow. For instance, the merger between adidas and Reebok in 2005 not only increased their market share so as to compete with Nike in the US sports apparel market, but also attracted more people to invest in the bigger company with high potential (Business Week, 2005). Besides, brand equity could also allow higher margins through premium pricing and reduced reliance upon promotional activities (Aaker, 1991). Owning to the positive image, consumers no longer focus on the short-term promotion but the brand on the whole.

Brand equity is a broad concept which can be further subdivided into four main

areas, namely brand loyalty, name awareness, perceived quality and brand

associations (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1998). These four main areas are to be discussed in the coming sections.

2.3.1 Brand awareness

Brand awareness is one of major determinants of brand equity. It refers to the ability of a potential consumer to recall and recognize the brand, linking the brand with its corresponding product class (Aaker, 1991). The level of brand awareness lies in a continuum, with brand recognition being the lowest level and the first named brand with unaided recall being the highest level.

It is important for the potential consumers to be aware of a product so that it

can become one of the purchasing choices. This is due to the fact that the product needs to enter the awareness set before it comes to the consideration

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set (Blackwell et al., 2001) and an increase in brand awareness is conducive to a higher chance of entering the later set (Nedungadi, 1990). In this way, brands with higher level of awareness would be more likely to be purchased (Yasin et al., 2007). This could probably explain why consumers tend to buy a recognizable brand rather than an unfamiliar one (Hoyer, 1990; Macdonald and Sharp, 2000).

Several factors can alter the level of brand awareness. In case of China, its geographical location and politics could affect the consumer brand awareness level seriously. According to research conducted by Delong et al. (2004), owing to geographical differences, Chinese consumers cannot distinguish US apparel brand names from the European ones. In addition, brands from Taiwan

and Hong Kong are sometimes confused, due to their political separations. For long time, Taiwan would like to become politically independent from China owing to their different political standpoint whereas Hong Kong, being a special administrative region since 1997, has once been a colony of the UK.

As mentioned by Keller (1998), brand awareness can be enhanced through repeat exposure to the brand. In order to achieve brand awareness, two tasks

are to be accomplished, namely increasing brand name identity and associating it with the product class. Advertising and celebrity endorsement could be some useful tools for raising brand awareness. It is found that advertisement attitude is attributable to the influence on brand attitudes,

affecting consumers intention to purchase (Mackenzie et al., 1986; Tsai et al., 2007). In recent decades, there is an increasing number of advertising campaigns around the world. Consumers are hence well-equipped with comparative elements to judge which product or service to purchase (Alvarez and Casielles, 2005). Moreover, celebrity endorsement can give rise to source credibility and source attractiveness. For source credibility, as pointed out by

McGuire (1978), celebrities can disseminate messages to particular consumers and hence increase the brand awareness. As for source

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attractiveness, successful endorsement can associate the culture of the

celebrity world with the endorsed product (McCracken, 1989). This association can raise the public awareness towards the brand.

2.3.2 Perceived quality

Another important attribute to brand equity is perceived quality. It is defined as

the customers perception of the overall quality or superiority of a product or

service (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1998; Yasin, 2007). Since it is a kind of intangible, overall feeling towards a brand, it is subjective in nature and hence the knowledge of actual detailed product specifications could have little correlation with the perceived quality. Perceived quality of a brand could help generate values by providing a pivotal reason-to-buy, differentiating the position of a brand, charging premium price, motivating channel members to perform well and also introducing extensions into new brand categories (Aaker, 1991). In addition, it is found that perceived quality is of utmost importance in

determining brand loyalty as well as repeat purchase (Delong et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is becoming more difficult to obtain satisfactory level of perceived quality owing to the fact that fast and continuous product advancement has already strengthened consumers expectations on product quality (Sherman, 1992).

Similar to brand awareness, perceived quality is determined by a number of factors. To be more specific, perceived quality can further be classified into

product quality and service quality. Regarding product quality, there are seven dimensions which affect the consumers perception, namely performance,

features, conformance with specifications, reliability, durability, serviceability as

well as fit and finish. Service quality, on the other hand, is judged by its corresponding tangibles, reliability, competence, responsiveness and empathy (Aaker, 1991). In addition to the aforementioned dimensions, the country-of-origin of a product is found to affect its perceived quality (Khachaturian and Morganosky, 1990) and also the perceptions towards the

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purchased value (Ahmed and dAstou, 1993). As mentioned by Srikatanyoo and Gnoth (2002), consumers are inclined to develop stereotypical beliefs about the products from particular countries. Hence, consumers could have

their preferences for products made from one country over another

(Papadopoulos et al., 1991). Moreover, price is one of the important cues to evaluate perceived quality (Aaker, 1991). It is found that price is more relevant in judging the perceived quality of a product given that a person lacks the ability to evaluate the quality of a product.

2.3.3 Brand loyalty

Brand loyalty is one of the core components of brand equity and also positively

and directly affected brand equity (Atilgan et al., 2005). Under the influence of brand loyalty, consumers continue to buy the brand, regardless of the superior features, prices and convenience owned by its competitors (Aaker, 1991). The more loyal the consumers are towards the brand, the less vulnerable the

customer base would be. Based on the practice that repeat buying is one of the indicators for brand loyalty, Keller (1998), however, challenges that such measure may not be totally accurate. This is due to the fact that some

consumers make habitual purchase towards a particular brand just because of its prominence in stock and effective promotions.

