BLIIE-GREEN ALGAE IN INDIA:Allip Report

NOVEMBER 1985

PA. ROGER, 1. 1::: GRANT and I?M.REDDYInternational Rice Research Institute

Los Batios, Laguna, Philippines

BLIIE-GREEN ALGAE IN INDIA:Allip Report

NOVEMBER 1985

PA. ROGER, 1. 1::: GRANT and I?M.REDDYInternational Rice Research Institute

Los Batios, Laguna, Philippines

BLUE-GREEN ALGAE IN INDIA:

A TRIP REPORT

P.A. Roger*, I.F. Grant and P.M. Reddy

The International Rice Research Institute

Los Banos, Philippines

OCTOBER 1985

CON T E N T S

1) General information on the trip

2) Itinerary and schedule

3) Travel notes

4) BGA and grazers sampling

5) Conclusion

6) Acknowledgements

8) Annexes

*Maitre de Recherches ORSTOM. Visiting Scientist at IRRI.

2

1) GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE TRIP

Il) PURPOSE OF THE TRIP:

- to meet Indian scientists involved in BGA research and discuss

possible cooperative work with them.

- to visit sites in Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu where

inoculation experiments are being conducted.

- to make a survey of BGA and grazers of BGA in the visited areas.

12) DATE: 7th to 22nd of March, 1985

13) IRRI SCIENTISTS INVOLVED: P. A. Roger (PAR), Ian F. Frant (IFG), and

P.M. Reddy (PMR)

14) MAJOR VISITED PLACES:

- New Delhi, Varanasi, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Trichy, Aduthurai,

Chidambaram, Pondicherry, Madras and Tirur.

The itinerary of the tour was prepared from a survey made through

a questionnaire sent to the 40 Indian scientists working on BGA, who

answered the questionnaire related to the establishment of a BGA

network and who indicated that algalization is one of their research

interests. We had a feed back of 17 questionnaires, a copy of the

questionnaire and the accompanying let ter are annexed (Annex 1 and

2).

15) BASIC STATISTICS ABOUT RICE IN INDIA

40 x 106 ha of rice

22 x 106 ha planted with HYV

25 x 106 ha of rainfed rice (upland)

87% of the farmers have less than 2 ha land holdings and use little or

no fertilizer

3

1 kg N = 5 Rupees

1 kg paddy = 1.35 Rupees

1 kg single superphosphate = 5.5 Rupees

1 kg BGA inoculum in Tamil Nadu = 1 Rupee

2) ITINERARY AND SCHEDULE

Thursday March 7th:

Left Manila 15:00 (TG 621) arrived Bangkok 17:10.

Left Bangkok 18:55 (AF 175) arrived New Delhi 21:35.

Welcomed by Mr. A.P. Haran. IRRI representative in India

Checked in at Rotel Kanishka.

Friday March 8th:

09:45 - Picked up at the hotel by Mr. Haran. The whole day was spent

at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in the Division of

Microbiology.

10:00 to II:30 - Meeting with Dr. Goyal, Scientist in charge of

algalization experiments.

II:30 to 13:30 - Meeting with Dr. Venkataraman, Coordinator of BGA

programme. Dr. Khalil Ghani in charge of BGA inoculum production in Egypt

was also visiting IARI and attended the meeting.

13:30 to 14:30 - Lunch at Hotel Karnishka.

14:30 to 15:00 - Meeting with Prof. Subba Rao, Read of the Division.

15:00 to 15:30 - Meeting with Dr. Kaushik and Dr. Roychoudhury,

scientists working on the reclamation of saline soils with BGA.

15:30 to 16:30 - Lecture by PAR (Research on BGA at IRRI).

16:30 to 17:00 - Lecture by IFG (Grazing of algae by invertabrates in

wetland rice fields).

4

17:00 to 17:30 - General meeting with Dr. Venkataraman and his

colleagues.

17:30 - left for hotel

Saturday March 9th:

Visited the School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University.

Meeting with Prof. Mohanty, Dr. Chintamani and some of their students.

10:00 to 11:15 - Discussions

11:15 to 12:00 - Lecture by PAR (Research on BGA at IRRI).

12:00 to 12:30 Lecture by IFG (Grazing of algae in wetland rice

fields)

12:30 to 12:45 - Lecture by PMR (BGA greenhouse experiments at IRRI).

Afternoon - Free

Sunday March 10th:

Left New Delhi 07:30 (IC 407) arrived Varanasi.

10:20 - Welcomed at the airport by Dr. Ashok Kumar and Dr. A.

Tripathy.

Checked in at Diamond Hotel.

Afternoon - Visited the Center For Advanced Study in Botany, Banaras

Hindu University (BHU).

13:30 to 14:00 - Meeting with Dr. H.D. Kumar and Dr. A. Kumar.

Finalization of the program.

14:00 to 17:00 - Meeting with the research staff of Prof. Kumar and

presentation of the different programs conducted in his laboratory by Ms.

Banerji, Ms. Rao, Dr. D.V. Singh, Dr. Misra, Dr. Dube, Dr. Tripathy and Dr.

A. Kumar.

5

Monday March Ilth:

08:00 ta 13:00 - Field tour in rice and wheat fields in Saranath area,

about 10 km west of Varanasi. Collection of sail algal crust, and grazer

samples. Observation of perennating Aulosira in the fields. Collection of

samples.

13:00 ta 14:00 - Lunch at Diamond Ratel.

14:00 ta 15:30 - Meeting at BRU with Dr. Kashyap, Dr. S.P. Singh, Dr.

Tiwari and presentation of their respective research programmes.

15:30 ta 16:30 - Meeting with the research staff of the laboratory of

Prof. Talpasayi: Mr. Rao, Mr. Basu, Mr. Parameswaranan, Mrs. Verma, Mrs.

Bajaj, Mr. Prasad, Mrs. A. Singh and Dr. Bahal.

16:30 ta 17:00 - Meeting with Prof. R.D. Kumar and Dr. D.V. Rai.

Presentation by Dr. Rai of his research program.

Tuesday March 12th:

9:30 to 10:00 - Meeting with Prof. R.D. Kumar, Dr. A. Kumar and Dr. A.

K. Rai. Presentation by Dr. Kumar and Dr. Rai of their research

programmes ••

10:00 ta 11:00 - Lecture by PAR

11:00 ta 11:30 - Lecture by PMR

11:30 ta 12:15 - Lecture by IFG

12:15 ta 13:00 - General meeting with BGA scientists, Prof. Talpasayi

and Prof. Sarma joined the meeting.

14:30 - Left ta the airport. Plane delayed (IC 498).

Arrived New Delhi 20:00 - Checked in at Ratel Kanishka.

6

Wednesday March 13th:

Left New Delhi 13:30 (lC 518) Arrived Bangalore 17:30. Checked in at

East-West Hotel.

Dinner with Dr. Gowda to finalize the programme.

Thursday March 14th:

Welcomed by Dr. Rai. Meeting at the Agricultural University, Bangalore

with scientists from the Universities of Bangalore, Mysore and Dharwad.

09:00 to 09:45 - Presentation by Dr. Shetty, Dr. Shivapraksah and Dr.

Krishnappa of their research programmes.

09:45 to 10:00 - Presentation by Dr. Hosmani (Mysore University) of

his research program.

10:00 to 10:30 - Presentation by Dr. Bongale (Dharwad University) of

his research program.

10:30 to II:30 - Lecture by PAR

II:30 to 12:15 - Lecture by lFG

Lunch at the University with Dr. Rai, Dr. Shetty and Dr. Bongale.

13:00 to 14:00 - Visit of the laboratories and other facilities

(greenhouses and BGA incubation chamber).

14:00 to 15:00 - General meeting.

15:00 to 18:30 - Field tour in MRS/UAS experimental field (Hebbal) and

in farmers fields on the Mysore road (24 km from Bengalore). Collection of

samples.

Friday March 15th:

Left Bangalore 08:30 (IC 533). Arrived Coimbatore 09:10 - Welcomed by

Dr. Kannaiyan.

II:00 - 13:00 - Discussion with Dr. G. Oblisami and Dr. S. Kannaiyan

on BNF programmes and visit of the laboratory.

7

13:30 PM -Lunch, North house, TNAU.

14:15 ta 16:30 - Lectures by PAR, IFG, and ·PMR.

16:30 ta 20:00 - Visit ta Paddy Breeding Station, TNAU. Discussion

on the on going field trials. Collection of sail and grazers samples.

20:00 - Dinner at TNAU cafeteria.

Saturday March 16th:

06:30 ta 11:45 - Field tour in Telugu Palayam area, 20 km west of

Coimbatore.

11:45 ta 13:00 - Meeting with Dr. Kannaiyan at the Department of

Agricultural Microbiology, Coimbatore.

13:00 - Lunch at TNAU Canteen

14:00 ta 19:30 PM - Coimbatore - Trichy by Raad

20:30 - Dinner at Guest House, Trichy. HaIt at Trichy.

Sunday March 17th:

06:00 ta 09:00 - Visit ta Kumaraperumal Farm Science Centre, Navalur,

Kuttapattu. Discussion with Thiru A.K. Kathirvelu, Principal and Thiru

Ramanujam, JDA, Trichy. Collection of samples.

09:15 - Breakfast

09:30 ta 10:30 - Meeting with Dr. Kathirvelu, Dr. Ramanujam, Dr.

Kannaiyan, and Mr. Namanarash (Journalist of the Hindu).

10:30 ta 11 : 30 - Field visit in Trichy and Kumbakonam areas.

Collection of samples.

11:30 ta 14:00 - Journey ta Aduthurai.

14:00 ta 14:30 - Lunch at Aduthurai.

14:30 ta 16:30 - Field visit in TRRI, Aduthurai. Collection of

samples.

16:30 ta 17:00 - Visit of farmers fields around Mayavaram.

8

18:00 to 19:00 - Visit to Poompuhar museum

20:30 - Reached Chidambaram. Dinner at Annamalai University Guest

House with Prof. Prasad. HaIt at Annamalai University.

Monday March 18th:

06:45 to 08:00 - Meeting with Prof. Prasad and his research staff.

Visit to the experimental farm. Collection of samples.

08:00 to 09:00 - Breakfast and discussions at Annamalai University

Guesthouse.

09:00 - Visit of Sri Nataraja temple. Left to Pondicherry.

Il:00 - Reached Pondicherry.

Il:00 - Field tour in Pondicherry area with Mr. K. Natarajan t Deputy

Director of Agriculture. Three sites around Mangalam were visited.

Collection of samples.

13:30 to 15:00 Lunch in Pondicherry with agricultural officers.

15:15 to 16:45 - Visit of Agricultural Education Center (KVK) of TNAU

Pondicherry with Dr. A. Subrahmanian. Collection of samples.

16:45 to 20:00 - Journey to Madras

Tuesday March 19th:

06:00 to 07:15 - Trip to Tirurkuppam

07:15 to 08:30 - Presentation of the Paddy Experimental Station and

discussion with Prof. Thiru Aran.

08:30 to 09:30 - Visit to the Experiment Station and BGA

multiplication plots. Collection of samples.

09:30 to Il:00 - Lectures by PARt PMR and IFG

Il:00 to 12:30 - Field trip to Sriperum Budur and in Chengalpattu

district.

Afternoon - Packing and relabelling of samples collected during the

trip.

9

3) TRAVEL NOTES

31) VISIT TO THE INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI 110 012,

INDIA (FRIDAY MARCH 8th)

Staff conducting research on BGA: Division of Microbiology: Dr. G.S.

Venkataraman, Dr. S.K. Goyal, Dr. B.D. Kaushik, and Dr. (Mrs.) P.

Roychoudhury. Division of Agricultural Physics: Dr. G.S. R. Krishna Murti.

The BGA scientists of the Division of Microbiology of IARI conduct

research on physiology of N2-fixing BGA. The program is headed by Dr.

G.S. Venkataraman. After survey and isolation from rice soils, BGA strains

are screened for growth, nitrogen fixation, tolerance to pesticides and

chemical N. Research on the amelioration of salt affected soils, with BGA

is also going on. In addition, the microbiology division functions as a

coordinating center for algal multiplication and inoculation trials being

conducted by different agencies throughout the country. In the Division of

Agricultural Physics, Prof. G. S. R. Krishna Murti works on the effect of

algalization on physical properties of the soil.

311) Research programmes

3111) Survey of BGA in soils of Maharashtra, and Jammu and Kashmir State

(Dr. Goyal). About 350 rice soil samples were collected and studied using

the liquid culture enrichment method with Fogg's medium. About 85% of the

samples were very rich in N2-fixing BGA while the remaining 15% were less

rich. Results indicate that N2-fixing BGA are ubiquitous in rice fields

of the studied area. The soil screening permitted to isolate 175 unialgal

cultures which were tested for N2-fixation in Fogg's liquid medium

without mineraI nitrogen, using the measurement of nitrogen accumulated in

10

the culture after 28 days of growth as index of N2-fixation. This

screening yielded 37 efficient strains which were screened again for

resistance to pesticides. Finally 8 efficient N2-fixing strains

resistant to pesticides were obtained. The soil survey indicated that

Anabaena is an ubiquitous genus present in aIl the studied soils. In these

soils, there was a predominance of sapophytes (species growing on soil).

Occurrence of saphophytes in rice field soils seems to be of ecological

importance for upland paddies as a considerable area under rice in India

falls in the rainfed zone and in these regions, maintenance of waterlogged

conditions is generally not possible. Genera of these sapophytes comprise

of Tolypothrix, Aulosira, Calothrix, Scytonema, etc. They are generally

good N2-fixers and may make N easily available to rice (less losses)

because they are growing at the surface of the soil. When such strains are

inoculated, a low level of water is recommended. In flooded rice fields of

Jammu and Kashmir state, green algae like Hydrodictyon and Spirogyra

usually come up first. After 15 days they die off and it is replaced by

N2-fixing BGA such as Rivularia, Nostoc and Anabaena which may develop

into blooms. In the Ratnagari district of the Maharashtra, acid soils (pH ­

5.4) have a high incidence of BGA. This may be due to high organic matter

content of the soils.

3112) Reclamation of saline soils with BGA (Dr. Kaushik and Dr.

Roychoudhury). There are about 7 x 106 ha of saline soils in India. In

the soils were the level of Na is not too high, algal inoculation with

tolerant strains decreases pH (9 to 8), electrical conductivity and

exchangeable Na, and increases N content. Efficient strains which are able

to grow at high levels of NaCl were isolated from such soils. They

comprise of Calotrix, Tolypothrix, Hapalosiphon and Anabaena spp. These

1 Il

S

rOtrialinagSgPrergOdaUteCeS.laprgreeseqUnatnsttiattiUeSs oOff mucilage that may help in binding Na

saline soils~reclamationwith BGA is

/similar to that of algal inoculation. It works but mechanism is still

~OOrlY understood.

1

13113) Algal inoculation in presence of N fertilizers. Inoculation at high

!level of N fertilized plots (120 kg/ha) have shown increases

in grain yield up to 15%.

312) Current status of algal inoculation in India. ( Dr. Venkataraman and

Dr. Goyal). Research on algalization technology started in 1960. It was

component of the All-India Coordinated Project on Algae, headed by Dr.

Venkataraman. The project started in 1976 and is now terminated but

algalization studies are going on.

Currently algalization has been adopted in two states: Tamil Nadu and

Uttar Pradesh. Trials are currently conducted in experimental farms of

Jammu and Kashmir State to spread algalization technology in this state.

In a recent letter (August 85), Dr. Goyal indicated that a preliminary

survey by Dr. Venkataraman's group has shown that presently algalization

is adopted in about 2 x 106 ha of the 40 x 106 ha of rice fields of

India. In Tamil Nadu, only about 5% of the trials were unsuccessful. This

is most probably because of a high level of indigenous BGA and a

spontaneous high fertility of the soils. According to Dr. Venkataraman

algal inoculation is widely adopted in Tamil Nadu. In Uttar Pradesh,

adoption of this technology is less. Since 1982 about 50000-70000 ha have

been inoculated yearly in U.P. during the Kharif season.

Reasons for successful adoption in Tamil Nadu are:

- Holdings are small and low levels of fertilizers are applied. The

recommended level of fertilizers is 60-80-80 (NPK); but farmers rarely

12

apply more than 40 kg N. About 80% of the farmers do not apply any N

f ertilizer .

- In Tamil Nadu, three crops of rice can be grown per year. Therefore,

demonstration of the efficiency of BGA in 6 successive crops could be

made in two years. After two years of inoculation there is no need to

inoculate anymore. In Aduthurai Station where algal inoculation

trials were conducted for several years it is now impossible to

obtain a control plot free of N2-fixing BGA.

- There is an efficient collaboration with the State Agricultural

Department and the extension officers. Currently BGA inoculum is

produced by the State. Commercial production is not attractive

because of the low cost of the final product (about 1 Rupee/kg).

In Tamil Nadu, rice soils are submerged most of the year but there is

a dry fallow of about 1 month that can be used by farmers for inoculum

production.

- Possibly there is a low incidence of grazers such as ostracods.

However, detrimental effects of molluscus were recognized in the

fields. "Red annelids" (most probably chironomid larvae) were

observed to be very detrimental in mutiplication ponds. They are

controlled by malathion or butachlor at a rate of 1 kg ai/ha.

Reasons for non-adoption in other areas.

The major problem is to convince farmers. Adoption is slower in the

areas where demonstration of BGA inoculation can be done only once

a year because only one crop of rice is grown per year.

- In Haryana and Punjab, where land holdings are larger and farmers are

utilizing N fertilizers, there was no adoption by farmers despite

Buccessful demonstration trials.

13

- Too many technology transfer programmes (2-3 dozens) are proposed to

agricultural officers. Hence, they are unable to propagate the

technologies effectively because they are overburdened with many programs.

32) VISIT TO THE SCHOOL OF LIFE SCIENCES, JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY, NEW

DELHI (Saturday March 9th)

Scientists working on BGA: Prof. P. Mohanty, Dr. (Mrs.) Chintamani, Dr.

A.K. Verma.

Several research programs on BGA are being conducted under the guidance of

Prof. Mohanty: Photosynthesis (Photosystem II), Energy transfer by

phycobilins, electron transport, adaptation to high temperature, effect of

Al and Zn on membrane activity.

Comments by Mr. Haran about natural pesticides: neem seeds, neem

leaves or mango leaves are traditionally mixed with pulses when stored as

dry seed to protect them from insects.

33) VISIT TO THE LABORATORY OF PROF. H. D. KUMAR, CENTER FOR ADVANCED

STUDIES IN BOTANY, BHU, VARANASI (Sunday March IOth)

Scientists working on BGA, and algae. Prof. H.D. Kumar, Ms. M.

Banerji, Ms. R. Rao, Mr. D.V. Singh, Dr. Misra, Mr. S. Dube and Dr. A.

Tripathy.

Research topics can be classified into three groups:

1. Physiology, genetics and mutagenesis in BGA.

2. Pollution, toxicity of and tolerance to heavy metals in green

algae.

3. Inoculation experiments in pot with BGA.

331) Mutagenesis in BGA (Mr. D.V. Singh). Anabaena mutants resistant to

chloramphenicol, tetracyclin and phenylalanine were produced, using

14

nitrosoguanidin(NTG). The effect of tyrosine and tryptophan on growth and

selected enzymatic activities (GS and nitrate reductase) was

studied.

332) Mutagenesis in BGA (Dr. Mishra). Beginning a program on the effect of

anaerobiosis on mutagenic action of U.V. and N.T.G. on Oscillatoria

limnetica.