For many companies, having loyal customers is a kind of blessing. Brand loyalty is regarded as valuable asset under different circumstances. First, it can help reduce the marketing costs of doing business (Aaker, 1991). Loyal customers confer to a higher possibility of repeat purchases and it is less costly to keep customers than to get new ones. Second, loyalty to a brand can enhance trade leverage. Some consumers with strong affiliation to one brand would switch to the shop in which a designated brand is sold. Third, loyal customers could influence the others to purchase the brand. This is typically

true when the product concerned is somewhat risky. In this case, consumers

are assured to buy the product if they have some friends or relatives who

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recommend the same model of product. This suggests why word-of-mouth communication is one of the most powerful tools in the marketplace (Henricks, 1998; Marney, 1995; Silverman, 1997; Bansal and Voyer, 2000). Consumers usually depend on informal, as well as personal communication sources in

making purchasing decision rather than more formal and organizational advertising campaigns (Bansal and Voyer, 2000). Finally, brand loyalty can help provide ample time for the firm to response to competitors newly

launched products. Hence, the firm could make good use of the time lapse to develop more superior products in order to compete with its rivals.

Due to the values obtained from brand loyalty, many firms would devise

different strategies to maintain and enhance the loyalty from customers. According to Aaker (1991), it is important to treat the customer with respect in order to keep them loyal. Moreover, customer satisfaction level needs to be

properly managed through conducting consumer research. Customers can also be rewarded for their loyalty towards the firms so that they will continue to

buy the products. For instance, several airlines like Cathay Pacific, KLM and chain stores such as TOPMAN provide club-cards or loyalty cards to reward their customers with discounts and other benefits.

2.3.4 Brand association

The last dimension for brand equity is brand association. It is defined as the

specific linkage between the memory and the brand (Aaker, 1991). Keller (1998) and Yasin et al. (2007) further note that equity of a brand is largely supported by consumers associations towards the brand, which contribute to

a specific brand image. Brand association is such a complicated concept that connects to one another, consisting of multiple ideas, episodes, examples, and facts that create a brand knowledge network (Yoo et al., 2000). In addition to the tangible products, the intangible qualities, for instances innovativeness and distinctiveness are also taken into account as brand associations.

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Keller (1993, 1998) further divides brand associations into three categories, namely attributes, benefits and attitudes. Attributes refer to the specific

characteristics a product has. Attributes can be further categorized into product-related attributes as well as non-product related attributes. For

product-related attributes, the overall features of the product or service are

concerned. As for non-product related attributes, price information, packaging, user imagery as well as usage imagery are to be considered. Benefits are another category in brand associations. They can be classified into functional, experimental and symbolic. Function benefits signify the physical or basic advantages a brand may have. For experimental benefits, they are related to consumers emotional feelings. Symbolic benefits, on the other hand, refer to the signal effect that a brand may impose on the consumers. Signal effect is determined by the image of consumers and also the personality of the brand. Consumers are attracted by the signal when they purchase a product in a particular brand. Finally, attitudes are regarded as the consumers overall assessments towards a brand. They incorporate summary evaluations of

information which represent how consumers feel in a long run, lying in a continuum from positive to negative (Gabbott and Hogg, 1998).

Different brands have different associations to their prospective customers.

Such kind of associations can provide bases for them to make purchase decisions and even become loyal to the brand (Aaker, 1991). Associations towards a brand can create value for the firm and so its customers in a number

of ways. First of all, they help the customers to process or retrieve information

(Keller, 1998). Customers are sometimes forgetful and associations towards a brand serve as a brief summary for the customers to make their purchasing decision. Associations can also be used to trigger the customers to recall their past experiences, making the customers remember the brand by heart. Second, brand associations can differentiate one brand from another. It is about brand positioning that a well-positioned brand will find it hard to be attacked by its competitors due to its uniqueness. This can make the brand

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unbeatable but it is quite difficult to achieve since consumer taste changes quite rapidly. Third, brand associations may include some product attributes or

consumer benefits which encourage the consumers to purchase the brand. Forth, some associations can engender positive feelings. For examples, adidas slogan Impossible is nothing, Madonna appearance in H&Ms collection advertisement can stimulate customers their positive feelings about the products.

Once brand associations are constructed in a meaningful way, a vivid brand image is established. Brand image possibly affects how consumers perceive the brand and hence their purchasing behaviour. There may be products on the market with similar quality and design, however, the specific brand image attached on a product may differentiate itself from the others, contributing to its higher premium price.

2.4 Consumer buying behaviour Many people do consume a wide range of products every day, from basic necessities to high-valued collectables. Owing to the proliferation of products in the market, such phenomenon is one of the most interesting and hence heavily investigated topics in the marketing field. As mentioned by Schiffman and Kanuk (2000), consumer behaviour is about how people make their decisions on personal or household products with the use of their available

resources such as time, money and effort. Gabbott and Hogg (1998) and Blackwell et al. (2006) further provide a holistic view that defines consumer behaviour as the activities and the processes in which individuals or groups choose, buy, use or dispose the products, services, ideas or experiences.

The study of consumer buying behaviour is of utmost importance in a number of aspects. First of all, consumer behaviour can influence the economic health

of a nation (Blackwell et al., 2006). Consumers would have their preferences in purchasing products from specific retailers and hence the remaining retailers

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are selected using the rule of survival of the fittest. Therefore, consumers decisions can provide a clue for which industry to survive, which companies to

succeed, and also which products to excel. Second, through understanding the reasons for consumers to buy the products and their buying habits, the firms can make use of such information to devise corresponding marketing strategies in response to the consumers needs (Blackwell et al., 2006). For instance, tailor-made products can be made to enhance customer value and

thus facilitate repeat purchase (Gabbott and Hogg, 1998). Moreover, present consumer behaviour studies regard consumers as important determinants of organizational success and it is found that the most successful organizations are customer-centric (Blackwell et al., 2006). The notion the consumer is king should be deep-rooted in every business peoples mind that they should try to

please these kings using their innovative methods.

2.4.1 Models of consumer behaviour

Several models are developed with a view to provide explanations for the consumer buying behaviours. Although they vary in form of presentation, most of them are composed of stages such as pre-purchase, purchase and post-purchase (Hoyer and Maclnnis, 2001; Rayport and Jaworski, 2003).

Blackwell et al. (2001) define consumer behaviour as a summation of acquisition, consumption and disposal of products or services. However,

such definition falls short of the continuity of the processes. Based on this

loophole, Arnoud et al. (2004) further propose the circle of consumption that recognize purchasing processes as a loop, comprising acquisition of goods and services, consumption, as well as disposal of used goods.

As far as the consumer decision process model is concerned, consumers need

to go through seven steps before reaching their final decisions. These seven steps include need recognition, search for information, pre-purchase, evaluation, purchase, consumption, post-consumption evaluation and

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divestment (Blackwell et al., 2006). Rayport and Jaworski (2003) propose a similar model with slight differences regarding the terms used. Blackwell et al. (2006) add that most consumer research would primarily base on these seven stages and how different elements affect each stage of consumers decisions, regardless of the different terms and consolidation of stages.

Stage one is need recognition which occurs when an individual is aware of a difference between their perception and the actual satisfaction level (Solomon et al., 2006). The buying process is initiated when people recognize their unsatisfied need (Levy and Weitz, 1992). There are two kinds of needs, namely functional needs and psychological needs. Functional needs are related to the performance of the product whereas psychological needs are intrinsically obtained when customers feel contented with shopping or owning a product which they long for.

Stage two is the search of information. The length and depth of search vary for different customers and depend on variables like personality, social class,

income, size of purchase, past experiences, prior brand perceptions (Moorthy et al., 1997), as well as customer satisfaction. As mentioned by Solomon et al. (2006), search of information can further be divided into pre-purchase search and ongoing search. Pre-purchase search is initiated when consumers recognize a need and hence look for more information from the marketplace. Ongoing search, on the other hand, is more likely to be based on personal interest on a particular brand. Customers pursuing this kind of search would like to obtain the most updated information about the designated brand.

Stage three comes to the pre-purchase evaluation that consumers compare between different products and brands to make a purchasing decision. In this stage, consumers pay particular attention to the attributes which are most relevant to their needs (Kolter et al., 2005). Attributes like quantity, size, quality and price are commonly used to judge a brand by customers. Any changes in

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these attributes can affect consumer decisions on brand or product choices

(Blackwell et al., 2006). According to Porter (2004), firms can create value by providing lower price or unique offers to the customers so as to excel their competitive advantages over the others.

Stage four refers to the purchase decisions made by the consumers after evaluating the offers from different retailers. As stated by Blackwell et al. (2006), there are two phases contributing to the decision making processes, including retailer and in-store selection. Retailer selection is made by judging which retailers to buy after investigating the attributes from the previous stage whereas in-store selection is affected by the selling skills of salesperson, visual displays inside the shops, as well as point-of-purchase advertising. In addition to in-store purchase, Rayport and Jaworski (2003) further point out the significant impact of internet on consumer purchasing decision. As pointed out by Dholakia and Uusitalo (2002), this new kind of non-shop retailing format has begun replacing the fairly established catalogue and TV shopping and its development is rapid albeit it is more recently found in comparison with the

existing non-shop retailing modes.

Stage five, stage six and stage seven are under the category of the post-purchase stage. In stage five, customers begin consuming the products whereas in stage six, customers evaluate the consumption process. This gives rise to satisfaction when consumers expectations are higher than the perceived performance and vice versa (Blackwell et al., 2006). Last but not least, stage seven comes to divestment, in which consumers dispose or recycle the products and at the same time. The firms need to think about the

possibility of remarketing. This stage is crucial since customers could be possible to make repeat purchases provided that they are satisfied with the

aforementioned stages (Rayport and Jaworski, 2003).

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2.5 Summary This chapter provides a review about the major research and theories regarding the consumer purchasing behaviour. Brands are so important that they are regarded as the equity to a firm. Brand equity can be divided into four dimensions, including brand awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty and brand associations. All of them have significant contribution to the brand as equity to the firm.

Nowadays, consumers seem to be more aware of the products they buy, and

at the same time, products are developed in an unprecedented way. Only by understanding the consumer behaviour can the products or brands be developed in a right way. In this dissertation, whether the brand image would affect the consumers to purchase clothes is to be investigated. It is hoped that by finding out the relationships of brand awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty and brand association with the consumer purchasing behaviour that will provide useful insights for the development of the clothing sector.

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Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Introduction

With a view to finding out the underlying principles of certain phenomenon, research is required. In terms of the science of knowledge acquisition, epistemology is about the science of knowing, whereas methodology is acknowledged to be the science of finding out (Babbie, 2004). During the course of consumer behaviour research, data are gathered, recorded and analyzed in a systematic and objective manner so as to apprehend and foresee how consumers feel, think and behave (Arnould et al., 2004).

In general, there are two types of research methods, namely qualitative and quantitative research. Each of them encompasses a variety of approaches,

which are determined on the kinds of data being collected. This chapter aims at discussing different theories and research methods, as well as justifying the most suitable approach for the research topic. The details of the sampling would also be discussed.

3.2 Theoretical backgrounds In this section, the research traditions, theories, and also the validity and

reliability of data are discussed in order to provide a general view about how the research is carried out and which factors influence the justification of research method.