333) Mutagenesis and recombination (Dr. Tripathy). Five mutagenic agents

were tested on Nostoc to isolate mutants which are able to release amine

acids into the medium. The trial was unsuccessful. A mutant releasing

hydroxyproline into the medium was isolated. Experiments on recombination

and plasmids of BGA were also performed.

334) Ecology of algae in polluted ponds and Ganges River (Ms. Rao). Monthly

analysis of phytoplankton, zooplankton and physicochemical parameters are

conducted in 3 polluted ponds and in the Ganges river. In the ponds,

dominant BGA are Microcystis in winter and Anabaena, Nostoc, Rivularia and

Fischerella in summer. The zooplankton comprises mainly of Daphnids and

Ostracods. Characters of the environment are: a low dissolved oxygen

content, a high BOD, a high nitrate content and a high phosphorus content

(40 ppm).

335) Pollution by heavy metals (Mr. S. Dube). Study of the toxicity of

chromium and tin on Anabaena doliolum and protection offered by different

carbon sources against the toxicity. Fructose and natural chelators

(fulvic and humic acids) have a protective action. Half lethal dose of

Cr03

is 40 ppm for A. doliolum.

336) Effect of BGA inoculation on maize in pot (Ms. Banerji). The effect

of cultures, culture extracts and supernatant of BGA cultures was tested on

15

maize grown in autoclaved sand in pots. The five treatments were: 1)

treated with Aulosira, 2) treated withOscillatoria, 3) treated with

Nostoc, 4) treated with nitrate and 5) water. Algal materials was 15 daya

old axenic cultures grown in Allen and Arnon's medium without mineraI N.

Freah weight, weight of roots, weight of shoots, protein content and

chlorophyll content were measured in 15 days old seedlings. Results showed

better growth in the BGA treated seedlings than the seedlings in water and

in the presence of nitrate. In these studies, Aulosira was chosen because

it is dominant in the rice fields of the area.

The MoSt frequent algal succession in the rice fields after the first

rain is in the following order: 1) non N2-fixing algae; 2) Anabaena,

Nostoc, Scytonema, 3) Cylindrospermum, and Aulosira which become dominant

before harvesting when there is a decrease of water level in the fields.

However some early growth of Aulosira has also been observed.

34) FIELD TOUR IN SARANATR AREA: (Monday March 11th)

The visited area is about 10 km west of Varanasi. Most of the soils

were dried and unplanted. Few fields had a wheat crop. In the vicinity of

a small pond, colonies of Nostoc were observed on wet soil. On dry soils,

large dark patches of perennating Aulosira were observed. We noticed the

presence of high number of shells of snails in the fields.

Three composite samples of 10 cores of surface soil were collected for

BGA enumeration (samples 1, 2, 3). One quantitative sampling of algal

crusts was made for N and C analysis (sample 4). Samples for quantitative

analysis of Aulosira crusts (sample 5) and unidentified algae close to the

pond (sample 6) were also collected.

35) OTRER MEETINGS AT CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES IN BOTANY, BRU (Monday

March 11th, afternoon and Tuesday March 12th, morning).

16

351) Dr. S.P. Singh:

Study of the effects of heavy metals (cadmium) and factory effluents

(bisulphite) on BNF by BGA.

17

354) Team of Prof. Ta1pasayi

3541) B.P.R. Narasimha Rao. Comparison of C fixation in natura1

populations and 1aboratory cultures of Microcystis. Laboratory cultures

are saturated at 400 lux whereas natura1 populations are not saturated up

oto 25000 lux. Temperature between 15 to 40 C showed little effect on C

fixation in 1aboratory cultures. Carbon fixation decreases after 40oC.

oIn natura1 populations optimal temperature is around 30 C. Effects of

chemica1s such as DCMU on C fixation were studied on natura1 and cu1tured

materia1s.

3542) P. S. Basu. Simi1ar studies on C fixation are being performed with

thermophy1ic strains of Synechococcus.

3543) Mr. Parameswaran. Study on the effect of wastes (containing about

25% titanium dioxide) from a1uminum factories on BGA growth

(Synechococcus).

3544) Mrs. A. Verma and Mrs. N. Bajaj. Studies on Ch1ore11a and

Synechococcus strains immobi1ized in alginate. Effects of inhibitors (MSO.

EMSO. DCMU) on nitrate and nitrite reductases of immobi1ized colly under

1ight and dark are being studied.

3545) Mr. S. M. Prasad. Carbon dioxide fixation by a thermal fi1amentous

BGA (Mastigoc1adus).

3546) Mrs. Asha Singh. Aeria1 dispersion of BGA and a11ergenic BGA. The

study is being conducted in the city and at the University campus at

different e1evations.

355) Dr. L. C. Rai

- Control of eutrophication by precipitating P with zirconium

oxych1oride. About 98% of P at 10 mg/1 is precipitated by 100 ppm

of Zirconium oxych1oride. This is not toxic to a1gae.

- Effects of heavy meta1s to Ch1ore11a. Ca and Mg are very efficient

18

in reducing toxicity of heavy metals. Toxicity is also reduced by

alkaline conditions and by chelating agents such as fulvic acids and

humic acids.

356) Dr. Ashok Kumar

Study of the clonaI variability in Anabaena doliolum. (It was found

that it is a genetical property rather than a physiological one).

- Physiological studies on regulation of the heterocyst formation in

Anabaena.

357) Dr. A. Kumar Rai

- Study of the relations between BNF and photosynthesis in different

strains of Anabaena including!. doliolum and A azollae.

358) General discussion

A short informaI meeting with most of the BGA scientists from BHU

followed the lectures by IRRI scientists. Prof. Talpasayi emphasized the

fact that most of the ecological studies of BGA are only descriptive. He

also commented about strain selection, indicating that assessment of strain

properties should be made with regard to BNF and ability to withstand

stress conditions. PAR presented a brief summary of the results of the

survey for the establishment of a BGA network. There was a general

consensus: 1) for the development of collaborative research; and 2) to give

priority to the standardization of methodologies.

36) MEETING AT THE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY, BANGALORE (Thursday March l4th).

The meeting was headed by Prof. P. V. Rai, Head of the Department of

Agricultural Microbiology. BGA scientists in the department are Dr. Shetty

(Associate Professor) and Mr. M. K. Shivaprakash (Assistant Professor).

Dr. A. M. Krishnappa (Associate Professor) from the Fisheries College,

19

Bangalore. Dr. U. Bongale from Karnatak University. Dharwad and Dr. Hosmany

of Mysore University were kind enough to come to the department of

Agricultural Microbiology to join the meeting. Prof. G. S. Bharati from

Karnatak University could not join the meeting because of previous

engagements and sent a let ter with information about some of his research

topics.

361) Dr. Shetty

A program airning at the popularization of BGA inoculation is being

conducted during the 3 last years. This program comprises:

a) Research: Isolation. and screening of cultures prior to supplying

them production centers.

b) Inoculumn production: Strains selected at the university are

forwarded to five centers selected by the State Agriculture Department of

Karnataka. The centers are located in each of the five agroclimatic zones

of the state. ie.: coastal, transitional belt. northern dry zone, eastern

dry zone. and central zone.

c) Training: Training on BGA is part a of orientation courses on

biofertilizers which are given to Senior Research Officers (2 days) ,

Extention Officers (4 days). and farmers (7 days). Field demonstration of

the use of biofertilizers (2 days) are also organized for farmers. The

programme of the orientation course for Senior Officers and a report of a

training course for extension workers are annexed to his report (Annexes 3

and 4).

Currently the selection of strains for the coastal zone. the

transitional belt and the eastern dry zone has been achieved.

Twenty to thirty soil samples are collected from each zone and algal

strains are isolated using the enrichment culture method on Fogg's medium

20

without nitrogen. Unialgal strains are tested in liquid medium for growth

rate, N2-fixation, response to P, inorganic N and pH, and pesticides.

Selected strains are indigenous strains dominant in the respective zones:

Anabaena variabilis and Nostoc commune are adapted to a wide range of

soils; Calothrix~. is adapted to acidic soils; Hapalosiphon is adapted

to acidic to neutral soils of the eastern dry zone. Cylindrospermum

musicola is adapted to the soils of the transitional zone.

In the production centers soil based inoculum is produced using single

strain. Different soil types as weIl as the effect of the addition of

inorganic fertilizers, organic amendments, neem cake, and biogas wastes are

tested for the production of the inoculum. Quality of inocula is tested by

1 i h d l 1 .. 102 105 1 fi·P at ng met o. nocu a conta1n1ng to co ony orm ng un1ts per

gram dry weight are used for inoculation. Inoculation in pot experiments

always gave positive results. In field experiments, there is some increase

in yield (6-10%) but not statistically significant.

The technology is not yet adopted by farmers. Field trials have shown

that algalization is not efficient during Kharif crop probably because of

lack of light. During the monsoon, Aphanothece usually covers the rice

fields. Basal application of 90 kg P/ha as P205 favor BGA growth.

362) Dr. S.P. Hosmani (Mysore).

- Algal flora of 320 soils collected from rice and non-rice grown

areas has been studied using liquid enrichment technique in

Benedict's medium and soil-water medium. 315 isolates have been

obtained. N2-fixing BGA were present in 50-60% of the total soils

and in 70-80% of the rice soils.

- Presoaking the seeds of vegetables, mustard, and solanum in filtrate

or extracts of BGA (Hapalosiphon) increased the rate of germination

of the seeds.

21

- Experiments on the effect of fumigants on BGA were also conducted.

363) Dr. Krishnappa (Fisheries College, Bangalore)

Study of algal inoculation in acidic (pH 4-5.2) soils of the coastal

zone.

Tolypothrix, Anabaena, Calothrix and Nostoc are present in aIl the

soils but Tolypothrix is dominant. As the soils are porous and have a high

rate of percolation, inoculum production is made using polyethylene

sheaths. Mosquito larvae are a limiting factor for the production of

inoculum. Inoculum production was unsuccessful during the rainy season.

An inoculation experiment conducted on rice in four plots (10 x 10 m

each; no replicates) has given the following yield: control: 3.8 t/ha; 10

kg BGA: 4.5 t/ha; 50 kg N: 4.5 t/ha; 100 kg N: 5.6 t/ha.

364) Dr. Bongale (Dharwad)

The study of 250 dry soil samples from 7 districts out of 20 districts

in Karnataka has shown the presence of N2-fixing BGA in 210 of them.

Three areas with acidic and acid lateritic soils were poor in N2-fixing

BGA. Most frequent strains in non-acidic soils are Nostoc (calcicola,

commune, microscopicum, puntiforme), Calothrix spp., Anabaena (variabilis,

spiroides), Microchaete and Aphanothece. Two strains of Hapalosiphon and

Nostoc microscopicum have been selected since they grow on different kinds

of soils and are utilized for inoculation experiments where indigenous

flora do not contain N2-fixing BGA.

The relation between the occurrence of different algal genera with the

soil properties and cropping patterns has been worked out. Based on the

observations, an assessment of euterrestrial or pseudoterrestrial nature of

different algae has been made.

Recently, a few strains have been isolated for inoculation in acidic

50ils.

22

It has also been found that the foliar spray with filtrates of

nitrogen fixing algal cultures (60 to 90 days old) improves growth and

yield of vegetable crops like beans and onion. Presoaking the seeds in the

extracts of Hapalosiphon welwitschii and H. confervaceus exhibited

differential response on growth and spore germination.

In a recent letter Dr. Bongale summarized his research interest as follows:

1. Enrichment of Regional Soils: Scope exists for the improvement of

such soils that are poor in heterocystous algae, by inoculating a few

selected strains from the local areas.

2. Relation of Soil Algal Flora with Soil Properties.

3. Blue Green Algal Spores for Bioassay of Pesticides. Spores of

algal strains differ in their response to pesticides. Extensive studies on

this aspect would help in evolving a simple bioassay technique for

pesticides, applicable even at field level.

4. Recycling of Paddy Field Effluents. Residues of pesticides and

their degradation products in field effluents can be utilized for mass

cultivation of selected strains of blue-green algal inoculum. This would

help in reducing pesticide pollution, and in promoting recycling of water.

37) FIELD TOUR IN MRS/UAS EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS AND IN FARMERS FIELDS ALONG

MYSORE ROAD (Thursday March l4th)

In the experimental fields of the University of Agricultural Sciences,

no experiments on algal inoculation are being conducted. There were blooms

of BGA but presence of few Nostoc and Aphanothece colonies was recorded.

There was a high incidence of snails in the irrigated fields.

In dry fields, there was a noticeable coverage of dark algal crusts.

One quantitative core sampling was made on dry soil with algal crust

23

(sample 7) and another was performed on slightly wet soil (sample 8). A

non-quantitative sampling of algal crusts was made for analysis (sample 9).

Presence of a red Azolla pinnata was also noted in some of the irrigated

fields.

Visits to farmers fields along Mysore road permitted us to observe

extensive growth of Oscillatoria limnetica and other non-nitrogen fixing

BGA in fields irrigated with sewage water. A quantitative core sampling

was performed (sample 10). In the fields irrigated with freshwater, there

was litt le algal growth. A quantitative core sampling was performed

(sample Il).

38) MEETING WITH DR. G. OBLISAMI, HEAD OF MICROBIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, TAMIL

NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, COIMBATORE (Friday March 15)

There are five thrust areas in the department:

1) BNF: Rhizobium, Azospirillum, BGA, Azolla, Frankia

2) Mycorrhizae; endo-and ectomycorrhizae

3) Organic material recycling, biogas, cellulose and lignin

degradation

4) Effect of pesticides on soil microflora

5) Industrial pollution

Highlights of the research progress are presented in a report of the Center

of Advanced Studies in Agricultural Microbiology for post-graduate

agricultural education and research (UNDP, FAO, ICAR Project- IND/78/020)

(Annex 5).

In the programme on biological nitrogen fixation, emphasis is given on

legumes (5 scientists): crop legumes, tree legumes and serology of

rhizobia.

24

Two scientists are working on Azospirillum and three on Azolla and

BGA. In the presentation of the work conducted in his department, Dr.

Oblisami did not include research on BGA which was to be presented by Dr.

Kannaiyan on 16th of March.

381) Bacterial and micorrhizal inoculation:

The laboratory is producing Azospirillum inoculum and releasing in

bags for selling to farmers through the Department of Agriculture. About

ooסס1 packets of 200 g each (quantity for inoculating one hectare of rice)

are produced every month (Annex 6). The carrier is peat. Seeds are

inoculated with inoculum mixed with molasse before seeding. The inoculum

has to be used within 6 months after it was produced, and contains about

6 810 - 10 cells per g.dw. Inoculum is not sold if it contains less

than 106 cfu/g. Priee is Rs 2/pack. Reinoculation is recommended.

Response to bacterization is variable. In about 50% of the cases there was

an increase in yield. Increase in yield was statistically significant in

about 30% of the cases. A positive effect of bacterization has been

observed with sesame, pennisetum, cotton, millet, sorghum and rice. After

inoculation, plants are greener, mature earlier (7 days), and N fertilizer

application can be reduced by one fourth. Bacterization with Azotobacter

and Azospirillum is recommended for rice. However, it has not yet been

adopted by farmers.

Other inoculants such as Beijerinckia have been tested and abandonned.

Azotobacter is less efficient than Azospirillum. Inoculation of Casuarina

nurseries with crushed nodules from mature trees proved to be efficient.

The microbial symbiont (actinomycetes) has not yet been isolated.

Inoculation of cassava, tomato, sweet potato, chilli and citrus with

micorrhizae has given good results but it is still at the experimental

25

level. Inoculation of pine trees in the nurseries has been successful.

The fungus has been isolated (Scleroderma).

382) Other programmes

Biogas. Biogas digestors are of the sealed dome type and are widely

adopted by landed farmers. The program is aimed at finding out the methods

for increasing the methane/C02 ratio and for utilizing weeds (water

hyacinth), farm residues and poultry litter as substrates.

Cellulose and lignin degradation. The program is to study the

possibility of utilizing sugarcane bagasse and coconut coir waste as a

substrate for the production of single cell protein and soil conditioner.

Pesticide effects on soil microflora.

Effect of dust pollution on different crops. Dust pollution from

cement factories result in a coating as high as 5 mg calcium silicate per

2cm of leaf. It reduces significantly the number of root nodules in

leguminous crops (50%). Most sensitive non-Iegume plants are sorghum,

maize and cotton. In case of cotton, the quality of the cotton is

affected but not the yield.

39) FIELD TOUR Ta PADDY BREEDING STATION, TNAU, Friday March 15th

afternoon.

Paddy Breeding Station of TNAU at Coimbatore is one of the three

centers for BGA inoculum production in Tamil Nadu. The inoculum production

plots were inoculated one week before our visite Floating blooms of green

algae and LPP blue-green algae were present in aIl the plots but not

covering the whole surface of the water. A secondary bloom of Anabaena was

coming up at the soil water interface but its color was not very marked

though large number of O2

bubbles were visible. Microscopie examinations

in the field and in the laboratory showed the dominance Spirogyra,

26

unicellular green algae, and non-N2-fixing LPP and Oscillatoria.

Anabaena was the dominant N2-fixing strain. Few filaments of Calothrix

were also observed.

In the experimental plots, blooms of filamentous green algae

are common. In dry fields, white patches, probably discolorated algae,

were observed. A sample was collected (Sample no. 12).

One sample of dark crust forming algae was also collected (sample no. 13).

40) FIELD TOUR IN TELUGU PALAYAM AREA (Saturday March 16th morning).

We visited farmers fields in Telugu Palayam area, about 20 km west of

Coimbatore. The fields were inoculated 2 years back. Water was drained

and no bloom of BGA was visible in the field. A quantitative sample of

algal crusts was collected in a dry field (sample no. 14).

41) MEETING WITH DR. S. KANNAIYAN, COIMBATORE, March 16th morning.

Two other scientists involved with Azolla and BGA research (P.

Subrahmanian and A. Thanikachalam) joined the meeting.

6Tamil Nadu has about 2.8 x 10 ha of rice growing area. About 2

thirds are irrigated. Average yield is 2.2 t/ha. Three crops of rice are

grown per year in one third of the area, two in another third and one in

the remaining third. Recommended dose of fertilizer is 100-50-50 (NPK) but

on average 20 to 30 kg N is used per crop per hectare. About 95% of rice

varieties are HYV.

The three rice crops in Tamil Nadu are:

a. Kharif: short duration crop planted in June, light intensities are

high.

b. Thaladi: crop planted between October and December, light

intensities are low and there is almost no algal growth.

27

c. Navarai: medium duration crop planted in December - January, light

intensities are moderate.

BGA trials are conducted in collaboration with Dr. Venkataraman. BGA

inoculum is produced in 3 research stations (State production units)

namely: Aduthurai, Ambasamudram and Tirurkuppam. Each production unit is

about 0.30 ha. Production of inoculum in summer months is about 1 kg/m2

in 21 day. Average production of the 3 state units together is about

120-150 tons a year since 1981. Besides the state production units, there

are three central government production units which together produce about

30 t inoculum per year.

Inoculation works under moderate to high light intensities. It does

not work under low light intensities. Top dressing of phosphorus, 20 days

after transplanting, favors the growth of inoculated or indigenous BGA.

Neem stimulates the growth of Anabaena (one kg neem seeds costs 20-25

Paise, one kg of neem cake costs 75-80 Paise). Apparently there is no

difference among rice varieties in terms of response to algal inoculation.