3.2.1 Review of different research traditions

Based on the methodology used, research theories can be classified into different types. In accordance with Gephart (2004), there are three research traditions, namely positivism, interpretive research and critical postmodernism.

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Positivism makes use of the stance of realism in which the objective reality can be understood by mirror of science. Added to this, it assumes that a social

world exists externally that should be measured objectively (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). In accordance to Fisher (2004), the majority of positivist research incorporates the comparison of qualitative case studies to analyze if there are

any connections between variables.

While positivism stresses on objectivity, interpretative research focuses on subjective interpretations to describe meanings and understand reality. Fisher (2004) notes that the linkage between interpretations are dialogic and hence interpretive research aims at soliciting peoples accounts of how they find the world, together with the structures and processes within it.

As for critical postmodernism, it underlines the assumption of symbolic reality,

which is shaped by values and crystallizes over time. Fisher (2004) further reveals that critical postmodernism is a kind of realism which comprises three

levels of reality, including experiences, events and mechanisms. Experiences are our perceptions and encounters of the world. Events are concerned about

what has happened in the world by our experiences to them. Finally,

mechanisms are the roots of events which are regarded as the deepest level among the three.

3.2.2 Quantitative versus qualitative analysis Generally, research methods can be classified in a dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative research. As far as the description and explanation

of phenomena are concerned, quantitative research focuses on analyzing numerical data whereas qualitative research deals with meanings, examining the attitudes, feelings and motivations of people (Babbie, 2004; Dey, 1993). In the field of research, qualitative research is sometimes regarded as a relatively minor methodology than its quantitative counterpart and there are some assumptions that only experimental data, official statistics, random sampling

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and quantified data can lead to valid or generalizable social facts. That is why it is suggested that qualitative research should be used more often at the early or exploratory stage of a study (Silverman, 2000). Nevertheless, both of them are not perfect in a sense that they need to serve as a complement to each

other. As suggested by Easterby-Smith et al. (2002), research needs a partnership and it could be beneficial to collaborate rather than compete

between the different kinds of research methods.

Both the quantitative research and qualitative research have their own

advantages and disadvantages. Quantitative research surpasses qualitative in a sense that it can analyze data based on representative samples from a large population (Proctor, 2000), having a complete set of categorization for the events or activities described (Silverman, 2000). In this way, quantitative analysis is stronger than qualitative analysis in that it can persuade readers with large-scale, numeric data.

As for qualitative research, it is more likely to look into peoples in-depth

feelings, for example, attitude (Kirk and Miller, 1986). Unlike quantitative research, which uses ad hoc procedures to define and measure variables

(Blumer, 1956; Cicourel, 1964; Silverman, 1975), qualitative research tends to focus on describing the process of how we define and measure variables in everyday life (Silverman, 2000). Qualitative analysis, however, suffers from the problem of anecdotalism in which it just narrates some examples of phenomenon without taking less clear data into account (Silverman, 1989). Besides, the reliability of tape-recorded and transcribed data is argued by some to be weakened owing to the possibility of missing some trivial but crucial pauses and overlaps (Silverman, 2000).

3.2.3 Reliability and validity of data

The reliability and validity of the data and findings are of pivotal importance to the whole research. These determine whether the research can engender

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useful findings or not.

Reliability connotes to the consistency on the research results, which are

judged by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions (Hammersley, 1992). As pointed out by Davis and Bremner (2006), to justify reliability, one can replicate the same research to see whether the same

outcomes are obtained on subsequent occasions. While reliability is correlated

to consistency, validity concerns about the truth (Silverman, 2000), giving an accurate account to the social phenomena (Hammersley, 1992). However, it is found that having reliable research results is not always attributable to valid outcomes (Davis and Bremner, 2006).

This dissertation makes use of the qualitative research method and there have

been some discussions on qualitative research regarding its reliability and validity. As mentioned by Saunders et al. (2003), the findings of qualitative research are not necessarily repeatable since they reflect reality at the time of

data collection. This may affect the reliability of the research findings. Besides, the research cannot be claimed valid so long as there are only few exemplary instances reported, and the original form of the materials is unavailable (Silverman, 2000). These underlie the importance of ensuring reliable methods and making valid conclusions in the research process.

3.3 Justification of research method

Different research methods should be adopted based on the nature of

research. This dissertation aims at finding out consumer purchasing behaviour on clothing in which their beliefs, opinions and attitudes towards brand image are investigated. Hence, qualitative research is more suitable in terms of soliciting the consumers in-depth responses.

As mentioned by Tesch (1990), there are as much as forty types of qualitative research in three main orientations, namely language-orientated approach,

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descriptive/ interpretative approach, as well as theory-building approach. Language-oriented approach concerns the use of language and meaning of words. In descriptive/ interpretative approach, the thorough description and interpretation of social phenomena are the central focus. Finally,

theory-building approach tries to examine the connections between social phenomena. Based on the descriptive and interpretive nature in this research,

interviews are chosen as the data collection methods. Qualitative interviews refer to the interaction between an interviewer and interviewee on a topic

which needs not to follow particular order and words in questioning and answering (Babbie, 2004). During the course of interviews, interviewers may need to probe each answer and make use of the replies for further questioning (Proctor, 2000).

One may argue why interviews but not the other types of qualitative research methods are chosen in this research. For instance, focus group can also be a useful kind of research method that brings together some interviewees, say 12-15 people, in a room to engage in a guided discussion on a common topic (Babbie, 2004). Although focus groups are much more effective and cheaper than interviews as one may see, researchers may find it difficult to assemble a

large group of people and the control over the interviewees is minimal (Gamson, 1992). Thus, interviews are more controllable than focus groups in this regard. Added to this, Breakwell (2006) points out that interviews are flexible in that they can be used at any stage in the research process, ranging from the initial stage for identifying areas to more detailed exploration. However, Proctor (2000) notes that the usefulness of qualitative research depends heavily on the researchers skills. In case of interviews, researchers

should show their ability to ask further in-depth questions based on the

answers obtained.