The percentage of farmers utilizing algal inoculation technology is

difficult to evaluate but may be between 10% to 30%.

Experiments conducted on algal inoculation by Dr. Kannaiyan and his

associates are summarized in a review paper in press.

42) VISIT OF KUMARAPERUMAL FARM SCIENCE CENTER, TRICHY

Thiru A.K. Kathirvelu, Principal and Thiru K.M. Ramanujam, Joint

Director of Agriculture (Sunday March 17th) accompanied us to the farm.

General information on the Center is given in a pamphlet annexed to

this report (Annex 8).

The Kumaraperumal Farm Science Center comprises the soi1 salinity

research center. The objective of this center is to develop reclamation

28

procedures for different categories of saline and sodic soils. Experiments

on reclamation of a saline sodic soils (pH 9.0 - 9.5) are being conducted

using gypsum application and BGA inoculation. Recommended gypsum

application was 6 tons/ha. Eleven treatments in four replicates were

tested. The experimental design and the results are given in Annex 9. The

best results was obtained with 50% of the recommended dose of gypsum

together with BGA inoculation. Inoculum was applied at a rate of 10 kg per

hectare. It was a mixture of soil based inoculum developed with salt

resistant strains selected by Dr. B. D. Kaushik (IARI, New Delhi) and

indigenous strains isolated from the experimental fields in the center. A

bloom was continuously present during the crop.

At the time we visited the fields, blooms of algae were present.

Microscopie observations in the field showed the dominance of LPP group,

filamentous green algae and Aphanothece.

In the sandy alkaline soils of the area (about 20% of cultivated

soils) spontaneous blooms are very frequent. A quantitative sampling (10

core) of surface soil was made in a dry field of the center where a bloom

is usually always present (sample 15). Another sampling was made in the

same field where a few millimeter thiek dark soil algal crust was present

on sandy soil which is otherwise clear in color (sample 16).

43) FIELD TOUR IN TRICHY AREA (Sunday March 17th)

Near Trichy (Somarasampettai) we visited a BGA demonstration field

where algal inoculum was applied at a rate of 10 kg/ha. NPK fertilizer was

applied at a rate of 30-15-15. N was applied as 10 kg basal, 10 kg 3 DAT

and 10 kg at P.I. No BGA growth was visible with the naked eye. A

quantitative surface soil sample was collected.

29

In Trichy area. we observed 2 fields with dense algal blooms

spontenously growing (not inoculated). In the first one. a simultaneous

growth of Azolla and mucilaginous colonies of Nostoc were observed. The

field was adjacent to the housing colony and irrigation water was

contaminated with waste waters. In the next field. the nature of the bloom

was very different. It could be Anabaena. or a mixture of unicellular BGA/

green algae with diatoms. Time was too short for microscopie observations.

44) VISIT TO TAMIL NADU RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE. ADUTHURAI (Sunday March

17th)

First. we visited the BGA multiplication plots with Dr. Kannaiyan and

Dr. Dawood. pH of the soil is 7.2. Superphosphate is added at a rate of 2

2kgf 40 m (500 kg/ha). Insecticide Ekalaux is applied at a rate of 200

ml per acre. which is half of the dose recommended for rice. Dr. Kannaiyan

said algal crusts may contain as much as 1.5% N. When BGA are growing

weIl as much as 5 t algal flakes can be harvested per hectare.

At the time we visited the station. BGA multiplication plots were

drained a week aga and algal flakes were covering the plots. Some

heterogenity was observed in the density of the flakes. Also one plot had

better productivity than the other one. White patches of undissolved

superphosphate were present at the surface of the soil.

In the experimental plots of the station. we observed algal blooms

comprised mainly of Oscillatoria and LPP strains. Mr. Srinivasan reported

later that Aphanothece and Wollea are almost always presents in the field

while other N-fixing BGA are seasonal. He said that he could collect

N2-fixing BGA bloom ranging from 5.5 to 18 t fresh weight per hectare.

30

A quantitative sample (sample no. 18) and a nonquantitative sample

(sample no. 17) of algal flakes from BGA multiplication plots and a

composite sample of surface soil in experimental plots (sample no. 19) were

collected.

45) FIELD VISIT TO MYLADUTHURAI AREA.

There was no visible growth of N2-fixing BGA.

46) MEETING WITH PROF. N. N. PRASAD AND HIS ASSOCIATES, ANNAMALAI

UNIVERSITY, ANNAMALAINAGAR. (18-3-85)

Research in Prof. Prasad's department is mostly on Rhizobium. Some

work is also being conducted in other areas such as Azotobacter

inoculation, bacterial diseases of rice, root exudates etc. Experiments

with Azotobacter inoculation have shown that the application of 37.5 kg

N/ha + Azotobacter inoculum was as effective as the application of 50 kg

N/ha.

Research on BGA is also conducted in Prof. Prasad's department and

three M.Sc. thesis are available on BGA. It was shown that increasing P

application from 20 to 80 kg/ha increased grain yield and BGA growth in

fields where no nitrogen was applied. The presence of gibberellic acid was

detected in one strain of BGA (Au. 3). One quantitative soil sample was

collected in the experimental farm (sample 20).

47) FIELD TOUR IN PONDICHERRY AREA (AROUND MANGALAM) (Monday March 18th)

We visited three farmers field where dense Anabaena blooms were seen.

The first site had an alkaline soil (pH 8.1 - 8.5). It was inoculated the

last year with 10 kg/ha of the inoculum produced on a neutral soil by TRRI,

Aduthurai. We were told that indigenous blooms of Anabaena were observed

in this field even without inoculation. NPK fertilization was 100-50-50:

31

50 kg N basal, 25 kg None month after transplanting and 25 kg N at booting

stage. Twenty three kg Zn/ha, and insecticides (Phosphomedan) were also

applied. A soil sample was collected (sample 21). In the second site,

soil was sandy and alkaline. Fertilizer (100-50-50) as weIl as gamma BHC

(20 kg a.i./ha) were applied. Irrigation water was from a weIl. It was

not inoculated but an Anbaena bloom was present. The third site was

similar to the two other plots visited before. It was a sandy alkaline (pH

8.5 - 9.0) soil. Fertilizer had been applied. The field was not

inoculated but an Anabaena bloom was seen.

48) VISIT OF THE AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION CENTER (KRISHI VIGYAN KENDRA) OF

TNAU, PONDICHERRY (Monday March 18th Afternoon).

We were received by Dr. A Subramanian, principal, who presented the

activities of the Center. There are currently eleven major programs: Rice

breeding, Biogas, Transfer of innovations, Training in improved

agrotechnologies, Village adoption of improvements, Supply of seeds, Social

forestry, Breeding of fish, Mixed farming, and Identification of pulse and

oil crops.

The center has released three rice varities P.Y.-1 (130 days) P.Y.-2

(115 days) P.Y.-3 (120 days). P.Y.-3, released under the name

Bharathidasan, is totally resistant to BPH and can yield 5 to 5.5 t/ha.

The station is beginning a program on biofertilizers in cooperation with

the Agriculture department of Pondicherry and has à small multiplication

plot for BGA. During the visit of the experimental farm a composite soil

sample (red lateritic soil, pH 6.8 to 7.5) was collected (sample no. 21).

Agriculture department of Pondicherry produces about 10 tons of

inoculum per year. We did not visit this plot located in Aiyankuttipalayam.

32

49) VISIT OF TIRURKUPPAM PADDY EXPERIMENTAL STATION (Tuesday March 19th).

We were welcomed by Prof. Thiru Aran. Major goal of the station is to

cater to the needs of three districts (Chingleput, South Arcot and North

Arcot). There are three cropping seasons in this area where most of the

rice is rainfed. Rainfall (700-1200 mm) is between July and December.

- Sornavari crop: Planted in May/June. It is rainfed only, receives

maximum sunlight and is usually high yielding.

- Samba crop: Planted in September/October during the monsoon. This

crop receives water differently in different localities:

a) rainfed with one month drought at the beginning (wet, dry,

wet)

b) starts as dry and is then irrigated (about 44000 ha) (dry

and irrigated)

c) wet (irrigated)

- Navarai: crop planted in December/January.

The research station has released several varieties including TKM6

resistant to stemborer. TKM9, a HYV, susceptible to blast and TKM-80-89

resistant to blast were also released.

The station operates a BGA program and has BGA multiplication plots.

In this area, recommended dose of fertilizer is 100-50-50. Soils are light

loam with pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.5. The soils are rich in indigenous

BGA. Inoculation is recommended to reinforce the indigenous flora and to

reduce N application by 25 kg (100-50-50 is equivalent to 75-50-50 + BGA).

Application of insecticide (carbofuran) is recommended along with algal

inoculation. A summary of the BGA scheme (Annex 10) and summarization of

the going on experiments (Annex Il) are annexed. We visited the

experimental farm and the BGA multiplication plots. Good growth of BGA was

33

observed in multiplication plots. A sample of the BGA inoculum was

collected (Sample 22).

50) FIELD TOUR TO SRIPERUM BUDUR DIVISION, CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT.

During the field tour a handout on the BGA scheme in SriperuMbudur

division was provided to us (Annex 12). BGA inoculation is being adopted

by some farmers of this area.

4) BGA AND GRAZERS SAMPLING

41) BLUE GREEN ALGAE

411) Methods

4111) Sampling

Composite samples of surface soil were collected from each visited

site. Samples comprised of the top 0.5 cm of ten core subsamples collected

with plastic tubes 10 cm long and 3 cm in diameter. Sampling points were,

at least, at 0.5 m intervals along a transect through the field. Twelve

composite samples were collected from dry soils and three from wet soils.

During the trip samples were kept in tight plastic bags, they were

processed immediately after the trip.

We also collected quantitative samples of algal crust (including

soil-based inocula). A sample of the soil under the crust was also taken

for comparison.

4112) Algal counts

Evaluation of the total algal flora was made by plating soil

suspension-dilutions on agarized BG II medium (Stanier et al. 1971)

containing mineraI nitrogen. The same medium depleted of mineraI nitrogen

was used for enumerating N2-fixing BGA. For core samples, the volume of

the first soil suspension-dilution was adjusted with distilled water to a

corresponding to 10 core samples, thus

surface basis. Dilutions from 10-2 to

34

3 2value in cm equal to ten times the value in cm of the surface

providing a 10-1 dilution on a

10- 6 were 1 d i hpate us ng t ree

replicates per dilution. Remaining suspension-dilutions, were sterilized

by autoclaving before discarding. Petri dishes were incubated for three

oweeks at laboratory temperature (22-30 C) under continuous light provided

by cold white fluorescent lamps before counting and identification of

colonies. Depending on the method of sampling, counts were expressed as

numbers of colony forming units (CFU) per cm2 of soil or as CFU/g soil

d.w. After counting, Petri dishes were sterilized before discarding the

culture medium and the algal colonies.

The plating method does not permit to distinguish between living

organisms and spores or propagules dormant in the soil. Also, because of

reading and competition problems on dishes having too many colonies,

strains present at a density lower than 1% of the total CFU are MOSt

frequently not recorded. The method is therefore suitable for making an

inventory of the major strains present in a soil.

Strains were classified into broad taxa according to criteria directly

observable on the colonies growing on Petri dishes (Table 1). The ability

to form mucilaginous colonies of defined shape, which is associated with

resistance to grazing, is taken as a major character. Taxons having this

ability are: unicellular, Nostoc and Gloeotrichia groups.

4113) Chemical analysis

We determined pH, organic C, total N, exchangeable K, Mg, Ca, C.E.C.,

total P and available P (Olsen) of 1) the algal crust samples and the

contiguous subsoil, 2) the soil-based BGA inocula, and 3) some selected

soils. Methods are those currently used by the analytical laboratory of

IRRI.

35

412) List of soil-algae samples

1) Composite sample of 10 cores collect in Sarnath area in dry fallow

plots close to the roadl (11-3-85).

2) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in Sarnath area in dry

fallow plots in the vicinity of a pond (11-3-85).

3) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in Sarnath area in dry

fallow plots near a railway track (11-3-85).

4) 3 square samples of surface soil crusts and deep soil collected in

Sarnath area, dry fallow soil (11-3-85).

5) Aulosira crusts (non-quantitative sampling) collected in Sarnath

area (11-3-85).

6) Unidentified algal colonies close to a pond collected in Sanath

area (11-3-85).

7) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in MRS, UAS, Hebbal in

fallow dry plots after harvest (14-3-85).

8) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in MRS, UAS, Hebbal in

fallow wet plots after harvest (14-3-85).

9) Algal crust nonquantitative sample collected in MRS, UAS, Hebbal in

fallow dry plots after harvest (14-3-85).

10) Composite sample of 10 cores collected along Mysore road in a

farmer field irrigated with sewage water (14-3-85).

Il) Composite sample of 10 cores taken along Mysore road in a farmer

field irrigated with fresh water at tillering stage (14-3-85).

12) Unknown material, possibly discolorated algae, collected

non-quantitatively from TNAU paddy breeding station, in fallow plots after

rice harvest (15-3-85).

13) Algal crusts collected non-quantitatively from TNAU Paddy Breeding

station in fallow plots after rice harvest 15-3-85.

36

14) Two square sample of surface soil crusts and deeper soil collected

in Telugu Palayam area in a farmer field inoculated 2 years back (16-3-85).

15) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in Kumaraperumal Farm

Science Center. Saline soil pH 9.2, dry fallow plots after rice harvest

(16-3-85).

16) One square sample of surface soil crusts and deeper soil collected

in Kumaraperumal Farm Science Center. Sol saline soil pH 9.2 dry fallow

plot after rice harvest (16-3-85).

17) Algal flakes from Aduthurai BGA production plots. Non quantitative

sampling (17-3-85).

18) Two squares samples of surface crusts and deeper soil collected in

the BGA production plots at Adutharai (17-3-85).

19) Composite nonquantitative sample of surface soil collected in

Adutharai Research Station (17-3-85).

20) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in Annamalai Nagar

(18-3-85).

21) Surface soil from rice field embankment in Mangalam (near

Pandicherry) where an Anabaena bloom was observed.

22) Composite sample of 10 cores collected in the Agricultural

Education Center (18-3-85).

23) BGA inoculum from Tirukuppam (19-3-85).

24) 10 core samples from lowland stream irrigated rice fallow in

Ellamada, Piler (sandy soil)

25) 10 core samples from lowland weIl irrigated rice fallow in

Ellamanda, Piler (clay soil)

26) 10 core samples from lowland rice fallow irrigated with freshwater

(on Mysore road. 3 km from Bangalore)

CFU/cm2 and

from 1.3 x 105 to

37

27) 10 core samples from lowland rice fallow irrigated with freshwater

(on Mylore road. 3 km. from Bangalore).

413) Results

4131) Algal enumerations

Results of algal enumerations are presented in a computerized table

(Table 2) of 48 rows and 52 columns. We refer to the data according to

their coordinates expressed as rows (R) and/or columns (C) in the table.

41311) Composite samples of 10 cores.

Results of the enumeration of algae in composite soil samples,

2expressed on cm basis, are presented in columns 1 to 17; average,

maximal and minimal values are presented in column 44 to 46. Total algal

populations (R-46) ranged from 4.4 x 105 to 1.0 x 107

6averaged 2.1 x 10. Heterocystous BGA (R. 33) ranged

4.2 x 106 (average 8.7 x 105) and comprised 7.7 to 70% of the total

algal populations (average 36%) (R.48). NZ-fixing strains were present

in aIl studied samples. Among NZ-fixing BGA (R 37 to 44) Nostoc group

was the most frequently dominant, fo1lowed by unicellular forms and

Calothrix and Anabaena groups. Other groups were never dominant.

41312) Enumerations on dry weight basis

Algal populations were enumerated on dry weight basis in 1) algal

crusts, 2) soil under the algal crusts, 3) soi1 based inocula (S.B.1), and

4) two other soils. Results are presented in columns 18 to 36 of Table 2;

average, maximal, and minimal values are presented in columns 50 to 52.

Total algal populations ranged from 1.8 x 105 to 1.6 x 108 CFU/g and

7 4averaged 4.1 x 10 CFU/g. Heterocystous BGA ranged from 4.3 x 10 to

7 62.4 x 10 and averaged 2.5 x 10 CFU/g; they comprised 2 to 35% of the

total algal populations (average 15%). N2-fixing strains were present in

38

aIl studied samples. Among N2-fixing BGA, Nostoc group was most dominant

in aIl samples.

41313) Poo1ed data

Average, maximal and minimal values are presented in columns 38 to 40

of Table 2. Total populations ranged from 1.8 x 105 to 1.6 x 108

CFU/counting unit. N2-fixing BGA ranged from 4.3 x 104 to 2.8 x 107 •

Heterocystous BGA ranged from 4.3 x 104 to 2.4 x 107 • The relative

importance of the different taxa of N2-fixing BGA is presented in rows 37

to 44. Table 3 summarizes these data and shows that Nostoc group was

dominant in 75% of the samples. Unicellular BGA were dominant in 10% of

the samples. Anabaena and Calothrix groups were incidentally dominant (5%

of the samples) whereas other groups were never dominant.

4132) Chemical analysis of algal crusts and soil based inocula.

The comparison between the composition of the algal crust and that of

the soil just under the crust (Table 4) shows an accumulation of organic

material in the algal crust equivalent to 150-850 kg C/ha, 14-110 kg N/ha,

and 1 to 35 kg P/ha. Soi1 based inocula (Table 5) had C contents ranging

from 2.36% to 4.73%, N contents ranging from 0.299 to 0.755%, and P

contents ranging from 640 to 1260 ppm

414) Discussion

4141) Occurrence of N2-fixing BGA in rice soils

Dr. Goyal is his survey of soils of Maharashtra, and Jammu and Kashmir

State found that N2-fixing strains are ubiquitous in the studied area.

About 85% of the 350 rice soil samples he collected were very rich in

N2-fixing while the remaining 15% were less rich (Section 3111). In a

survey of 320 rice and non-rice soils, Dr. Hosmani found that N2-fixing

BGA were present in 70-80% of the rice soils (Section 362). Dr. Krishnappa

found N2-fixing strains in aIl the samples he collected from acidic soils

39

of the coastal zone of Karnataka state (Section 363). Dr. Bongale found

N2-fixing strains in 210 of the 250 soils samples he collected in

Karnataka state (Section 364).

Algal enumeration in soil samples we collected during the trip shows

the occurrence of heterocystous BGA at a density higher than 7 x 104

CFU/cm2 in aIl the samples. The average value is 8.7 x 105 • These

values are slightly higher than those we recorded in 67 rice soils in the

2 2 5 2Philippines (minimum 1.5 x la CFU/cm, average 1.1 x la CFU/cm).

Research on methods for using BGA in rice cultivation, emphasizes

algal inoculation (algalization) alone or together with agricultural

practices favoring the growth of inoculated strains. This arose from the

earlier belief that N2-fixing strains were not normally present in Many

rice fields. Results of BGA surveys conducted by Indian scientists,

results of the sampling we made during the trip and large surveys we

conducted in West Africa and the Philippines show the wide occurrence of

N2 fixing BGA in rice soils. N2-fixing strains MOSt probably are more

common in rice fields than was previously thought. Unsuitable survey

methodology, especially sampling and culture methods, probably resulted in

the low values recorded in earlier studies. Therefore research on the

practical use of BGA in rice cultivation should equally emphasize both on

inoculation and enhancement of indigenous flora.

4142) Dominant strains in rice soils

According to the results of the enumerations of BGA in the soil

samples we collected, Nostoc seems to be the dominant genus in most of the

soils, even in the places where Aulosira fertilissima was thought to be

dominant. However, the dominance of Nostoc in the counts May be due to the

fact that MOst of the samples were taken from dry soils and that

desiccation might have resulted in the survival of only spore forming BGA.

40

In wet soils unicellular BGA and Anabaena were dominant. This aspect has

to be taken into account when making soil surveys (dry soil versus wet

soil). It may also indicate that a suitable methodology for BGA surveys

could be quantitative measurements by the plating method complemented by a

qualitative study using the enrichment culture method.

4143) Enumeration in algal crusts

Enumration of algae in the algal crusts and in the soil beneath the

crusts shown that algal density was between 2 and 170 times higher in the

crusts than in the soil beneath the crusts. Lowest ratio between algal

density in the crust and in the soil (Table 3, R8, C6) was 2.5 in

Kumaraperumal soil. In this, soil being sandry, algal growth extended over

several millimeters of the upper layer. Because of the texture of the

soil, algal spores or propagules might have been washed down very easily,

and this may be a reason for higher density of BGA in the deeper soil.

The ratio between algae in the crust and algae in the soil was usually

much higher for total algae than for heterocystous BGA. This may be

related with the ability of heterocystous BGA to form spores which

accumulate in the upper horizon.

4144) Enumeration in soil-based inocula

Enumeration of heterocystous BGA in the soil based inocula (Table 5)

showed values of the same order of magnitude as that in algal crusts

6(10 /g d.w.). Material from Aduthurai and Tirur were characterized by

the dominance of Nostoc group which comprised about 87% of the C.F.U. of

NZ-fixing BGA. Relative density of N2-fixing BGA ranged from 3 to 30%.

It was low (3-6%) in material collected by scraping the soil surface

(samples 18A and 23) and higher in algal flakes selectively collected from

areas exhibiting a good growth (sample No. 17). When considering that

41

recommended level for algal inoculation is la kg/ha, the application of the

7best inoculum (Adulthurai No. 17 containing 2.8 x la CFU/g) correspond

to 2.8 1011

C.F.U. of N2-fixing BGA per hectare. This corresponds to

2.8 x 103 CFU per cm2 , which is about 50 times less than the lowest

density of indigenous N2-fixing BGA and about 400 times less than the

average density of indigenous N2-fixing BGA in the soils we collected.

Though more results are needed before drawing conclusions, the present

observations indicate that: inoculation may not be needed in the soils of

the areas we visited. Further multispecies inocula which we collected were

rather unbalanced and dominated by Nostoc strains. We may add here that

"multispecies inocula" we collected or obtained from various countries as

weIl as and those we produced in the Philippines were almost always

unbalanced and largely dominated by one strain.

The soil-based BGA inoculum production method developed in India is

simple, inexpensive and easily adoptable by farmers. It is based on the

use of a multistrain starter inoculum of Aulosira, Tolypothrix, Sytonema,

Nostoc, Anabaena, and Plectonema provided to the farmers by inoculum

production units. Starter inoculum is multiplied in shallow trays or plots

2 2with 5-15 cm water, about 4 kg soil/m , 100 g triple superphosphate/m ,

and insecticide. If necessary, lime is added to correct the soil pH to

about 7.0-7.5. In1 to 3 weeks a thick mat develops on the soil surface

which subsequently floats. Watering is stopped and water in the trays is

allowed to evaporate in the sun. Algal flakes are scraped off and stored

in bags for use in the fields. Using this method, the final proportion of

individual strains in the algal flakes is unpredictable, but it is assumed

that the strains best adopted for local conditions will dominate in the

inoculum because it is produced in soil and climatic conditions similar to

those in the field. However, this method is valid only if the starter

42

inoculum provided to the farmer is a balanced one comprising a wide range

of strains.

Results of BGA enumerations in collected inocula, together with those

we produced at IRRI indicate that it would be safer to 1) produce

monospecific inocula of various strains, 2) dry them, 3) check their

quality, and 4) mix them according to their CFU contents. This method

would permit to obtain a multistrain, balanced starter inoculum of known

quality.

4145) Chemical analysis

Results of chemical analysis of algal crusts (Table 4) soil based

inocula (Table 5) and gave some estimates of the potentiality of algae in

accumulating N in their biomasse The exceptionally high values in the

samples obtained from Kumaraperumal center were due to a profuse growth of

filamentous green algae and the sandy nature of the soil that permits the

algae to develop a crust up to l cm depth. This may be partly related with

a deeper penetration of light in sandy soils. The contribution of

N2-fixing BGA to organic matter accumulation in the crust was less

important than in the three other soils (Table 4) as indicated by the algal

enumerations.

Results of analysis of algal crusts in inoculum production plots at

Aduthurai gives an estimate of the potentiality of BGA which is about 45

kg/ha. However it has to be kept in mind that supersphosphate is added at

a rate of 500 kg/ha to obtain such a profuse growth of BGA. Recent

experiments conducted in micro plots showed that at IRRI nitrogen content

in BGA blooms ranged from 10 to 20 kg/ha and exceptionally attained a value

of 35 kg N/ha. These values may be considered to be a reasonable estimate

of th nitrogen content in the maximum standing biomass that can be

expected in a rice field at blooming time. However, they underestimate the

43

value of BNF, which is the result of the activity of a standing biomass and

its turnover. No data are available on nutrient turnover rate of

field-grown BGA.

42) Grazers

421) Sampling

Samples were collected with net when depth of water was sufficient.

When the floodwater was too shallow samples (500 ml x 6) were collected

with a syrings and the contents of the syringe were emptied into the net.

and the organisms retained in the latter were transferred to a bottle

containing 70% C2H50H. Molluscs were hand picked from the soil for

identification. A semi-quantitative ranking of abundance was achieved by

counting animaIs retained by the net, or by visual observation in the case

of larger molluscs.

422) Sampling sites

At the time of the survey. only sites at Bangalore and Pondicherry.

were irrigated and planted to rice. Three sites with crops at tillering

stages were located at experimental farms in Tamil Nadu. These were aIl

irrigated with weIl water. One site, at Sarnath (Varanasi). was dry except

for water in drainage ditches and marsh areas, and was not planted to rice.

Ditches and marsh areaa (previously planted) were sampled at this site.

423) Resulta

Taxonomie report of the grazers collected during the survey is

presented in Table 6. A total of fort y one species of macroinvertebrates

were recorded. The greatest number of taxa at any one site was 25

(Bangalore). Pondicherry, had 17 spp. and the marshy site in Sarnath, had

Il spp. The lowest number of taxa were at the 3 university experimental

stations: Coimbatore (2), Madras-Tirurkuppam (7) and Trichy (10). It was

44

evident that in aIl these stations the plots were infrequently irrigated

with weIl water and consequently the soils remained cracked despite of the

overlying water. At the most soils had been flooded 2-3 days before our

visite At Coimbatore, irrigation canals contained abundant Lymnaea.

Molluscs, particularly Lymnaea, Vivipara, and Gyraulus spp., were

common at most sites. Also, the Cladocerans and Copepods contributed a

large number of species common amongst sites. Ostracods were quite

restricted and appeared in quantity only at the Bangalore sites. The

hemipterans, Anisops and Micronecta. were widely distributed and mosquito

larvae, when present were often abundant. Chironomid larvae were quite

dense in Pondichery where they were associated with large BGA growths.

The percentage of grazers, expressed as a % of the total number of

taxa, was between 68 and 82% for farmers' fields and 50-57% for

experimental stations. These former percentages are in agrement with our

findings in the Philippines. Primary production and recruitment of animaIs

in experimental stations using weIl water for short periods of irrigation

must be low and probably explains the reduced % of grazers. The community

structure of invertebrates is also very close to that observed in

Philippines rice fields.

The 12 taxa designated characteristic of rainfed and irrigated rice

fields in the Philippines and suffice to describe the Indian rice fields

visited. Community domination by Ostracods in Indian fields was less

pronounced than in the Philippines but mosquito larvae (Culicidae) and

Copepoda and Cladocera were more widely distributed and more abundant.

45

Casual observations

Most of the fauna were collected from sites of, or near, government

BGA inoculation experiments or the BGA adoption sites of farmers (Sarnath

excepted). Regional officers of the BGA adoption programme informed us

-1that at least 100 kg urea N ha ,50 kg P and 50 kg K were applied to aIl

their fields. Local extension workers explained that this recommended

level of fertilizer use was often doubled by the farmers. Furthermore, the

recommended application rates of pesticide (invariably 20 kg ai dry powder,

B.R.C.) were also doubled as an insurance policy against pests. Frequently

the applications were made many times during the crop. At these sites (not

aIl sampled) mosquito larvae and molluscs (Lymnaea and Vivipara) were

either dominant or at least abundant. Many sites visited smelled strongly

of insecticide, and the beige dusting powder was frequently seen. Under

these conditions, Oscillatoria, LPP and at Pondicherry, Anabaena were

growing weIl. Only molluscs, and mosquitoes, it seemed, could withstand

the concentrations of BRC. Grazers were not a problem in these areas of

non limiting N & P concentrations and heavy pesticide application rates.

46

5) CONCLUSIONS

51) Summarizing the trip with numbers and lists

We visited eleven laboratories or research stations. We had

discussions with about 50 scientists among which 38 are working at least

partly on BGA. Eleven of them are involved at least partly in ecological

or applied field studies on BGA in rice fields. whereas 27 are involved in

basic research.

We gave seminars on IRRI's work on BGA in IARI, Jawaharal Nehru

Unversity. Banaras Hindu University. Agricultural University of Bangalore,

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and Tirurkuppam Paddy Experimental

Station.

We had nine field tours where we visited eleven sites in farmers

fields and six experimental sites. We collected a total of 27 samples for

algal flora and chemical analysis. Grazers populations were sampled at six

sites.

During the trip we provided our hosts with a list of IRRI and our

personal publications on BGA and grazers to permit them to request

materials they were interested in. Thirty four sets of reprints have been

sent to India after we returned to IRRI.

During the trip we collected 130 reprints:

- 6 are bibliographie reviews

- 100 deal with fundamental research using laboratory grown BGA. Some

emphasis is given to the effects of polutants and pesticides on laboratory

cultures (18 papers).

- 10 are ecological and taxonomical studies of algae including BGA.

- 3 are surveys of BGA in rice fields

- 6 are on reclamation of saline soils with BGA

- 5 are on algal inoculation

47

References of the articles dea1ing with BGA in rice fields and their

agronomica1 uti1ization is given in the annexes.

52) Conclusions from the trip in India

521) Increasing professiona1 re1ationships

A very beneficia1 aspect of the trip has been the deve10pment or

enhancement of professiona1, and, in many cases, friend1y re1ationships,

with co11eagues whom we otherwise knew on1y through their names on

scientific papers. We 1earnt a great dea1 from them and hope that we a1so

provided them with some usefu1 information.

522) The status of app1ied research on BGA in India

Research on the use of BGA as bioferti1izers is main1y conducted at

the Indian Agricu1tura1 Research Institute (New Delhi), University of

Agricu1tura1 Sciences (Bangalore), Central Rice Research Institute

(Cuttack), Tamil Nadu Agricu1tura1 University and Tamil Nadu State

Agriculture Departmenta1 Farms (Coimbatore, Trichy, Adu1thurai, Pondicherry

and Tirurkuppam). Some field trials are made in Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,

Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana to assess the effect of aga1ization on

rice yie1d. Research has been initiated in Jammu and Kashmir and

Maharashtra States. Most of the research is conducted on the fo110wing

bases:

Isolation of strains from the rice fields.

- Culture and testing of the strains in the 1aboratory for N2-fixing

activity and resistance to adverse conditions.

- Testing se1ected strains in field experiments where effects of

a1ga1ization are assessed through grain yie1d.

48

An important part of the activity of many research centres is the

production of starter inoculum.

523) Extent of adoption of algalization in India

In 1980. in a review on adoption of biofertilizers in India

(Biofertilizers in rice culture. Problems and prospects for large scale

adoption. AICRIP publ no. 196) Pillai wrote: "Apart from the work carried

out at Research Stations. very little organized work on development of the

material for being adopted by the farmers has been taken up. especially in

areas where it could be of potential benefit".

In 1982. in a review of biofertilizers (Biofertilizers.

Interdisciplinary science reviews. 7(3): 220-229). Subba Rao stated that

the production capacity of BGA flakes in India was around 40 t/yr. which

was approximately 0.01% of the total inoculum requirement of the country

(40 twill inoculate 4000 ha).

From an extensive report on BGA field trials published in 1982 by the

Agricultural Economies Research Center of the University of Madras

(Blue-green algae as a source of bio-fertilizers in Thanjavur district ­

Tamil Nadu. Res Study No. 74 of the Agric. Econ. Res. Center. 79 pp). it

appears that despite an official radio and print publicity campaign. BGA

use was mostly at the trial level in 1982 and that in many cases inoculated

algae did not multiply.

According to the information we received during our trip. algalization

is now being adopted by farmers. Dr. Venkataraman said it is adopted in

Tamil Nadu and. to a lesser extent in Uttar Pradesh. where about

50000-70000 ha have been inoculated yearly since 1982 (section 312). Dr.

Kannaiyan said that evaluation of the adoption of algalization is

49

difficult. His estimation was about 10 to 30% of the 2.8 x 105 ha of

rice growing area in Tamil Nadu are currently inoculated (section 41).

Data regarding inoculum production may help in assessing the

approximate order of magnitude of the percentage of inoculated fields.

Total production of starter inoculum in Tamil Nadu is about 150-180 t/year

since 1981. This material will inoculate 15000 - 18000 ha of rice fields

(10 kg/ha) but will permit larger areas to be inoculated if multiplied by

farmers. If 2 to 5 kg of starter inoculum is required for application per

cent (1 cent = 1/100 acre = 1/40 m2) in a BeA inoculum production plot

(Annex 7), then 180 t starter inoculum permits to inoculate 144 to 360 ha

of BeA inoculum production plots. Assuming that aIl starter inocula

produced in Tamil Nadu is utilized by farmers to produce soil based inocula

2and its productivity is 2 kg algal flaks per m (data calculated from

Annex 7 which indicates that 9 tons were produced in 1 year on 105 cents by

15 farmers) then it will lead to a final production of 1440 to 3600 t of

algal flakes per year, which is enough to inoculate 288000 to 720000 ha (10

to 24% of Tamil Nadu rice fields).

Such an extrapolation may sometimes lead to an overestimation. For

example, the "notes for BeA inoculum production in Sriperumbudur division"

(Annex 7) shows that BeA inoculum produced by farmers or obtained from

experimental farms was about 15 t in 1984-1985 which was enough to

inoculate 1500 ha in an area comprising 44300 ha of rice fields (3.4%).

Therefore it seems reasonable to assume that inoculated fields

comprise a moderate percentage of the total area under rice in Tamil Nadu

and a very limited percentage of rice fields in India.

50

524) Inoculation versus enhancement of indigenous strains

Results of surveys conducted by Indian scientists in Maharashtra,

Jammu and Kashmir, and Karnataka States indicate that N2-fixing BGA are

present in most of the rice soils. Results of enumeration of N2-fixing

BGA in soil samples we collected in Uttar Pradesh and in Tamil Nadu showed

that the occurrence of heterocystous BGA is higher than 7 x 104 CFU/cm2

in aIl the samples and density averages 7-8 x 105/CFU per cm2 (For

comparison, the average value of 93 soil samples collected from the

Philippines, Malaysia and India is 6.3 x 105 CFu/cm2 and the median is

51.1 x 10 ).

The soil based BGA-inoculum having the highest density in CFU of

N2-fixing BGA, among those we obtained from India, Egypt and Burma, was

7from Aduthurai. It contained 2.8 x 10 CFU/g dry weight. Applying 10 kg

3 7of this inoculum per hectare is equivalent to 10 x 10 x 2.8 x 10 =

Il Il -8 32.8 x 10 CFU per hectare or 2.8 x 10 x 10 = 2.8 x 10 CFU per

2cm. This is about 50 time less than the lowest density of indigenous

N2-fixing BGA in the soils we collected and 400 time less than the

average density.

From these data it can be concluded that indigenous N2-fixing BGA

are already present in many soils at a density largely higher than that

brought by an algal inoculum. BGA inoculation may not be needed in many

rice soils. Research in practical utilization of BGA should emphazise

both inoculation and agricultural practices for enhancing indigenous flora.

51

53) Reconsidering international research on agronomical utilization of BGA

531) Introduction

The following paragraph presents the analysis of the current status of

applied research on BGA in rice cultivation, conducted in rice and non

rice-growing countries. Emphasis is on "bottle necks" and a cooperative

research strategy to alleviate these problems.

Since 1945 BGA has been a "promising potential source of nitrogen for

rice". In 1985 it is still promising and the only technology proposed to

farmers (algalization) is not utilized to a noticeable extent in rice

growing countries. From a large number of field experiments it has ~een

reported that inoculation with NZ-fixing BGA may increase grain yield by

a few percent. However, "a few percent" should not be negligible for many

rice growing farmers when considering that producing BGA inoculum and

spreading it in the field is a very low input technology (low cost and

little additional work). Obviously there are limiting factors for

adoption of algalization by farmers. The two major ones are probably the

lack of a reliable technology and the low potential of BGA in increasing

rice yield.

Currently practical utilisation of BGA is focused on inoculation

conducted on "trial and error basis". Very little is known about the

factors that permit the development of a bloom of indigenous or inoculated

algae in a field. Also little is known about the factors involved in the

reported increase in yield after algalization. The increased yield in

inoculated plots can be due to fixed nitrogen, production of growth

promoting substances, oligoelements from the inoculum, phosphorus

solubilization by the algae, even in some cases a better care of the

inoculated plot by the farmer involved in the experiments, etc.

52

532) Negative features of the current applied research on BGA

In 40 years of ecological and applied research on BGA our knowledge

has made relatively little progresse Some of the possible reasons are

listed below.

5321) The imbalance between test tube and field studies

In reviewing literature on BGA, it is surprising to observe the

imbalance between the differents topics. Taxonomy, morphology,

micromorphology, physiology, enzymology, and genetics are highly documented

and test tube growth of BGA has been studied extensively. On the contrary,

field studies are rare. Therefore, BGA ecology is still poorly understood

and algal inoculation is still conducted on "trial and error" basis.

(Literature collected by us during our trip in India shows a similar

imbalance: among 130 papers collected, only 15 deal with ecological or

applied aspects).

The practical utilisation of BGA has been quoted as the reason for

many basic studies on BGA and has been given as the major goal of many

research projects on BGA to be financed by national or international

fundings. However, it is amazing to observe that only very few of the

studies deal with field work and truly applied aspects.

5322) The underestimation of the potential of indigenous strains

We have already emphasized twice in this report (sections 4141 and

524) that inoculation is not the only method to utilize BGA. Obviously

N2-fixing strains are present in many soils at a density largely higher

than that of strains that could be inoculated (in 50% of the soils we

53

studied during the last two years, more than 4 tons/ha of the best soil

based inoculum we collected would be necessary to equal the indigenous

N2-fixing populations). Therefore emphasis should be placed also on

agricultural practices that favor BGA growth and on integrated management.

Deep placement of N fertilizers and control of grazers populations with

cheap pesticides of plant origin are currently two possible realistic

methods.