The structure of interviews lies in a continuum in which fully-structured and

unstructured interviews are the two extreme poles (Breakwell, 2006).

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Structured interviews are characterized by their fixed nature and sequence of questions or the fixed nature of answers allowed. Interviewees may find these

kind of interviews constrained as they are not free to provide information which

is important in their mind. Unlike structured interviews, unstructured interviews

do not have specific formats, leaving more room for the interviewees to respond. Among different structures of interviews, semi-structured interviews are chosen in this research. As pointed out by Smith and Osborn (2003), with the use of a semi-structured format, researchers tend to regard people as experiential experts on a specific topic under investigation. Such format can enhance the sensitive and empathic facets of the findings, underlying the importance human-to-human relationship of interviews (Fontana and Fry, 2000). Moreover, researchers can follow up some unexpected, interesting responses emerged during the interviews. This can enrich the data collected from the interviewing process (Smith and Eatough, 2006).

When it comes to the process of data collection, like other self-report methods,

interviews depend on respondents accurate and complete responses. This

gives rise to the possibility of unreliable and invalid data. In accordance with Breakwell (2006), it is important to develop a systematic set of questions and help the interviewees to understand the questions. These can help solicit

consistent responses and hence the reliability of data can be much enhanced.

Being reliable does not necessarily attribute to validity but it is found that inconsistent responses may lead to certain inaccuracy (Davis and Bremner, 2006). It is suggested that interviews could be complemented with other types of data such as observation and diary techniques so that the data obtained can

be more valid. In addition, it is suggested that interviewers be trained for a specific study if necessary since their manner in questioning could impose an effect on how reliable and valid the data will be (Proctor, 2000).

3.4 Sampling As far as the sampling method is concerned, non-probability sampling is used

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as the tool for this research. Unlike probability sampling which select samples randomly in a pool of population, non-probability sampling looks for participants on purpose (Babbie, 2004). In this research, as comparisons of British and Chinese buying behaviour for clothes are investigated, 10 Nottingham University students were chosen to have face-to-face interviews. This is a combination of quota sampling and convenience sampling under the non-probability sampling classifications. As mentioned by Proctor (2000), in quota sampling method, researchers deliberately look for participants so that they are of equal distribution for comparison whereas in convenience sampling, researchers tend to choose interviewees which are easier to be looked for.

Among the 10 samples, equal proportions of British and Chinese were interviewed. All of them are students aged between 22 and 28. The male to female ratio of Chinese and British samples is 1 to 1 (see Table 1 for details). 9 of them are master students and the remaining one is a PhD student. The criteria for judging whether they are Chinese or British customers are based on the passports they are holding together with the number of years they have lived in their home country. They should have lived in China or the UK for long enough time than in other places that they are regarded as Chinese or British.

Student samples are used in this research because they can enhance homogeneity and it is much easier to control error during theory testing (Goldsmith, 2002; Malhotra and King, 2003). Moreover, findings reveal that homogeneous respondents can help reduce the possibility of measurement model error (Assael and Keon, 1982). Hence, though a homogeneous sample has lesser degree of external validity, this can be sacrificed for a greater degree of internal validity (Carpenter and Fairhurst, 2005).

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Table 1: Distribution of samples in terms of gender and nationality

Nationality

Sample particulars Chinese British

Gender Male Female Male Female

Number of respondents 2 3 3 2

3.5 Interview schedule

The interview is composed of three stages, which are discussed in the following sections. There are two types of questions, namely open-ended questions and closed-ended questions, with the former one being dominant in the interview (see Appendix 2). Open-ended questions are preferred since they allow the interviewees to answer as little or as much as they choose,

leaving more room for them to think of the issue (Breakwell, 2006). The questions may not follow the order as set in the interview schedule as the

respondents will react to them differently. Also, the questions were learnt by

heart before the interviews. As mentioned by Smith and Eatough (2006), it is better to have mental prompts rather than constantly referring to the interview questions in the course of the interview.

3.5.1 Stage one In this stage, the main theme of the interview was introduced with the provision of general ideas about what the interviewees were expected to answer. The approximate length of the interview, say 30 minutes, was mentioned. The issues relating to confidentiality and record permission were already mentioned at the time when the appointment was made, so they were not

covered here.

After the introduction, the interview began with some general questions regarding consumer spending habits on clothing. As suggested by Smith and Eatough (2006), a successful interview incorporates both general and specific questions which will move between each other fairly seamlessly. Questions 1

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to 3 attempt to serve as ice-breaking as the interviewees may not be prepared to answer in-depth questions at the very beginning of the interview. Moreover, these can help understand their spending styles.

There are three questions in this stage and they are listed as follows:

1. How often do you buy clothes?

2. How much do you spend on clothing each month?

3. Which categories of clothes do you usually buy?

3.5.2 Stage two This stage covers in-depth questions about their views to clothing brand image. Main issues covered in the literatures in chapter 2, including brand and brand equity, were discussed. In order to explore more information from interviewees

responses, probing questions were asked if needed. The questions in this stage are as follows.

Question 4 attempts to find out the criteria of clothes selection in which the interviewees consider. It also intends to investigate whether brand is an important criterion for consumers to choose particular products to purchase as

mentioned in the literature (Doyle, 1999; Mooij, 1998). Since this research is about the effect of brand image on consumer purchasing behaviour, further probing questions would be asked if the respondents mention something related to brand and brand equity.

4. What is it about particular clothes that make you buy them?

Questions 5 to 10 are brand equity-related questions. As mentioned in the literatures, brand equity is regarded as the summation of brand awareness,

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perceived quality, brand loyalty and brand association (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993). These questions are to find out whether brand equity is as important as what has been noted in the literatures.

5. In what ways do you usually learn about clothing brands?

6. How do you judge the quality of the clothes?

7. Do you regularly buy the same brand of clothes?

8. Do you recommend brands?

9. Can you describe the image of your favorite brand?

10. Why do you like this brand?

Question 11 asks for the interviewees opinions about the new emerging online shopping mode whereas question 12 is about their post-purchase actions they took towards the clothes they had purchased. As mentioned in some

consumer behaviour models, there are three stages for purchasing products or services, including pre-purchase, purchase and post-purchase (Blackwell et al., 2006; Rayport and Jaworski, 2003). After finding out what the interviewees would do before making their purchasing decisions from the aforementioned questions, these two questions try to figure out their purchase and post-purchase behaviour.

11. Do you shop online for clothes?

12. What would you do if you are satisfied or dissatisfied about the clothes you

purchase?

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3.5.3 Stage three In the last stage of the interview, the interviewees were asked to write a sentence which starts with the words Brand is. This serves as a summary of

how interviewees perceive brands by providing their own definitions which may be similar or different from what is said in the literature. After the interviewees

have finished writing the sentence, they would be thanked for providing their valuable time to attend the interview.

3.6 Administration

The interviews were conducted in the places such as rooms in the student

accommodations or common areas in the university where the interviewees

felt comfortable to answer the questions. They lasted for approximately 20 to

30 minutes, depending on the interviewees familiarity to the questions and their willingness to provide more fruitful responses. The processes were recorded with the use of MP3 player with the approval from the interviewees so

as to facilitate the subsequent analysis. The interviews were then transcribed.

The production and the use of transcripts are essential research activities that

they involve close, repeated listening to the records which often reveal some unnoted recurring features, possibly attributing to important research findings (Atkinson and Heritage, 1984).

3.7 Analysis strategy This section introduces the concept of grounded theory and the use of within-case and cross-case analysis as the strategies for analyzing the research data.

3.7.1 Grounded theory and its relationship to qualitative data analysis Grounded theory is one of the important concepts suggesting how researcher conducts their research. Originated from two socialists Glaser and Strauss (1967), it attempts to derive theories based on the analysis of patterns, themes, and common categories from observational data (Babbie, 2004). It focuses on

35

different ways to code data (Dey, 1993). In addition, based on grounded theory, methodology skills can be developed in a number of areas such as handling and analyzing of large volumes of ill-structured, qualitative data as well as interpretative thematic analysis of the qualitative data. Hence, these could

explain why grounded theory has gained much popularity in recent decades (Henwood and Pidgeon, 2006). As mentioned by Strauss and Corbin (1990), researchers could be both scientific and creative at the same time under this

theory, provided that they follow three rules. They include periodically stepping back and asking, maintaining an attitude of skepticism, as well as following the research procedures.

Grounded theory does have some impact on the qualitative research. According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2002), one of the benefits of grounded analysis is that qualitative research structure has first been derived from the

data, leading to further analysis of themes, patterns and categories. Besides, it demonstrates some main strategies of qualitative inquiry that contain creative interplay of theories and methods during the integrated process of social research (Henwood and Pidgeon, 2006).

The importance of research procedures is heightened in the grounded theory, especially the use of systemic coding, which can enhance the validity and reliability of the data (Babbie, 2004). There are seven stages for grounded analysis in total, including familiarization, reflection, conceptualization, cataloguing concepts, re-coding, linking and finally re-evaluation (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). These imply the seriousness of such theory in interpreting data and provide the basis for analyzing the ten interviews conducted.

3.7.2 Within-case and cross-case analysis

As mentioned by Miles and Huberman (1994), interviews can be analyzed in two distinctive but interrelated ways, namely within-case and cross-case

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analysis. In this dissertation, the interviews conducted were investigated based on these two approaches. The summary of these two approaches is shown in

Figure 1.

3.7.2.1 Within-case analysis

During the interviews, notes were first jotted down and then the summary of each individual interview was made after listening to the MP3 recorder for the sake of keeping the fresh memory of the interview content. A full transcription of each interview (see Appendix 3) was made after the completion of the whole interview process. After finishing the transcription, the main ideas of the interviews were summarized and presented in form of tables with codes like +

standing for interviewee who has mentioned this idea, whilst - connoting to a negative response to the question. Some quotes from the answers would be

Within-case analysis

Cross-case analysis

Listening to tape and producing a transcript

Coding the transcript

Analyzing data with tables in codes and quotes

Looking for patterns from similar and different responses

Creating tables based on responses from interviewees

Figure 1: Overview of analysis

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illustrated for explanation if necessary.

3.7.2.2 Cross-case analysis Cross-case analysis aims at looking for convergences and divergences in the data, recognizing ways to account for the similarities and differences of the respondents (Smith and Eatough, 2006; Smith and Osborn, 2003). Each interview was analyzed in the same way as mentioned in the within-case

analysis. Then the patterns emerged were analyzed based the several tables in different themes.

3.8 Summary In this chapter, the methodology used in this dissertation has been justified and explained. Qualitative semi-structured interviews have been chosen as a mean to collect data since they are found to be more appropriate for soliciting responses in relation to attitudes, opinions and feelings. Besides, the sampling method was covered. In the course of data collection, the combination of

convenience and quota sampling was being used. In addition, the schedule of interview was discussed with a view to providing some general ideas about the underlying reasons for asking such questions. The data collected would be analyzed using the methods of within-case and cross-case analysis. The research findings will be presented and discussed in the next chapter.