5323) Grain yield as the only criterium in field experiments

First field inoculation experiments were conducted about thirty years

ago. In most of the experiments the only measured variable was grain

yield. Currently inoculation experiments are still conducted in the same

manner, which give no information on the agro-ecological characteristics of

the experimental field, the initial level of indigenous N2-fixing BGA in

the soil and the dynamics of the algal flora during the crop cycle. In

addition, only the results of successful experiment are usually published,

whereas most of the results of unsuccessful trials, that could provide

information on limiting factors, go most frequently into a forgotten file.

324) The scarcity and limited scope of ecological studies

There are very few ecological studies about BGA in rice fields. A

majority of them are qualitative surveys of algae comprising of a list of

species and little or no information on the physico-chemical

characteristics of the environment.

533) A major limiting factor: methodological problems

The three major deficiencies of available methods for studying BGA in

situ are: 1) the absence of standardization, 2) a poor accuracy, and 3)

54

the requirement of a very large number of simultaneous measurements

that prevent a single operator from studying several factors at a time.

5331) Absence of standardization

As an example, about 30 different media have been described for the

culture of BGA. At least 6 of them are currently used as major media in

laboratories working on ecology and applied aspects of BGA. In many

laboratories, utilization of a given medium is not the result of a

screening but the 'heritage' of a Professor or a laboratory where algology

was learnt. Similarly, different methods of sampling and different methods

of evaluating algal populations in soils prevent algologists to compare

their data.

5322) Poor accuracy and need for manpower

The uneven distribution of algae (together with the fact that many of

the measurements are indirect ones), lead to a very poor accuracy of field

measurements of algal populations and their activities. The uneven

distribution of algae should be balanced by taking a large number of

replicates which needs manpower and facilities for handling them. As an

example, grain yield can be measured in 32 plots without major problems

whereas it is impossible to evaluate quantitatively in those plots algal

populations once every two weeks during a crop cycle without a staff of 3-4

persons and laboratory facilities permitting to incubate under light

about 1500 petri dishes simultaneously.

534) A promising solution: cooperative research

Progress in the field of ecology and practical use of BGA can not

certainly be made by a single individual or a laboratory. To understand

55

factors leading to the development of indigenous or inoculated BGA blooms

in rice fields, number of observations conducted with standardized

methodologies under a wide range of agroecological conditions are needed.

This is obviously a research project that needs a collaborative approach.

The first goal should be to select and standardize common

methodologies, not necessarily the most accurate ones, but those which are

scientifically feasible and can be used in the wider range of environments,

permitting samplings in remote areas and studies in laboratories with

moderate facilities. Table 7 lists sorne of the methodologies that need

standardisation and the points to be considered. (During our trip in India,

methodologies was the most quoted topic for collaborative work). If

cooperation in the establishment of common methodologies is successful,

other aspects such as surveys and field experiments on common bases will

develop spontaneously. A list of scientists currently involved in BGA

research is annexed to this report. Those who indicated their interest in

applied aspects are indicated with an asterisks. Their large number shows

how great is the potential for collaborative research in agronomical

utilisation of BGA.

56

6) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express our heartly thanks to the numerous colleagues

who spent so much of their valuable time to welcome us, giving us

information about their research achievements and organising field visits.

For P.A.R. and I.F.G. it was also a great opportunity and an unforgettable

experience to discover lndia and the hospitality. We are most grateful to

aIl of those who are quoted in this report.

Our special thanks (by chronological order of our trip) are due to:

- Mr. Haran, lRRl representative, for the travel and accommodation

arrangements

- Drs. Venkataraman and Goyal for arranging our visit of lARl.

- Dr. Mohanti for welcoming us at Jawaharlal Nehru University

- Dr. H.D. Kumar, Dr. A. Kumar and Dr. Tripathy for arranging the

visit of the Center for Advanced study in Botany, planning aIl the

meetings with their colleagues, organising field tours and a

wonderful visit of Varanasi, and for spending so much of their time

for us, even during the week end and in the evenings.

- Drs. Rai, Shetty and Gowda who organized our visit at Bangalore.

- Drs. Hosmani and Bongale who traveled from Mysore and Dharwad

respectively, for meeting us at Bangalore.

- Drs. Oblisami and Kannaiyan for welcoming us at the Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University.

57

Dr. Kannaiyan for organising an unforgettable five days tour in

Tamil Nadu. Dr. Kannaiyan has been a very friendly host

and efficient scientific guide. The success of our trip is largely

due to him. We assure him of our deepest gratitude.

- Thiru Kathirvelu for welcoming us in Trichy.

- Mr. Srinivasan for sharing with us his field experience on

BGA.

- Dr. Prasad for hearty welcome and accommodation at Annamalai

University

- Mr. Natarajan for leading our visit in Pondicherry area.

- Dr. Thiru Aran for welcoming us at Tirurkuppan.

We are also very grateful to the Indian authorities for permitting and

providing help during this trip and to the University of Tamil Nadu for

providing us with a vehicle and comfortable accommodation in its

guesthouses during our visit of Tamil Nadu.

58

Table 1. Definition of the taxons of N2-fixing BGAa /

Unicellular: Unicellular strains growing on BG II medium without nitrogen.

"Anabaena" group: Heterocystous strains with a thin sheath, withoutbranching, not forming mucilaginous colonies of definite shape(Anabaena, Nodularia, Cylindrospermum, Anabaenospis •.• )

"Nostoc" group: Heterocystous strains, without branching, formingmucilaginous colonies of definite shape.

"Aulos ira" group: Heterocystous strains with a thick sheath, usuallywithout branching, forming dilluse colonies on agar medium.

"Scytonema" group: Heterocystous strains, with false branching, withoutpolaritys forming velvet like patches on agar medium.

"Gloeotrichia" group: Heterocystous strains, with false branching, withpolarity, forming velvet like patches on agar medium (Calothrix,Tolypothrix, Hassalia, ---)

"Gloeotrichia" group: Heterocystous strains, with polarity formingmucilaginous colonies of definite shape (Gloeotrichia, Rivularia ••• )

"Fischerella" group: Heterocystous strains with true branching.(Fischerella, Westillopsis, Stygonema .••• )

~/All features refer to strains growing from soil or water samples platedon solid BG II medium without nitrogen.

59

Table 2. Enumeration of algae in soil and algal crusts from India.

1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 61 1 2 3 "7 81

2 location SARNATH SARNATH SARNATH HEBBAl HEBBAl3 Naturt> of tht> samplt> SOll SOll SOll SOll SOll

_.4_. 'w'ater status DRY DRY DRY [)RY DRY5 Counting unit Cm2 Cm2 Cm2 Cm2 Cm2

~.L Ph 6.1 5.9 6.4 6.5 6."'1 DH AIlED TAX A OF N2-FIX ING BG A (C.F.U .ICOUNT ING UNIr)8 ANABAENA GROUP9 A. f~rtilissima 0 0 0 0 7000

10 A. sp. 1 0 7000 0 3000 130000011 A.sp.2 0 1300 0 0 012 Cy l1ndrospermum sp. 10000 8300 0 0 013 NOSTOC GROUP14 N. sp. (compact green) 56000 300000 57000 130000 10000015 N. sp. (globost> 9t"~~n) 0 0 0 0 016 N. sp. (globose brown) 3000 17000 17000 10000 33000011 N. sp. (spread green) 0 0 0 30000 4300018 N. sp. (spread brown) 0 0 0 30000 3000019 CAlOTHRIX GROUP20 Calothrix spp. 130000 200000 10000 0 021 Tol'Jpothrix spp. 3000 7000 30000 0 022 MAJOR TAXA Of HETEROCYSTOUS BOA (C.F .U.lCOUNTlNO UNIT)23 ANABAENA GROUP 10000 16600 0 3000 130700024 NOSTOC GROUP 59000 317000 74000 200000 50300025 ALllOSIRA GROUP 30000 30000 10000 0 130026 SCYTONEM A GROUP 0 0 3300 0 021 CALOTHR IX GROUP 133000 207000 40000 0 028 OlOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 7000 0 0 0

~ FISCHEREllA GROUP 0 0 1000 0 700

~!L MAJOR TAXA Of BOA (C.F .U.lCOUNTINO UNIT)31 UNICEllUlAR BG A 3.0E+04 7.0E+03 O.OE+OO 3.0E+05 1.0E+0632 HOMOCYSTOUS BOA 2.3E+05 7.0E+05 3.3E+05 1.0E+06 3.0E+0533 HETEROCVSTOUS BG A 2.3E+05 5.8E+05 1.3E+05 2.0E+05 1.8E+0634 N2-F IX INO BG A 2.6E+05 5.8E+05 1.3E+05 5.0E+05 2.8E+06

~ TOTAL BGA 4.9E+05 1.3E+06 4.6E+05 1.5E+06 3.1E+06

~ MAJOR N2-FING TAXA AS ~ OF N2-fiXINO BOA31 UNICElLUlAR 11.5 1.2 0.0 59.6 35.6

~ ANABAENA 3.8 2.8 0.0 0.6 46.539 NOSTOC 22.5 54.2 57.7 39.8 17.940 AULOS IR A 11.5 5.1 7.8 0.0 0.041 SCVTONEt-1 A 0.0 0.0 2.6 0.0 0.042 CALOTHRIX 50.8 35.4 31.2 0.0 0.043 GLOEOTRICH1A 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.044 f ISCHEREll A 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.045 TOT AL ALGAE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA46 TOT AL ALGAE (C.F .lI.) 5.7E+05 1.3E+06 4.4E+05 1.5E+06 3.2E+0641 N2-Fix .BG A 9i!; of total 46.0 45.0 29.2 33.5 87.948 Hcyst.BGA % of total 40.7 44.4 29.2 13.5 56.64950515253

Table 2. Continued

60

7 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 11 1 121 Sample No 10 11 15 20 222 location BANGALORE BANGALORE KUMARAPER. ANN Af'1 Al AI PONDICHERRY3 Nature of the sample SOll SOll SOll SOll SOll4 Water status WH WH DRY DRY DRY5 Counting unit Cm2 Cm2 Cm2 Cm2 Cm26 Ph 7.8 6.6 7.0 5.7 6.07 DEl AllED TAXA OF N2-FlXING BCiA (C.F .U./COUNTING UNIT)8 AN AB AEN A GROUP9 A. fedilissima 10000 (1 5000 0 0

10 A. sp. 1 17000 4700 100000 10000 2000011 A.sp.2 0 0 0 0 170012 CyHndrospermum sp. 0 0 0 70000 013 NOSTOC GROUP14 N. sp. (compact green) 170000 30000 300000 100000 30000015 N. sp. (globose green) 0 0 0 0 3000016 N. sp. (globose brown) 7000 70000 7000 23000 4000017 N. sp. (spread green) 33000 17000 10000 30000 2000018 N. sp. (spre<ld bro\'rn) 0 7000 350000 27000 700019 CAlOTHRli; GROUP20 Calothrix spp. 0 0 0 0 021 Tolypothrix spp. 3000 0 1300 0 170022 MA,JOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BGA (C.F.U./COUNTING UNIT)23 AN AB AEN A GROUP 27000 4700 105000 80000 2170024 NOSTOC GROUP 210000 124000 667000 180000 39700025 AUlOSIRA GROUP 1100 0 700 0 026 SCYTONEM A GROUP 0 0 0 0 027 CAlOTHRIX GROUP 3000 0 1300 0 170028 GlOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 0 0 0 029 FlSCHEREllA GROUP 700 1300 0 130 030 MAJOR TAXA OF BGA (C.F .U.lCOUNTING UNIT)31 UN ICElLUl AR BG A 3.0E+05 3.3E+05 3.0E+04 3.7E+04 1.3E+0532 HOMOCYSTOUS BG A 3.0H05 7.0H05 7.0E+05 7.0H05 7.0E+0433 HElEROCYSTOUS BG A 2.4E+05 1.3E+05 7.7E+05 2.6E+05 4.2E+0534 N2-FIXING BGA 5.4E+05 4.6E+05 8.0E+05 3.0H05 5.5E+0535 TOTAL BGA 8.4E+05 1.2E+06 1.5E+06 1.0E+06 6.2E+0536 f'1A...lOR N2-FING TAXA AS % OF N2-FIXlfiG BGA37 UNICEllUl AR 55.4 71.7 3.7 12.5 23.638 ANABAENA 5.0 1.0 13.1 26.9 3.939 NOSTOC 38.8 27.0 83.0 E.O.6 72.140 AULOS/RA 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0

41 SCYTONEMA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

42 CAlOTHRIX 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3

43 GLOEOTRICHIA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

44 FISCHERELl A 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0

45 TOTAL AlGAE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA

46 TOT Al AlGAE (C.F .U.) 1.2E+06 1.2E+06 1.5H06 1.0E+06 1.3H06

47 N2-Fix.BGA W; of total 45.2 38.3 53.6 29.7 42.3

48 Hcyst.BGA % of total 20.2 10.8 51.6 26.0 32.3

4950515253

Table 2. Continued

61

13 1 14 1 15 1 16 1 11 1 181 SiimplE' No 24 25 26 27 192 location ELlAMANDA EllAMANDA BANGALORE BANGALORE ADUTHURAI3 Natut"E' of thE' samplE' SOll SOIL SOll SOll SOll4 Water status DRY DRY DRY DRY DRY5 Counting unit Cm2 Cm2 Cm2 Cm2 g.(d.'w' .)6 Ph 7.60 7.40 7.20 7.60 N.D.7 DETAILED TAXA OF N2-FIXING BGA (CJ.U'/COUNTING UNIT)8 ANABAENA GROUP 330009 A. fertilissima 0 1) 4000 0

10 A. sp. 1 30000 7000 30000 630011 A. sp. 2 0 0 0 012 Cylindrospermum sp. 0 0 700 630013 NOSTOC GROUP14 N. sp. (compact green) 170000 57000 1000000 100000 015 N. sp. (globosE' green) 2700000 330000 200000 23000 170000

,..J.L N. sp. (globose brown) 30000 300000 7000 0 33000

r...1L N. sp. (sprE'ad greE'n) 1000000 130000 300000 1300 130000

~ N. sp. (spread bro'w'n) 300000 700000 3000 1300 330000

,..1.L CALOTHR IX GROUP

~ Calothrix spp. 0 0 0 0 0

....n- Tolypothrix spp. 1700 8300 170 0 10000

~ MA.JOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BGA (C.F.U.lCOUNTING UNIT)23 AN AB AEN A GROUP 30000 7000 34700 12600 024 NOSTOC GROUP 4200000 1517000 1510000 125600 66300025 AUlOSIRA GROUP 0 0 0 0 026 SCYTONEM A GROUP 0 0 0 0 027 CALOTHR IX GROUP 1700 8300 170 0 10000

28 GlOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 0 0 0 0

~ FISCHERELL A GROUP 0 0 0 0 330

2!L t1 A,JOR TAX A OF BG A ( C.F.U'/COUNT ING UN IT )

~ UNICELlULAR BGA 1.7E+05 3.0E+05 O.OE+OO O.OE+OO 1.0E+04

JL HOMOCYSTOUS BGA 6.0E+06 6.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.7E+06 1.lE+07

JL HETEROC'r'STOU8 BG A 4.2E+06 1.5E+06 1.5E+06 1.4E+05 6.7E+05

~ N2-FIXING BGA 4.4E+06 1.8E+06 1.5E+06 1.4E+05 6.8E+0535 TOTAL BGA 1.0E+07 2.4E+06 2.5E+06 1.8E+06 1.2E+07

36 MA.JOR N2-FING TAXA AS % OF N2-FIXING BGA~7 UNICEllUlAR 3.9 16.4 0.0 0.0 1.538 ANABAENA 0.7 0.4 2.2 9.1 0.0~9 NOSTOC 95.4 82.8 97.7 90.9 97.0

40 AULOSIR A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

41 SCYTONEMA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

--1L CALOTHRIX 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 1.543 GLOEOTRICHIA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

44 FISCHERELlA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

45 TOT AL ALGAE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA46 TOT AL AlGAE (C.F .U.) 1.0E+07 2.2E+06 2.6E+06 1.8E+06 N.D.

47 N2-Fix.BGA % of total 44.0 83.3 59.4 7.7

48 Hcyst .BG A % of total 42.3 69.7 59.4 7.7

4950~

5253

Table 2. Continued

62

19 1 20 1 21 1 22 1 23 1 241 Samp1e No 21 4A 48 14A 14B2 Location r1ANGALAM [-------S ARN ATH------- J [---TELEGU-PAL AYAM--- J3 Na~ure of the sample SOIL ALGAL CRUST LO\v'ER SOIL ALGAL CRUST LO\\"EJ;: SO IL4 Water statu::: DRY DRY DRY DRY DRY5 Coun~ ing IJni~ 9 (d.w.) g(d.w.) 9 (d:w·.) 9 (d:w·.) 9 (d:w·.)6 Ph 7.4 5.9 4.5 7.0 7.67 [>ET AILED TAX A OF N2-F 1;< ING BG A (C.F.U. /COUNT ING UNIl)8 AN AB AEN A GROUP 20000 230000 3000 68000 09 A. fedi1issim..