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Chapter 4

Research Findings and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

This chapter aims at presenting and discussing findings obtained from the interviews concerning the effect of clothing brand image on consumer purchasing behaviour. As mentioned in chapter 3, 10 people, including 5 British and 5 Chinese were interviewed. Each interview was recorded and transcribed for the purpose of analysis in this chapter.

As far as the analysis is concerned, it will be based on the most pertinent

quotes, which reveal the viewpoints from the British and Chinese respondents respectively. According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2002), qualitative researchers need to communicate the findings in an honest and systematic manner, disseminating the richness of the findings and hence the experience of the researchers. In addition, the analysis should be open to verification as far as

possible so that the others are free to repeat what has been done and check

the conclusions (Breakwell, 2006).

The chapter consists of three sections in which the respondents backgrounds, the effect of brand image on them and also their opinions of brand are presented and compared.

4.2 Backgrounds of respondents All respondents are students from the University of Nottingham, with nine of them being master students and one of them being a PhD student. Their ages range from 22 to 27 and the male to female ratio is 1 to 1.

The first three questions try to solicit the interviewees response about their

clothing spending habits, asking about their shopping frequency, money spent

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on clothes and also the types of clothes they purchased. Generally, many respondents revealed that they buy clothes at a regular interval, ranging from every week to three or four times a year. One of them was slightly different in that she indicated that she is an impulsive buyer and hence she would buy

clothes based on her moods and feelings at the time of purchase. This could probably be explained by the findings mentioned in chapter 2 that consumers emotion is one of the determining factors for buying clothes (Berry, 2000).

Im a sort of impulsive buyerOh gosh! I really need to buy some clothes now, lets go.

Narinder, 27, British, Female

Besides, some of them pointed out that their financial status would have an

impact on their frequency of buying clothes. One of the respondents revealed that he preferred buying clothes at special occasions like seasonal discounts so that the prices can be much more affordable. These are in line with the

literature that students spend less than the other groups like working class as far as clothes purchasing is concerned (HKTDC, 2002).

This yearnot at all (buying clothes). Because I have been poor. But before that, maybe one item every couple of month.

Hannah, 24, British, Female

Maybe not often recently because I have not got a lot of income for clothes, so Ill buy them when I need themprobably, buy every 4 to 5 months, quite

rare.

Mark, 23, British, Male

In China, normally I buy clothes 4 times a year (for each season). In England, maybe 3 times a year, I will buy clothes if there are discounts.

Kevin, 23, Chinese, Male

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When asking about the price range of clothes, more than half of them were fond of buying clothes in the medium or high price ranges. Although it is mentioned in the literature that more females would like shopping than males (Dholakia, 1999; South and Spitze, 1994), it does not really mean that males have less spending power. More male than female respondents manifested that they would buy clothes in medium or above price ranges. One of the male respondents revealed that he would spend about 50 to 250 pounds for clothes

each time, targeting to buy clothes in medium to high price ranges.

Probably, it varies anywhere between 50 to 250 pounds. It really gets a large variation. Sometimes, I buy lots of clothes and it lasts me for half a year

Neil, 24, British, Male

The above quotes illustrate that clothes purchasing behaviour varies from time to time and from person to person. There could be two identical clothes in the

world, however, the reasons why people buy them vary. It could be as simple

as they are cheap and good looking or they are brand-named. As mentioned in chapter 2, brand names can add tremendous value to the products, retailers,

as well as consumers (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993). In the coming section, whether brand image would affect clothes purchasing behaviour is investigated, with more emphasis being placed on the comparisons between British and Chinese consumers so as to provide new insights for further development of brands in the clothing sector.

4.3 Effect of clothing brand image on consumer buying behaviour

4.3.1 Significance of clothing brands on consumer purchasing decisions As mentioned previously in chapter 2, brand is important for product

development in that it can be instilled in consumers minds (Mooij, 1998) and hence it could have a beneficial or detrimental effect on customers buying decisions (Yasin et al., 2007). Whether brand is a determining factor is

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examined in question 4, in which the respondents were asked about the

reasons of buying particular clothes. The results from both British and Chinese respondents are illustrated in Tables 2 and 3 accordingly. The columns named country of origin and advert would be discussed in later sections.

Table 2: Determining factors for clothes purchasing (British respondents)

Table 3: Determining factors for clothes purchasing (Chinese respondents) Reason

Name

Brand Country of origin

Advert Quality Style Price Others

Jovi Chong + - - + + +

Comfortable; Suitable

Vivian

Li + + + + + +

Vanessa

Fang + + + + + + Pleasant;

Intuition

Alick

Wong + - - + + +

Kevin

Fang + - + + + +

Key +/- or words in black: Initial response without prompt; +/- or words in blue: Response with prompt

Reason

Name

Brand Country of origin

Advert Quality Style Price Others

Hannah

Smith - - - + + + Comfortable; Non-label

Mark

Morrison - - - + + + Non-advert

Neil

Bowley + - - + + + Functional

use (Sports) Narinder Sandhu + - - + + +

Michael

Kosciukiewicz + - - + + + Personal

need

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As observed from Tables 2 and 3, all respondents from both nations regard quality, style and price as some of the determining factors for buying clothes. In this regard, the findings from literature that Chinese find these three as important criteria for buying clothes (HKTDC, 2002) seem also applicable to the UK respondents.