10 A. sp. 111 A.sp.212 Cy lindrospermum sp.13 NOSTOC GROUP 120000 3400000 130000 ';480000 4200014 l'lo sp. (comp.:tct grE'en)15 N. sp. (globos'? gro?o?rl)16 N. sp. (globos", bro\\(n)17 N. sp. (spr",ad gro?o?n)18 N. sp. (spread bro\l'n)19 CALOTHRli< GROUP 0 1;.7000 1300 E,7000 130020 Ca10thrix spp.21 TI)1ypothrix spp.22 l'·lA..JOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BGA (C.F.U.lCOUrHING UNIT)23 AN A8 AEr'l A GROUP 20000 230000 3000 E,8000 024 NOSTOC GROUP 120000 3400000 130000 980000 4200025 AULOS IR A GJ;:OUP 0 0 0 0 026 SCYTONEr"l A GROUP 0 0 0 0 027 CALOTHRI>'; GJ;:OUP 0 67000 1300 67000 130028 GLOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 0 0 10000 029 FISCHERELL A GROUP 0 0 0 0 030 r1A..JOR TA><A OF BGA (C.F.U./COUNTlI'lG UNIT)31 UNICELLULAR BGA 3.3E+04 O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO32 Hor10CYSTOUS BG A 2.0E+04 8.0E+06 1.0E+06 3.::,E+06 1.3E+0533 HETEROC'tSTOUS BGA 1.4E+05 3.7E+OE. 1.3E+OS 1.1 E+OE. 4.3E+0434 N2-FIXING BGA 1.7E+05 3.7E+06 1.3E+05 1.1 E+06 4.3E+0435 TOT AL BGA 1.9E+05 1.2E+07 1.1 E+OE, 4.4E+06 1.7E+OS36 r"lA,JOR N2-FING TAXA AS % OF N2-FIXII'lG BGA

....R- UNICELLULAR 19.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.038 ANABAENA 11.6 6.2 2.2 6.0 0.0

~ NOSTOC E.9.4 92.0 9E.::: :::7.1 97.0

~ AULOSIRA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

~ SCnONEr'1A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

~ CALOTHRIX 0.0 1.8 1.0 6.0 3.0

~ GLOEOTRICHIA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0

~ FISCHERELL A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

~ TOTAL ALGAE AN[> RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA

~ TOTAL ALGAE (C.F.U.) l'W. 1.6E+OS 2.6E+06 3.0E+07 1.8E+05

~ N2-Fix.BGA % of tot..1 ,~, "7 co .-} 7 CI 24.1L.·_' -.!.L "_,,''''

48 HC'Jst.BGA % of total ""7 C"? 3.8 24.1À- ."_' --' .....4950515253

Table 2. Continued

63

2~ 1 26 1 21 1 28 1 2~ 1 301 Sampl~ No 16A 16B 1SA 1SB 52 Location [---KUMARAPERUMAL---] [------ ADUTHURA1------ ] SARN ATH3 Natur~ of tht sampJ~ ALGAL CRUST LO'w'ER SOIL ALGAL CRUST LO'w'ER SOll ALGAL CRUST4 'y(ater status DRY DRY DRY DRY DRY5 Counting unit 9 (d:w.) 9 (d.w.) 9 (d.w.) 9 (d.w.) g(d:w.)6 Ph 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.0 N.D.7 DET AILED TAXA OF N2-FIXING BGA (C.F.U.lCOUNTING UNIT)8 ANABAENA GROUP 2100 2300 670000 43000 09 A. fertilissima

10 A. sp. 111 A.sp.212 Cylindros~rmum sp.13 NOSTOC GROUP 440000 B3000 4300000 19000014 N. sp. (compact green) 015 N. sp. (globos~ gre~n) 17000016 N. sp. (globose brown) 10000017 N. sp. (spread green) 018 N. sp. (spread brown) 019 CALOTHRIX GROUP 33000 0 0 020 Calothrlx spp. 1000021 T0 llJpotht'"ix spp. 1700022 MAJOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BGA (C.f .U.lCOUNTING UNIT)23 ANABAENA GROUP 2100 2300 670000 43000 024 NOSTOC GROUP 440000 83000 4300000 190000 27000025 AUlOSIRA GROUP 0 0 1000 0 10000026 SCnONEMA GROUP 0 0 0 0 027 CAlOTHRIX GROUP 33000 0 0 0 2700028 GLOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 0 0 0 029 F/SCHERELL A GROUP 0 0 0 0 030 MAJOR TAXA OF BGA (C.f.U./COUNTING UNIT)31 UNICELlUlAR BGA O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO32 HOMOCYSTOUS BG A 6.7E+05 3.3E+05 2.~E+07 3.3E+05 1.7E+0633 HETEROCYSTOUS BG A 4.8E+05 8.5E+04 5.0E+06 2.3E+05 4.0E+0534 H2-FIXING BGA 4.8E+05 8.5E+04 5.0E+06 2.3E+05 4.0E+0535 TOTAL BGA 1.1E+06 4.2E+05 3.4E+07 5.6E+05 2.1E+0636 MAJOR r~2-FING TAXA AS % OF N2-FIXING BGA37 UNICELLULAR 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.038 ANABAENA 0.4 2.7 13.5 18.5 0.039 NOSTOC 92.6 97.3 86.5 81.5 68.040 AULOSIRA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.241 SCYTONEMA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.042 CALOTHRIX 6.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.843 GlOEOTRICH1A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.044 FISCHERELL A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.045 TOTAL ALGAE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA46 TOT AL ALGAE (C.F.U.) 1.6E+06 6.5E+05 8.1E+07 6.7E+05 N.D.47 N2-Fix.BGA 9!: of total 29.7 13.1 6.1 34.S48 Hcy st.BG A~ of total 29.7 13.1 6.1 34.8495051~2

53

Table 2. Continued

64

31 1 32 r 33 1 34 1 35 1 361 Sample No 9 12 13 17 232 Loca1ion HEBBAL COIMBATORE COIMBATORE ADUTHURAI TIRURKUPPAM3 Na~ure of ~he sample ALGAL CRUST ALGAL CRUST ALGAL CRUST S.B.1. S.B.I.4 'y(a1er s1a1us DRY DRY DRY DRY DRY5 Coun~ing uni~ g(d;w.) 9 (d;w.) g(d;w.) g(d,w.) 9 (d,w.)6 Ph N.D. 7.6 N.D. 7.2 7.17 DETAILED TAXA OF N2-FIXING BGA (C-F.U./COUNTING UNIT)8 ANABAENA GROUP 17000 20000 67000 230000 700009 A. fer1ilissima

10 A. sp. 111 A. sp. 212 Cy lindrospermum sp.

~ NOSTOC GROUP

~ N. sp. (compac1 green) 0 0 0 0 0

~ N. sp. (globose grE'E'n) 70000 330000 670000 23000000 67000016 N. sp. (globose bro\Y"n) 13000 0 3300 330000 67000

..JL N. sp. (spread green) 67000 100000 67000 330000 330000

~ N. sp. (spread bro\Y"n) 330000 0 4000 230000 33000019 CALOTHR IX GROUP20 Calo1hrix spp. 0 0 0 0 021 Tolypo~hrix spp. 20000 0 33000 0 022 MAJOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BGA (C.F.U./COUNTING UNIT)

...1L ANABAENA GROUP 17000 20000 67000 230000 70000

Ji- NOSTOC GROUP 480000 430000 744300 23890000 1397000

~ AULOSIRA GROUP 0 0 0 0 0

~ SCYTONEMA GROUP 0 0 0 0 027 CALOTHRIX GROUP 20000 0 33000 0 028 GLOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 0 0 0 0

~ FISCHERELLA GROUP 0 33000 0 0 3300

UD- MAJOR TAXA OF BGA ( C.F .U./COUNTING UNIT)31 UNICELLLlLAR BGA 1.7E+04 1.0E+OS 6.7E+04 3.SE+06 1.3E+OS

32 HOMOCYSTOUS BG A 3.7E+06 5.6E+06 5.7E+06 5.7E+07 3.7E+07

~ HETEROCYSTOUS BG A 5.2E+OS 4.8E+OS 8.4E+OS 2.4E+07 I.SE+06

..M- N2-FIXING BGA 5.3E+05 5.8E+OS 9.1E+05 2.8E+07 1.6E+06

~ TOTAL BGA 4.2E+06 6.2E+06 6.6E+06 8.5E+07 3.9E+07

~ MAJOR N2-FING TAXA AS % OF ~a-FIXING BGA37 UNICELLUL AR 3.2 17.2 7.4 12.7 8.1

r-ML ANABAENA 3.2 3.4 7.4 0.8 4.4

~ NOSTOC 89.9 73.8 81.7 86.S 87.3

~ AULOS IRA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

~ SCYTONEMA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

42 CALOTHRIX 3.7 0.0 3.6 0.0 0.043 GLOEOTRICHIA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

~ FISCHERELL A 0.0 5.7 0.0 0.0 0.2

~ TOTAL ALGAE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA

~ TOT AL ALGAE (C.F .U.) N.D. N.D. N.O. 8.7E+07 5.0E+0747 N2-Fix.BGA % of ~o~al 31.7 3.2

48 Hcys~.BGA% of ~o~al 27.7 2.94950515253

Table 2. Continued

65

37 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 41 1 4212 [-------------POOLED DAT A-------------]34 AVERAGE MAXIMUM MINIMUM5

......L Ph 6.82 7.80 4.501 DET AILED TAX A OF N2-FIX ING BG A (C.F.U.ICOUNTING UNIr)8 ANABAENA GROUP9 A. f(lrtilissima 1.9E+03 1.0E+04 O.OE+OO

10 A. sp. 1 1.IE+05 1.3E+06 O.OE+OO11 A.sp.2 2.1E+02 1.7E+03 O.OE+OO12 Cy l;ndrospermum sp. 6.8E+03 7.0E+04 O.OE+OO13 NOSTOC GROUP14 N. sp. (compact green) I.4E+05 1.0E+06 O.OE+OO15 N. sp. (globos(l gr(l(ln) 1.4E+06 2.3E+07 O.OE+OO16 N. sp. (globose brown) 6.7E+04 3.3E+05 O.OE+OO11 N. sp. (spr(lad gr(l(ln) 1.3E+OS 1.0E+06 O.OE+OO

,..JJL N. sp. (spread brown) 1.3E+05 7.0E+05 O.OE+OO

~ CALOTHRIX GROUP20 Calothr;x spp. 1.7E+04 2.0E+05 O.OE+OO21 Tolypothrix spp. 6.SE+03 3.3E+04 O.OE+OO22 MAJOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BGA (C.F .U.lCOUNTING UNIT)23 ANABAENA GROUP 1.0E+OS 1.3E+06 O.OE+OO24 NOSTOC GROUP 1.6E+06 2.4E+07 4.2E+0425 AULOSIRA GROUP S.8E+03 1.0E+OS O.OE+OO26 SCYTONEl1 A GROUP 1.IE+02 3.3E+03 O.OE+OO21 CALOTHRIX GROUP 2.2E+04 2.1E+OS O.OE+OO28 GLOEOTRICH1A GROUP 5.7E+02 1.0E+04 O.OE+OO29 FISCHERELL A GROUP 1.3E+03 3.3E+04 O.OE+OO

~ MA..JOR TAXA OF BGA (C.F.U./COUNTING UNIT)

~ UNICELLUL AR BG A 2.2E+OS 3.SE+06 O.OE+OO

~ HOMOCYSTOIJS BGA 6.0E+06 5.7E+07 2.0E+04

~ HETEROCYSTOUS BGA 1.7E+06 2.4E+07 4.3E+04

r-M- N2-FIXING BGA 1.9E+06 2.8E+07 4.3E+04

~ TOTAL BGA 7.9E+06 8.SE+07 1.7E+OS36 MAJOR N2-F ING TAX A AS % OF N2-F IX ING BG A37 UNICELLULAR 12.1 71.7 0.038 ANABAENA 6.5 46.5 0.039 NOSTOC 74.2 97.7 17.9

~ AULOS IRA 1.7 25.2 0.0

~ SCYTONEMA 0.1 2.6 0.0

~ CALOTHRIX 5.1 50.8 0.0

r-R- GLOEOTRICHIA 0.1 1.2 0.044 FISCHERELL A 0.2 5.7 0.045 TOT AL ALG AE AND REL ATlVE ABUND ANCE OF N2-F IX ING BG A46 TOT AL ALG AE (C.F .lI.) 1.8E+07 1.6E+08 1.8E+0541 N2-Fix.BGA <JS oftotal 33.3 87.9 2.348 Hcyst.BGA % of total 27.3 69.7 2.34950515253

Table 2. Continued

66

43 1 44 1 4:5 1 46 1 47 1 4812 [--------DAT A ON Cm2 BASIS-------]:iJ4 AVERAGE MAXIMUM MINIMUM56 Ph78 ANABAENA GROUP9 A. f~rtilissirna 1.9E+03 1.0H04 ODHOO

10 A. sp. 1 1.IE+05 1.3E+06 O.OE+OO11 A. sp. 2 2.1H02 1.7E+03 O.OHOO12 Cy llndrosp~rmum sp. 6.8E+03 7.0E+04 O.OHOO13 NOSTOC GROUP14 N. sp. (compact 9reen) 2.1H05 1.0H06 3.0H0415 N. sp. (globose green) 2.3E+05 2.7H06 O.OHOO16 N. sp. (9'obose brown) 6.2H04 3.3E+05 O.OE+OO17 N. sp. (spread gr~en) 1.2HOS 1.0H06 O.OHOO18 N. sp. (spread brown) 1.0E+05 7.0E+05 O.OHOO19 CALOTHRIX GROUP20 Calothrix spp. 2.4E+04 2.0HO:i O.OE+OO21 Tolypothrix spp. 4.0H03 3.0E+04 O.OE+OO2223 ANABAENA GROUP 1.2E+OS 1.3E+06 O.OE+OO24 NOSTOC GROUP 7.2H05 4.2E+06 5.9H0425 AULOS IRA GROUP S.2E+03 3.0H04 O.OE+OO26 SCYTONEMA GROUP 2.4E+02 3.3E+03 O.OE+OO21 CALOTHR IX GROUP 2.8E+04 2.1E+OS O.OE+OO28 GLOEOTRICHIA GROUP 5.0E+02 7.0E+Q3 O.OE+OO29 FISCHERELLA GROUP 2.7E+02 1.3H03 O.OE+OO61:1;Jit UNIC~LLULol.J;tQCol. 1.QE:...06 1 .O~...O" a.~...oa

32 HOMOCYSTOUS BG A 1.0E+06 6.0E+06 7.0E+0433 HETEROCYSTOUS BG A 8.7E+OS 4.2H06 1.3E+OS

34 fi2-FIX ING BGA 1.1E+06 4.4H06 1.3E+0535 TOTAL BGA 2.1E+06 1.0E+07 4.6E+OS3637 UNICELLULAR 21.1 71.7 0.038 ANABAENA 8.3 46.5 0.039 NOSTOC 60.0 97.7 17.940 AULOS IR A 1.8 11.5 0.041 SCYTONEMA 0.2 2.6 0.042 CALOTHRIX 8.5 50.8 0.043 GLOEOTRICHIA 0.1 1.2 0.044 FISCHERELLA 0.1 0.8 0.04546 TOT AL ALGAE (C.F .U.) 2.1 E+06 1.0E+07 4.4E+0547 N2-Fix.BGA ~ of total 46.1 87.9 7.748 Hcyst.BGA ~ of total 36.0 69.7 7.749:JO51525:iJ

Table 2. Contined

67

49 1 50 1 51 1 52 l 53 1 5412 [------DATA ON G(D.W.) BASIS------]34 AVERAGE MAXIMUM MINIMUM

J-6 Ph78 ANABAENA GROUP 9.2E+04 6.7E+05 O.OE+OO9 A. f~rti1issima

10 A. sp. 111 A.sp.212 Cy lindrospermum sp.13 NOSTOC GROUP14 N. sp. (compact green) O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO15 N. sp. (globose green) 3.6H06 2.3E+07 7.0E+0416 N. sp. (globose brown) 7.8E+04 3.3E+05 O.OE+OO

~ N. sp. (spr"..d gre"n) 1.5E+05 3.3E+05 O.OE+OO18 N. sp. (spread brown) 1.7E+05 3.3E+05 O.OE+OO

JL CALOTHR IX GROUP

~ Calothrix spp. 1AE+0;3 1.0E+04 O.OE+OO

...li- Tolypothrix spp. l.lE+04 3.3E+04 O.OE+OO

~23 ANABAENA GROUP 9.0E+04 6.7H05 O.OE+OO

....M- NOSTOC GROUP 2.3E+06 2AE+07 4.2E+0425 AULOSIRA GROUP 6.3E+03 1.0H05 O.OHOO

26 SCYTONEM A GROUP O.OE+OO O.OE+OO O.OE+OO

27 CALOTHRIX GROUP 1.6E+04 6.7E+04 O.OE+OO

28 GLOEOTRICHIA GROUP 6.3E+02 1.0E+04 O.OE+OO29 FISCHERELL A GROUP 2.3E+03 3.3E+04 O.OHOO

3031 UNICELLULAR BGA 2.4E+05 3.5E+06 O.OE+OO

32 HOMOCYSTOUS BûA 1.0E+07 5.7E+07 2.0E+04

33 HETEROCYSTOUS BGA 2.5E+06 2.4E+07 4.3E+04

34 N2-FIX ING BG A 2.7E+06 2.8E+07 4.3E+04

35 TOTAL BGA 1.3E+07 8.5E+07 1.7H05

3637 UNICELLUL AR 4.3 19.1 0.0

38 ANABAENA 5.0 18.5 0.0

39 NOSTOC 86.5 97.3 68.0

40 AULOSIRA 1.6 25.2 0.0

$- SCYTONEMA 0.0 0.0 0.0

42 CALOTHRIX 2.1 6.9 0.0

~ GLOEOTRICHIA 0.1 0.9 0.044 FISCHERELLA 004 5.7 0.0

JL~6 TOTAL ALGAE (C.F.U.) 4.1E+07 1.6E+08 1.SE+05

~ N2-Fix.BGA % of total 15.4 34.8 2.3

JL. Hcyst.BGA % of total 15.0 34.8 2.3

!-ft-~

515253

68

Table 3. Occurrence and dominance of major taxa of N2-fixing BGA in thesamples.

Taxa % of the samples (0) in which the taxon was:

Dominant 2nd dominant Present

Unicellular 10 33 59

Anabaena 3 33 86

Aulosira 0 3 20

Nostoc 75 13 100

Scytonema 0 0 3

Calothrix 3 23 53

Gloeotrichia 0 0 7

Fischerella 0 0 16

5~

SAMPlE No 4A 4B 14A 148 16A 16B 18A 18B Il)cr'

LOCAT~ [-------SARNATH------] [---TELEGU-PAI. AY AM--] [---KUM AR "fERUM AL---] [---ADUTHURA1---] 1-'l'D

NATURE OF SAMPLE A19a1Crust Lo'W'tr Soil Algal Crust Lo'W'tr SoH Algal trust Lo'W'.,. S011 A19a1Crust Lo"W'.,. Sotl .l::-A1.G AE ENUMER AT ION .

TOTAL ALGAE 1.6E+08 2.6E+06 3.0E+07 1.SE+05 1.6E+06 6.5E+03 8.1E+07 6.7E+055"HETEROCYSTOUS BGA 3.7E+06 1.3E+05 1.1E+06 4.&+04 4.SE+05 8.5E+04 5.0E+06 2.&+05 Il)

(95 OF TOTAL) 2.3 5.0 3.7 23.9 30.0 13.1 6.2 34.3 1-''<

Total A19at :Crust/Soi1 61.5 166.7 2.5 120.9 CI.l....He." st .BGA: Crust ISoi1 28.5 25.6 5.6 21.7 CI.l

CHEM IC AL ANALYSIS 0"1>

pH (1 :1 1 wlv 1 wattr ) 5.9 4.5 7.0 7.6 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.0 Il)

ORG ANIC C (95) 2.78 1.43 2.28 0.95 1.2 0.22 2.38 1.24 1-'()Q

TOTAL N (95) 0.239 0.112 0.227 0.097 0.154 0.026 0.321 0.138 Il)1-'

C:N 11.6 12.8 10.0 9.8 7.8 8.5 7.4 9.0 (')

TOT AL P (ppm) 526 429 760 732 479 78 1260 734 '1l::

AVAILABLE P101stn.ppm 13 11 19 5 30 9 169 40 CI.ll''t

NUTRIENTS ACCUMULATION IN THE ALGAL CRUST CI.l

DW'. ALGAL CRUST (t tha) 11 32 86 24 Il):::l

TOT AL N(kg NIha) 26 72 132 77 0- C'-.0

IJ,N(+) 14 41 110 44 1-'

TOTAL C (kg la) 305 730 1032 569 ~l'D

IJ, C(*) 148 420 841 272 '1

TOT AL P (kg tha) 6 24 41 30 CI.l0

IJ,P(*) 1 1 34 13 ....1-'.

(+) : IJ, X =dw a1gal erusttha x (~ X in th. crust - 95 X in th. soil ) /100

70

Table 5. Analysis of soil-based inocula.

1 1 2 1 3 1 41 SAMPLE No 19A 17 232 Location ADUTHURAI ADUTHURAI TIRUR

c-L Nature of the samp19 S.B.I S.B.I S.B.I

~ WHOLE SO IL SURF ACE FLAKES SELECTIYELY PACKED INOCULUM

~ COLLECTED COLLECTED6 Water status DRY DRY DRY7 Counting unit gdw gdw gdw8 MAJOR TAXA OF HETEROCYSTOUS BOA (C.F .U.lCOUNTlNG UNIT)9 ANABAENA GROUP 670000 230000 7000010 NOSTOC GROUP 4300000 23890000 1397000Il AULOS IR A GROUP 1000 0 012 SCYTONEM A GROUP 0 0 013 CALOTHR IX GROUP 0 0 014 GLOEOTRICHIA GROUP 0 0 015 FISCHERELL A GROUP 0 0 330016 MAJOR TAXA OF BGA ( C.F .IJ.lCOUNTING UNIT)17 UNICELLUL AR BG A O.OE+OO 3.5E+06 1.3E+0518 HOMOCYSTOUS BGA 2.9E+07 5.7E+07 3.7E+0719 HETEROCYSTOUS BG A 5.0E+06 2.4E+07 1.5E+0620 N2-FIXING BG A 5.0E+06 2.8E+07 1.6E+0621 TOTAL BGA 3.4E+07 8.5E+07 3.9E+0722 MAJOR N2-FING TAXA AS % OF N2-FIXING BGA23 UNICELLUL AR 0.0 12.7 9.124 ANABAENA 13.5 0.8 4.425 NOSTOC 96.5 96.5 97.326 AULOSIRA 0.0 0.0 0.027 SCYTONEMA 0.0 0.0 0.028 CALOTHRIX 0.0 0.0 0.029 GLOEOTRICHIA 0.0 0.0 0.030 FISCHERELLA 0.0 0.0 0.231 TOTAL ALGAE AND RELATIVE ABLlNDANCE OF N2-FIXING BGA32 TOT AL ALGAE (C.F .U.) 8.1E+07 8.7E+07 5.0E+0733 N2-Fix .BG A 9l of total 6.1 31.7 3.234 Hcyst.BGA % oftotal 6.1 27.7 2.93536 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS37 pH (1:1, w/v ,water) 7.2 7.2 7.138 ORGANIC C (%) 2.38 4.73 2.3639 TOTAL N (9l) 0.321 0.755 0.29940 C:N 7.4 6.3 7.941 TOT AL P (ppm) 1260 640 88442 AVA IL. P O1sen (ppm) 169 267 9543 E)(ohang~ab1~ K ( ..) ND 1.5 0.14244 Exchangeable Mg ( ..) ND 15.6 5.6445 Exchangeable Ca (*) ND 49.5 33.446 C.E.C.(*) ND 32.9 16.44148 (*) : m.eq.ll00g add4950515253

~MOLUJSC'"THIMI>IttE SP.G"1'R1ttU.US SP.N>OPLN«JRBIS SP.L'HE'" SP.YNPM'" SP.

~OLIOOCHIttETA

N'"1>1>lttE~CLADOCER'" wrid.

HOIN'" MICRlR'"H~DC TRISERIALIS

~ M~DC SP"'"I-J..D--I COPEPOO'" wrid.

Maocva.OPS \lMICANSl''DOCYQ.OPS LEUCKMT1EU:YCLOPS SERRUTWJSTRŒOCYCLOPS PRIttSIIJS1lERMOCVCLC'I'S CRASSUSTRCPODIIttPTOHUS OIGNfTOYIOER

......-.....tOSTRACœ'"CVPRINOTUS SP.CVPRINOTUS CIGIttLENSIStEMlCVPRlS SP.STRNUSI'" SP.EU:VPRIS SP.CVPRIS SP.LVOCl'PRIS SP.STENOCVPRIS SP.

j-X&-(EPtEHEROP1ER'"81ttET1>/ttE

ODON'"TlttELEELLll.I>M,

•.:: .L':' :~..... ,", -' .•' ... ,.

•.........."..... ' . ~ .",

',.,,' .::", .L',:'; .L., •••

..

';a' ••. '.L -' ."••',.L

~:'''.:" ", .. ,. ....., ..",:

•lB

•lB

•

..

".. ,"': .' . .'..:" -,' . .

•

TRDtV

t-:3lU0-l-'!Il

'".l3:lUl')1-101.....~!Il1-1rot!Il0-1-1lUrot/1)

H'IlUl::='lU

lUrot

CIl ..........."'"":oc:

CIl.....rot!IlCIl.

III:RME

~

-....JIVIII

101oS50

:A8lJI)N(T

..&'~. --..... ~r·~:.··:·~:·::2:.~··L~~L,

1-3IIIcr-I-'(t)

Cl'.(")0~rt1-"~(:::(t)0.

1lB IlIR

III II

IlIII

7o24

S7

~•..~:. ';:,.;," ~.~"--~..:. -,,'~..

21o1

50

!PA

4 :FREQUENT

112o9

82

IIIIII

17331482

~....";: -L, ~;:•.~: /;~...~~: &~~••;:.

lB

III

IIIIIIl1li

~

451768

..>~ "-:'~'< ~.. ' : ...... '~ ..'â....L...LLL..L....L~ r...:....... L. L. __

TOTAL- SPP.MOLLUSCSOSTRACCI>S- OF ORAZERS

te1PTERAAN-ISOP-TER-A wrid.ANISOPS BATUf'R-RONS-~

t1CRONECT... SP.COLEOPTER'" wrld. aclult

DYTtSClDAEom"I>AEH'/DR(pHLI>AE

DPTERA wrid. 1arvMClLE~SP.

ANCAELES SP.CER"'TOPOOONIDAE ~td.CHIR(N)MI)M,

CHIRtWOMUS 'PLlH)SlJS' SP ATNtfTARSUS SP.BTNtfTARSUS SP. D

73

Table 7. Possible fields for cooperation

COMPARISON AND STANDISATION OF METHOnsGeneral Methods

Culture mediaStrains collection and conservationStrains description and taxonomy

Reference booksSimplified taxonomy for ecological studies

Quantitative evaluationsEnumeration of BGA

In cultures, soils, and waterBiomass measurements

Biological activitiesNitrogen fixation, photosynthesis

Ecological SurveysSampling method

in wet soils, in dry soilsSite characterisation

Agro-ecological characteristics, Soil analysisSamples conservationInventory of the strains

Qualitative (enrichment cultures)Quantitative (plating)

Presentation of the resultsInoculation Experiments

Inoculum characterisationNature and density of algae and chemical composition

Characterisation of the experimental siteExperimental design

Number of replicates and controlsAgro-ecological variables to be studiedBiological variables to be studiedExpression of the results and statistical analysis

EXPERlMENTS AND SURVEYEXCHANGE OF STRAINS AND INFORMATIONS

74

7) ANNEXES

Annex 1: Questionnaire for the establishment of the itinerary

Annex 2: Letter accompanying the questionnaire.

Annex 3: Programme and report on the training course for extension workers

on the use of Rhizobium and BGA held at University of Agricultural

Sciences. Hebbal, Bangalore, January 7-13-85.

Annex 4: Experimental results: Studies on the BGA inoculation on rice crop

under saline/sadie sail conditions - Kumaraperumal Farm Science

Center

Annex 5: Blue-green algae Scheme Paddy Experiment Station, Tirur,

Hingelput District.

Annex 6: Studies on the efficacy of BGA on the nutrient availability and

yield of rice. Paddy Experiment Station. Tirurkkuppam

Annex 7: Blue-green Algae Scheme in Sriperurbudur Division - 1984-85.

Annex 8: List of articles and reports on BGA in rice fields collected

during the trip.

Annex 9: List of scientists working on BGA.

75

ANNEX 1

November 1984

DearThank you very much for sending back the questionnaire re1ating to the

establishment of an "International Network on BGA".

l am very glad to inform you that we got a very positive feedback toour first mailing of 189 questionnaires. We have now received 160completed ones and there is a general consensus for establishing thenetwork.

We are cataloguing the answers and comments, a summary of which willsoon be sent to everybody. Among the 151 answers we received, 44 are fromIndia which is the country with the highest number of scientists working onBGA. Classification of the major fields of interest in BGA by decreasingorder is as follows (no. in parenthesis are the no. of answers): 1)Physiology and biochemistry of N2 fixation (115); 2) Ecology infreshwater (86); 3) Ecology in soils (78); 4) Algalization (66); 5) Azolla(57); 6) Taxonomy and Phylogeny (53).

As you know algal inoculation, which appears as the fourth major fieldof interest in the above list, is one of our major research topic at IRRI.India is probably the most advanced country in the field of algalinoculation of rice field, and among the 44 Indian scientists who answeredthe questionnaire 31 have quoted algalization as one of their field ofinterest. Therefore we are planning a trip to India in order to: 1) visitlaboratories where applied and fundamental research on BGA is conducted; 2)visit fields where inoculation experiments are being conducted; 3) developcooperative work on BGA inoculation and BGA ecology in rice fields betweenIndian scientist and IRRI.

Most probably three scientists from IRRI will take part to the trip:Dr. I. Grant, who is specially interested in invertebrates that feed on BGAin rice fields (grazers), Dr. P. M. Reddy, who is currently working on thefate of inoculated BGA in different types of soils, and myself.

In order to help us to establish our itinerary and to visit India at atime were field inoculation experiments are being conducted we haveprepared a questionnaire which has been sent to yourself and yourcolleagues who indicated that algalization is one of their interests. Thiswill permit us to collect a maximum information with a minimum ofdisturbance for you and your colleagues. If you like to provide us withadditional information, we will be very grateful for it indeed. Whenfilling our the questionnaire please keep in mind that we are looking forsubmerged fields, where we can observe the growth of inoculated algae andgrazers populations.

We thank you sincerely in advance for your precious help and promptresponse. Looking forward to fruitful collaboration.

Sincerely yours,

P. A. Roger

76

BGA Monitoring Tour to India

Prospective Questionnaire

o Name ------------------------------o Address -----------------------------

o What is the total number of scientists involved in BGA research in your

laboratory?

o What are the major research topics on BGA currently studied in your

laboratory?

0 Have you already conducted inoculation experiments? (Please circle and

fill out if yes).

in pots no yes for crop cycle(s)

in experimental plots no yes for crop cyc1e(s)

in farmer fields no yes for crop cycle(s)

o Are you going to conduct inoculation experiment anytime between October

1984 and May 1985?

in pots

in experimental plots

in farmer fields

no

no

no

yes

yes

yes

transplanting in _

transplanting in _

transplanting in _

o What are the months where rice is usually transplanted in the region

where you conduct experiments? (Please circle if relevant).

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

o What is the major type of rice cultivation? (Please circle).

irrigated rainfed

o Keeping in mind that one of the main goals of the tour is to make field

observations of inoculated algae and predator populations. what is the

77

most favorable period for visiting your laboratory and experimental

fields. Our trip could be anytime from December 1984 to May 1985

included except the period from February 15 to Feb. 29.

Please circle an area onthe scale.

Dec Jan Feb. March April May(1-31) 0-31) 0-14) 0-31) (1-30) (1-31)

0 If you find that period from December to May is not suitable, please

indicate the most appropriate month

June July August Sept. Oct. Nov.

(1-30) (1-31) (1-31) (1-30) (1-31) (1-30)

0 If there is not airport in the town where your laboratory is located:

what is the most convenient transportation? __

can you provide transportation?

approximate cost?

yes no

o How far from your laboratory are the sites were you conduct experiment

located?

can you provide transportation? yes no

o What is the name and address of the person we should contact in your

department/organization for practical matter regarding our trip

(schedule, hotel reservations, transportation, etc •• )

o Additional comments.

78

ANNEX 3

Orientation course on use of Rhizobium and Blue-green algae in Cropproduction for Senior Officers of Karnataka State Department of Agricultureunder the auspices of National Project on Development and use ofBiofertilizers, Gov't. of India, Ministry of Agriculture, and University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore.

March 15-16, 1985Venue: Seminar Hall, Veterinary College,

Hebbal, Bangalore-24

PROGRAMME

Friday 15, March 1985

8:00 AM to 9:00 AM9:00 AM to 10:00 AM

10:00 AM to 10: 15 AM10: 15 AM to 11:00 AM

11 :00 AM to 11 :30 AM

11 :30 AM to 12:00 Noon

12:00 noon to 12:30 PM

12:30 PM to 1:00 PM

1:00 PM to 2:00 PM2:00 PM to 2:30 PM

2:30 PM to 3:00 PM

3:00 PM to 3:30 PM

3:30 PM to 3:45 PM3:45 PM to 4:15 PM

4: 15 PM to 4:30 PM

4:30 PM to 6:00 PM

Saturday 16, March 1985

8:00 AM to 8:30 AM

RegistrationOrientation and inaugurationCoffee breakRole of Biofertilizers in Agriculture- Dr. P.V. Rau, Professor and Course

DirectorBiofertilizers verses chemical fertilizers- Dr. S.V. Hegde, Associate ProfessorBenefits of Rhizobium inoculation in pulses- Dr. S.V. Hegde. Associate ProfessorUse of Rhizobium in soybean production- N. Jayasheela. Assoc. ProfessorQuality control of Rhizobium- A.N. Balakrishna, Res. Asst.Lunch BreakRhizobium inoculant production in India- D. Radhakrishna, Asst. ProfessorDevelopment of efficient Rhizobium strain- H. S. Gopala Gowda, Assoc. ProfessorFactors affecting nitrogen fixation in pulses- Dr. T.K.S. Gowda, Assoc. ProfessorCoffee breakInteraction of Rhizobium and VA mycorrhiza- Dr. D.J. Bagyaraj, Assoc. ProfessorUse of Rhizobium in pulses in Karnataka- Shri. Bhavani Rao Kulkarni-JDA(Pulses)? KSDA.Field trip. Demonstration of seed treatmentwith Rhizobium. Visit inoculation expt.Collection and examination of root nodules.Mr. K. B. Munishamanna and Mr. N. Govindappa

Algal biofertilizers versus chemicalfertilizers in rice cultivation- Dr. K. Shivappa Shetty, Assoc. Professor

8:30 AM to 9:00 AM

9:00 AM to 9:30 AM

9:30 AM to 10:00 AM

10:00 AM to 10: 15 AM10: 15 AM to 10:45 AM

10:45 AM to 11: 15 AM

11: 15 AM to 1:00 PM

1:00 PM to 2:00 PM2:00 PM to 2:30 PM

2:30 PM to

3:00 PM to

3:30 PM to3:45 PM to

Il:45 PM to

3:00 PM

3:30 PM

3:45 PM4:15 PM

5:00 PM

79

Field response of rice to algalbiofertilziers- Dr. K. Shivappa Shetty, Assoc. ProfessorFactors affecting BGA multiplication- Mr. M. K. Shivapraskah, Asst. ProfessorDevelopment of efficient BGA culture- Dr. J. Raj. Assoc. ProfessorCoffee BreakAzolla and its use in Agriculture- N. R. Vishwanath, Asst. ProfessorIndustrial Production of biofertilizers- Dr. S. C. Tripathi, Rallis, IndiaField visit, Demonstration of BGA and Azolla- Mr. M. K. ShivaprakashLunch BreakExtension strategies for promotion ofBiofertilizers- Dr. H.S. Hanumanthappa, Extension,Co-ordinatorQuality control of Biofertilizers- Shri. Deshpande, JDA (QC), KSDA.Training on use of Biofertilizers Smt.- H. A. Vishalakshi JDA (Training) KSDA.Coffee BreakProblems and prospects of Biofertilizer usein crop production.- Dr. K. A. Jalihal, Director ofExtension, UASConcluding session

Report on the Training Course for Extension Workers on the use of Rhizobiumand Blue-green Algae in crop production held at University of AgriculturalSciences, Hebbal, Bangalore on January 7-13, 1985.

At the instance of Ministry of Agriculture, Gov't of India, a weeklongtraining course on the Use of Rhizobium and Blue-green Algae in cropproduction was organized for the benefit of Extension Workers. By theDepartment of Microbiology, University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS) GKVK,Bangalore under the National Project on Biofertilizers. The training coursewas inaugurated on Monday 7th January 1985 by Dr. T. V. Sampath, Directorof Agriculture, Karnataka State Department of Agriculture. Dr. K. A.Jalihal, Director of Extension, UAS presided over the inaugural functionand Dr. N. S. Subba Rao, Head, Division of Microbiology, IARI, New Delhi,who incidentally happened to be at Bangalore, kindly graced the occasionand was the chief guest of the function.

Dr. P. A. Rai, Course Director and Prof. of Agricultural Microbiologywelcomed the guest and trainees and explained the objectives of the course.Further he emphasized the need for (1) conducting large scale demonstrationtrials on biofertilizers in farmers field (ii) educating the farmers onproper ~andling and use of microbial inoculants for which he suggestedappointment of subject matter specialists (SMS) in Microbiology underDirectorate of Extension, UAS. In his very thought provoking inaugralspeech Dr. T. V. Sampath emphasized the urgency of increasing production of

80

pulses and oil seeds in the country to save enormous amount spent on importof edible oils. He cited that a redgram crop can fix 40 kg of nitrogen perhectare. Which is a substantial saving on cost of fertilizer nitrogenconsidering today's cost of Rs. 4 to 5 per kg of nitrogen. He emphasizedthe need to identify nutritional and other environmental constraints whichlimit nitrogen fixation in pulses. Dr. Sampath mentioned that it isproposed to supply Rhizobium inoculant along with each certified seedpacket and to establish a branch of Karnataka seed Corporation to produceRhizobium inoculants of good quality. Dr. N. S. Subba Rao, speaking aschief guest, traced the history of National Project on Development and Useof Biofertilizers. The project proposed 10 years back by him is now comingto function and express his concern on time loss in implementation ofproject. He has suggested Ministry of Agriculture to create position of aProfessor's rank to head the regional laboratories in the country insteadof a rank of Assoc. Prof. He announced that the National project onBiofertilizers is strengthened with PL480 funds. He emphasized theimportance of phosphorus, molybdenum and cobalt in nitrogen fixation.

In his presidential remarks Dr. K. A. Jalihal called uponmicrobiologists to find the reasons for decreasing popularity ofbiofertilizers among farmers in recent years. He felt that research dataare inadequate to take up biofertilizer programme in a big way. Theinaugral function was concluded with a vote of thanks by Dr. K. ShivappaShetty.

The Karnataka State Department of Agriculture deputed 20 ExtensionWorkers for the Training course of which 18 attended the course of which 17are Asst. Agricl. Officers and one Asst. Director of Agriculture. Thereare three trainees from Raichur district, two each from, Chitradurga,Gulbarga, Belgaum, Bangalore, Bellary and Dharwar districts and one eachfrom Shimoga, D. K. and Mandya districts. There were no representationsfrom Uttara Kannada, Hassan, Bidar, Bijapur, Mysore, Kolar, Tumkur, Kodagu.

There were 10 lecturers by experts on Rhizobium, Azolla Blue-GreenAlgae and Extension strategies. Each lecture of 1 hour duration wasfollowed by 1/2 hr. lively, fruitful and frank discussions. Theparticipants were encouraged to freely express their problems, suggestionsand criticisms. The lecturers were made more effective by use of adequateresearch data, specimens and impressive slides. Lot of time was devotedfor practicals, field visits, method demonstrations, collecting andexamining specimens in the field and laboratories. Some of the importantfield demonstrations were (i) the trainees were shown the remarkablebenefit of growing sunflower after cowpea or ground nut over a sunflowergrown after ragi in an impressive and meticulously'conducted fieldexperiment. (ii) The visible benefit of Rhizobium inoculation in bengalgram was demonstrated in a field trial (iii) the trainees were demonstratedcorrect method of seed treatment of rhizobium inoculant and precautions tobe taken. (iv) the collection and observation of root nodules in fieldgrown pulses and identifying effective and ineffective or less effectivenodules in the field were demonstrated (v) the trainees had lot ofopportunity to study Azolla and different kinds of BGA. Trainees wereprovided lecture notes at the beginning of the course only in order tofacilitate them to read the subject and come prepared for the lecture.