When it comes to the effect of brand on buying clothes, nine out of ten respondents had not provided immediate answer to question 4 regarding this issue until prompt was given. Moreover, the British and Chinese interviewees showed some divergent viewpoints.

Some of the UK respondents revealed that they look for brand names in buying clothes, in which one of them highlighted the importance of past shopping experiences as mentioned in the literature (Aaker, 1991). However, two UK interviewees stated that brand names do not initiate them to buy during their shopping.

Yes. If I have good experiences with something, I probably buy again. Because I know it a little bit good quality or that its going to be last well or perform well.


Well, I wouldnt buy something because its from H&M or because its from ZARA. They are probably the shops I like. I wouldnt specifically buy it because

its from there.

Mark, 23, British, Male

Never. Well, I mean I will buy clothes from a shop. Actually, I bought it (she points at her top) yesterday from NEXT, but I do not particularly look for brand names.

Hannah, 24, British, Female

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All Chinese respondents found that brand is one of the key factors for them to consider when buying clothes. One of them mentioned that reputable brands in medium to high price ranges connote to better quality and cutting. This is consistent with the literature that brand-named products can be served as a

guarantor of reliability, as well as quality (Roman et al., 2005). In addition, one of them pointed out that brands can help change her personal style, which is coherent with the literature that brands are used to highlight personality under different circumstances (Aaker, 1999; Fennis and Pruyn, 2006).

I do think most of the brands, like medium- to high-priced brands, do have better quality than cheaper brands, so I have more faith in those brands for

their clothes. I think they mostly get better cutting and better quality. Jovi, 24, Chinese, Female

Yes. For some T-shirts, I bought some big brands like designer labels. But recently, I changed my purchasing habits to some cheap stuff like Primark, H&M and Dorothy PerkinsIts quick for me to dislike the clothes that I bought. So, if I buy too many big brands, it costs me too much; if I buy cheap ones, I can use less money, and buy more clothes to change. It can be in consistent with my changing look and just lower the cost.

Vanessa, 26, Chinese, Female

Based on the above findings, it seems that brands are more likely to have an impact on Chinese than British interviewees. The UK respondents tend to buy clothes they like but not merely because of the brands.

4.3.2 Brand awareness

As mentioned in the literature, brand can make potential consumers aware of

the products (Aaker, 1991). This issue was examined through asking the question In what ways do you usually learn about clothing brands? There are mainly four ways for the respondents to learn about the brands, including

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advertisement, peers, internet and shops. The results are shown in Tables 4

and 5.

Table 4: Ways to learn about clothing brands (British respondents) Name Advert Peers Others

Hannah

Smith - -

Mark

Morrison - + From shops

Neil

Bowley + + From shops; Internet

Narinda Sandhu - -

From shops

Michael

Kosciukiewicz - + From shops

Table 5: Ways to learn about clothing brands (Chinese respondents) Name Advert Peers Others

Jovi Chong - +

Internet

Vivian

Li + -

Vanessa

Fang + + Internet

Alick

Wong - + Internet

Kevin

Fang + + From shops

Key +/- or words in black: Initial response without prompt; +/- or words in blue: Response with prompt

Advertisement is a powerful tool for raising brand awareness (Mackenzie et al., 1986; Tsai et al., 2007). Some of the UK and Chinese respondents did regard it as one of the methods to know the brands, with the number of Chinese respondents outweighing British. Among these respondents, two of them

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mentioned that they became more aware of the brands through the celebrities in the advertisements, which confirms with the literature that celebrity

endorsement can lead to product credibility (McGuire, 1978) and enhance attractiveness (McCracken, 1989).

It (Advertising) is important because the brand image is built up so that you will choose (to buy them).

I used to play basketball and so I used to watch NBA games. During the game break, they (basketball players) will show up. Like Coby Bryrant, he was the representative of adidas previously

Vivian, 23, Chinese, Female

TV, advertisements in the shopping mall, on the streetthey (advertisers) put posters in the public areas.


I guess it does (have an effect) on subliminal basis. Marketing people may affect me someway.

The adidas impossible is nothing advert with leading sportsmen like Michael Jordan, Lance Armstrong, David Beckham, Zidane (is very memorable)because I know them through their sports achievement, you know, they are familiar faces, so they associate themselves with brands, and

its easy to make connections.


As far as peers influence on clothes purchasing is concerned, similar number of Chinese and the UK respondents agreed that it does have impact on their purchasing decisions.

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Maybe they (my friends) buy very nice clothes, and from my mind, they are nice to put them on. So, when I go shopping next time, I will consider them.


If I am training and I see a friend wearing a new T-shirt or something, I will ask them what the brand ismy brother bought a Helly Hansen sportswear, thats cool.


Other sources for raising brand awareness like internet surfing and shop visiting are also prevalent among Chinese and British respondents. 4 British interviewees revealed that they became familiar with the brands through shop visiting, while 4 Chinese interviewees got their brand information via internet surfing.

4.3.3 Perceived quality

The issue of perceived quality was investigated through question 6, in which interviewees were asked, How do you judge the quality of the clothes? Their attitudes towards country-of-origins of clothes were also solicited from the follow-up questions. The findings are illustrated in Tables 6 and 7.

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Table 6: Criteria for judging clothes quality (British respondents) Criteria

Name

Materials Style Colour Durability Country of origin

Others

Hannah

Smith + + +

Mark

Morrison + -

Neil

Bowley + + + - Performance

Narinder Sandhu -

Price

Michael

Kosciukiewicz + -

Table 7: Criteria for judging clothes quality (Chinese respondents) Criteria

Name

brand perception

Documents

brand awareness

brand loyalty

brand association

abstract brand

effect of clothing brand

effect of brand image

respects of brand equity

importance of brand