81

Subject matter specialists in microbiology should be appointed inthe Extension Directorate of University and Agriculture Department.A biofertilizer corporation should be established in the line ofseed corporations in the state for production of quality inoculantsand supply of cultures along with the certified seeds.Ministry of Agriculture is requested to increase the present budgetfor conducting training course at least by two folds.

(2)

(3)

The following recommendations emerged at the end of the Trainingcourse:

(i)

(P. V. Rai)Professor of Agricultural Microbiology

University of Agricultural SciencesGKVK Campus. Bangalore-560065

82

ANNEX 4

Studies on the rice cro under

Treatments:

1. P and K alone2. PK and blue-green algae3. NPK Recommended dose4. NPK + blue-green algae5. Blue-green algae6. Gypsum @ 50% GR.7. Gypsum @ 50% GR + Blue-green algae8. Gypsum @ 75%9. Gypsum @ 75% + blue-green algae.

10. Gypsum @ 100% GR.Il. Gypsum @ 100% GR + blue-green algae

DesignReplicationsCropVarietyPlot sizeSpacingDate of sowingDate of

plantingDate of

harvest

Soil Characters

pHECESPAvailable 'NFertilizer

requirement

Gypsumrequirement

RBDFourPaddyCO-435m x 3 m.20 cm x 15 cm8-8-84

16-9-84

30-12-84

9.101.75 m.mhos/cm.3870 kg/ha

N P K46 12 31 kgs/ha

6 tonnes/ha.

GlU.IN nu-- - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - -- - - ~ - - - - - -- ~ -Treatment

__ !I!L~ ~~l~t___________ !I!L~~/~~____ .____

R1 li2 a, B4 Mean &1 R2 ll, 114 M_n--------------~----------~---~-------------1. P and X alone .1..3 4.2 2.6 3.8 3.725 2866 ~800

,.,,,2~' 24~

2. PK + BGA. 3.8 3.2 5.0 , .5 '.875 2533 213' "" 23" 25~

3. NP.[(Recm.doae) 5.4 4.4 5.0 5.2 5.000 '600 2933 "', '466 3'334• NPK + BG-A. 5.5 5.8 5.4 5.4 5.528 '666 3866 .,600 '600 36835. BGA alone 40 2 3.4 '.2 3.0 '.450 2800 2266 21" 2000 22996. Gypsum 5d' GR 5.0 3.8 4.0 4.5 4.'25 33" 2533 2666 '000 2883 CO)

'1

7. Gypsum 5a' GRIl)~::l 00+B(7,A. 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.9 5.825 4000 3866 '7:5' 39" 3883 0< w

8. Gy~sœn 7'" GR1-'-

4.2 3.8 5.0 4.2 4.300 2800 2533 33'3 2800 2983 ltl....0-

9. Gypsum 7t. GR+B A 4.9 5.2 4.9 5.2 5.050 '266 '466 '260 3466 '249

10. GyPSU1ll 1O~GR 4.5 5.2 5.0 5.0 4.925 3000 3466 "'3 "" '28'311. GypSUJl 'g0 GR

6.0 4.4 ~.6 5.4 5.'5 4000 2933 37':5 3600 3316.~B A

- ~ - - - - - - - - - ----------- .. -----_ ... _- ---_.- -_ ... --BGA: Blue Greer. Âlgae : GR: GYI>BUDl Reqnirem'?nt.

~~---~-------------------------------------~.

YIELD per plot in kgs. Yield/ha in kg:J.Trea.t,uents ------------------- ------ ------------

li1 RII RIlI RIV ltean R1 112 H3 ~ 14ean

~~------------------------------------------1. PK alon~ 7.3 7.0 4.6 5.5 6.100 4866 4666 306() 3656 4066

2. PK + BGA* 5.0 6 0 0 8.8 7.2 6.750 "'3 4000 5866 4800 44993. N~K (Recomm.dose>

7.7 7.0 8.4 1~.3 8.850 5133 4666 5600 8:?OO 58994. NPX: + "BGA 8.0 10.6 7.8 10.1 9.125 5333 7067 5200 6733 60835. B~A alone

CI1

8.0 6.0 5.8 5.0 6.200 5333 4000 3866 3333 4133 l"t"'1Il)

6. Gy;:>SUID 5~ GR~ co5.5 7.8 10.2 1~.8 9.075 '666 5200 6800 A553 6049 >< ~.....m

7. Gy 0Sum. 50;-' GR i-'a.

+f3GA 13.2 9.2 11.4- 13.0 11.700 8800 6133 760<' 8667 7800f

8.4 9.2 9.1 5866 5600 f.,,; 6066 59168. Gypsum 7');10 GR 8 0 8 8.87'5

9. GyPSUID 75:~ GR1~.0 10.0 11.050 7067 (667 7366+ BGA 10.6 11.6 8000 7733

10. GYPSttt 1~~~ GR 8.8 8.8 8.2 9.0 8.700 5900 5866 5466 6000 5808

1,. Gypsum 1OOi~ GR+ BG'Â 1?.0 9.4 12.4 8.8 10.650 8eoo 6266 8266 3866 7099

- - - .. - - - - - - - - - ... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .. -- ~ - - - - - - - - - - --SGA: Blue Green allgae ; GR 2 &yps lJIl aeq I.d.l:'ellent.

85

ANNEX 5

Paddy Experiment Station,Tirur - 602 025Chingelput DistrictTamil Nadu, Dept. of AgricultureIndia

Blue-Green Algae Scheme

Introduction

The cost of inorganic fertilizer is day by day increasing. Thecontinuous application of inorganic fertilizer will deteriorate the soilfertility in long rune By applying the Bio-fertilizer the soil fertilitycan be improved and hence the need for starting of multiplication ofBio-fertilizer is keenly felt.

Objective

The main object of the scheme is to multiply the nucleus material of'N' fixing blue green algae and distribute tot he Departmental Agencies forsecondary multiplication. From there distributed to the farmers with a viewto minimise the cost towards inorganic Nitrogenous fertilizer input, andalso to enhance the yield of rice.

Blue-green algae centres in Tamil Nadu

Nucleus material of blue-green algae is multiplied in three places inTamil Nadu under the technical control of Plant Pathologist, Tirur,Chingelput District, who is the head of this scheme. The other two centresare:

1. Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai, Tanjore Districtunder one Assistant Plant Pathologiste

2. Paddy Experiment Station, Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli Dist, under oneAssistant Plant Pathologiste

Location of Tirur Centre

The blue-green algae centre is located in Paddy Experiment Station,Tirur. The Paddy Experiment Station, Tirur is located at Tirur Village inthe Tiruvellore Taluk of Cingelput District is about one Kilo metre southof the Sevvapet Road Railway Station on the Madras - Arakkonam line (36Km. away from Madras.

In addition to these three centres, one acre field has been alloted bythe Director of Agriculture, Madras in State Seed Farms, namely Kolandalure(Chingelput District) Orathur (Tanjore District) and Killikulam(Tirunelveli District).

86

The scheme is functioning from 1979-80 financial year onwards.

Staff Pattern: Tirur Centre: (Chingelput District)

Technical Staff:

Plant PathologistAgricu1tural Officer

Ministrial Staff:

AssistantTypistOffice Assistant

Aduthurai Centre: (Tanjore

Technical Staff:

12

111

District)

Assistant Plant Pathologist 1Agricultural Officer 1

Ambasamudram Centre: (Tirunelveli District)

Technical Staff:

Assistant Plant Pathologist 1Agricultural Officer 2

Laboratory facilities are available in aIl the centre.The production was started from 1981-82 onwards.

Year

1981-821982-831983-841984-85(Up to Feb' 85)

TargetM.T.

106.480130.000130.000130.000

Production

78.53684.67856.82075.546

Thestaff ofDepots.centres.

above product is being distributed to the farmers by the extensionthe Department of Agriculture Tamil Nadu, through AgriculturalIn addition to the sales being done in the respective production

Benefits of BGA

1. It improves soil fertility2. It supplies Amino Acids, Vitamines, Enzynes and Harmones to the

plants which are essential for the plant growth.3. Results of experiments conducted with blue-green algae culture show

that blue-green algae contribute 25-30 kg nitrogen per hectare fromthe algal system.

87

4. It improves the soil binding capacity.

Programme of work for the year 1985-86.

1. Production of nucleus blue green algae inoculum for distribution.

Prime importance will be given to the production of maximumquantity of good quality blue-green algae inoculam to achieve theproduction target. More number of native species of 'N' fixing bluegreen algae will be isolated and multiplied and added on to thecomposite culture to be supplied for secondary multiplication.

2. Survey of different regions for the occurance of native species ofblue-green algae.

Systematic survey of the paddy tracts will be made, blue-greenalgal types will be collected and a type collection maintained underlaboratory condition.

3. Studies on the various problems for non-establishment.

Several biological, soil pest, climatic factors hamper the growthand proper establishment of blue-green algae in the fields. Sostudies on aspects such as tolerance to soil microbes - Co - existencewith green algae, and pH of water will also be taken up.

4. Conducting field trials.

Field trials to demonstrate the utility of blue-green algae willalso be laid ot in farmers holdings.

National Project on Bio-fertilizers

The Scheme is fully financed by Government of India. Under thisscheme two centres namely Tirur (Chingelput Dist) and Aduthurai (TanjoreDist) are functioning from 1983-84 financial year onwards.

Besides these centres two more centres are functioning from 1984-85financial year in State Seed Farm, Athyandal (North Arcot Dist) and StateSeed Farm, Vandarayenpet (South Arcot Dist)

Objectives

Each centre should produce 10 tones of blue-green algae from the motherculture and distributed to the farmers in 10 kg cloth bag at the rate ofRe.l/- per Kg.

88

ANNEX 6

Paddy Experiment Station - Tirurkuppan

Studies on the efficacy of BGA on the Nutrient Availabilityand Yield of Rice

Objective. Ta study the beneficial effect of BGA on rice.

The experiment is restricted for 2 years viz., 1984-86 raisingirrigated paddy with 8 treatments without replication as an observationtrial plot with 0,75 and 100 kg N/ha and 50 kgs in each of P and Kuniformly for aIl plots with or without BGA.

Conclusion

There is an increase of 0.10 ta 0.14 tones/ha of paddy and 1.6 ta 2.1tones/ha of straw due ta application of 10 kgs/ha of BGA over theirrespective contraIs.

Application of BGA at 10 kgs/ha increased plant height, more paniclelength and increased grain weight (100 grain weight) as weIl as more strawyield over their respective contraIs.

For the second year in succession, applicatioin of 10 kgs BGA/ha, inaddition ta 75:50:50 kg/ha of NPK, gave equal yield (or even higher) ta100:50:50 kg/ha of NPK.

Thus there is a saving of 25 kg inorganic N/ha if 10 kg of BGA isapplied giving net profit of Rs. 160/ha.

89

ANNEX 7

Blue green algae scheme in Sriperumbudur Division(Training & Visit) Chengalpattu District

1984-85

General particulars

The Sriperumbudur (T&V) division comprises of 3 blocks namelySriperumbudur, Poonamallee and Padappai. The principle crop of thisdivision is paddy, which is being cultivated throughout the year. The mainsource of irrigation is the tanks, supplemented with pumpsets in somepockets. The normal rainfall of this division is 1322.5 m.m., receivingthe major share of 761.0 m.m. during the North East monsoon. The normalpaddy area is as fallows.

Sornavari paddySamba paddyNavarai

Total =

2380 ha.30320 ha.11600 ha.

44300 ha.

Since the paddy is the principle crop, and the water source is alsoadequate, the scope for the blue-green algae development scheme in thisdivision is bright. Anabaena, Aponothesia, Nostoc are the common culturesof blue-green algae generally found in this division.

Scope for blue-green algae scheme.

From the year 1980-81 onwards, the multiplication of the nativeblue-green algae was taken up intensively, and distributed to the farmers.Besides the availability of native flora, Fresh inoculams froID the paddyresearch stations has been received and multiplied int he State Seed Farmsand Farmers holdings. Because of the intensive effort and extensionactivity of the Department of Agriculture, now the blue-green a1gae hasbeen seen almost in aIl the paddy fields. Now the farmers have startedmultiplying the blue-green algae inoculum in their own field during theKhariff season, (since the availability of water is scopious) and stockedit according to their requirements.

Blue-green algae multiplication

Blue-green algae multiplication is usually taken up from June toSeptember, inview of the favourable climate, availàbility of land, andwater. The following method is generally followed in blue-green algaemultiplication. About 3 cent to 25 cents, plot is taken up formultiplication. The field is puddled thoroughly 4 to 5 times, to stagnatethe water for about 1" to 2". Powdered blue green algae inoculum has beenapplied @2 to 5 kgs/cent based on the availability of native flora.Phosphatic fertiliser (i.e). Superphosphate is applied basely at 2 kgs.per cent for quick developments. To control the pests, destroying theblue-green algae, Furadan is applied @ 200 grams per cent. About 2" ofwater stand is maintained int he multiplication plot.

90

Tracers of blue-green algae could be seen on the 2nd day itself andfine multiplications from 3rd day onwards. The first harvest is taken upbetween 15 to 20th day. To get good blue-green algae, the harvest is takenup in bright sunlights by collecting the floating masses of blue greenalgae. Then it is weIl dried in the sunlight with sand base, and stockedfor the own use of the farmer, as weIl as for distribution to others.

After first harvest, only superphoshpate and pesticide is applied tothe multiplication plot. As such up to five, harvests are taken up. Fromeach harvest 20-25 kgs. of blue green algae per cent is obtained.

Blue-green algae scheme during this year 1984-85.

This year 500 kgs. of seed materials and 3.0 M. tones of inoculum havebeen received from the Paddy Experiment Station Tirur and State Seed Farm,Kancheepuram respectively and supplied to the Agricultural Depots todistribute to the farmers.

Prominent producers of blue-green algae in their holdings.

SI No. Name of the farmers Area of No. of Qty. of BGAand village multiplica- crops obtained in

tion plot Kgs.

1 Thiru. Shanmugham, Vellavedu 7 cents 5 7252 Thiru. Subramania, Mudaliar,

Thirumazhisai 5 cents 5 7633 Thiru. Giruba, Thirumazhisai 3 cents 5 3804 Thiru. Sivamani, Thirumazhisai 3 cents 3 2105 Thiru. Arumugham, Thirumazhisai 4 cents 4 3456 Thiru. Ramanjee Redyiar, Mongadu 10 cents 5 10507 Thiru. Chandrasekar, 5 cents 4 480

Mangadu8 Thiru. Kathirvel Mudaliar 6 cents 5 476

Kovoor9 Thiru. Selvaraj, Kovoor 6 cents 3 37510 Thiru. Sundaramoorthy, 25 cents 4 2140

Ayyappanthangal11 Thiru. K. Ramadors 5 cents 3 36312 Thiru. K. Chittibabu 5 cents 4 415

Sriperumbudur13 Thiru. Govindan, Beemanthangal 7 cents 5 73214 Thiru. Natarajan, Beemanthangal 4 cents 4 40815 Thiru. Ellappan, Sriperumbudur 10 cents 3 614

Problems in the blue-green algae multiplication

The growth of the green algae after one or two harvest is the mainproblem in the multiplication plot. Even in the applied fields, the growthof the blue greenalgae is smothered by the green algae. To slow down thegrowth of the green algae, the field is allowed to dry, for two or 3 days

91

before taking up the next multiplication. Powered lime application,Dithane M.45 spray is also taken up. However, these measures are notpermanent solution to control the green algae.

Farmers opinion about the blue green algae

The farmers are of the opinion that the paddy crops of the weIldeveloped blue-green algae field is much greenish when compared to the lessestablished or without blue-green algae field. Since the cost ofproduction is about 50 paise per kg. and the availability is also easy, thefarmers widely applying the blue-green algae as a cheap source of nitrogenin view of its encouraging results and perennial effects.

Points for discussion and research

1. It is stated that the applicatiion of 4 kgs. of blue-green algaewill fix la kgs. of nitrogen in a season. It is only a theoreticalaspect. But thorough research about the quantity of nitrogen fixed by thedifferent species, time of fixation active period of the blue-green algaein its life period etc., is required. for effective implementation of thescheme.

2. Blue green algae is recommended as a supplementary and not as asubstitute to the nitrogenous fertilizers. If the blue green algae adds 10kgs of nitrogen with application of 4 kgs, we can apply more quantity ofblue-green to supply the required quantity of nitrogen for the paddy cropas a substitute to the chemical fertilizer. Research on this point isrequired.

At present composites culture of blue-green algae is used for fieldapplication and multiplication. If specifie inoculum has been identified,for its suitability and capacity to fix more nitrogen, it can be developedand applied to the field with more benefits to the farming community.

SriperumbudurAsst. Director of Agriculture, (T&V)

92

ANNEX 8

List of articles and reports on BGA in rice fields colletected during the

trip.

Anonymous: 1984. Center of advanced studies in agricultural microbiology.

Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University. Coimbatore - 641 003 - India. UNDP/FAO/ICAR Project ­

IND/78/020. Highlights of projects progress (In the list of

publications of the center several papers on BGA inoculation are

quoted.

BONGALE, U.D. 1981. On soil algae from paddy fields of Panjim (GOA) and

Chikkamanchali (Raichur dist. Karnataka), India. J. Indian. Bot. Soc.

60: 326-329

BONGALE, U.D. 1983. Response of H-200 paddy variety to algalization with

Hapalosiphon weiwikschii and H. confervaceus. The Journal of the

Karnatak University: Science 28:18-20.

Bongale, U.D. and S.G. Bharati. 1980-81. Effect of Cylindrospermum

musicola, a blue-green alga, on three rice varieties. The Karnatak

University Journal Science. (25-26) 74-77.

Bongale, U.D. and G.S. Bharati. 1982. Studies on the improvement of

Dharwad soils by algal inoculation. 3 Effect of Hapalosiphon

welwitschii, a nitrogen fixing blue-green algs, on two millets. The

Journal of the Karnatak University: Science. (27) 7-10.

Goyal, S.K. and G. S. Venkataraman. 1970. Effect of algalization on high

yielding rice varieties. In response of rice varieties. Phykos. 9(2)

137-138.

93

Goyal, S. K. and G. S. Venkataraman. 1971. Effect of algalization on high

yielding rice varieties. II. Response of soil types. Phykos 10(1-2)

32-33.

Kannaiyan, S. Studies on the algal application for lowland rice crop ••

Preprint of a paper summarizing research on BGA by the author and

listing 20 papers or notes published by him on BGA utilization in rice

fields.

Kaushik, B. D. 1983. Amelioration of salt affected soils with blue-green

algae. Paper presented at the AlI India Applied Phycological

Congress. Kampur 1983 pp. 60-66 in the Proceedings.

Kaushik, B. D. and G. S. R. Krishna Murti. 1981. Effect of blue-green

algae and gypsum application on physiochemical properties of alkali

soils. Phykos 20(1-2) 91-94.

Kaushik, B. D•• G. S. R. Krishna Murti. and G. S. Venkataraman. 1981.

Influence of blue-green algae on saline alkali soils. Science and

Culture. 47:169-170.

Kaushik, B. D. and G. S. Venkataraman. 1982. Reclamation capacity of

blue-green algae in saline and sodic soils. pp. 378-389 in Proc. of

the National Symp. on Biological Nitrogen Fixation. Indian

Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi Feb. 25-27-1982.

Sardeshpande, J. S. and S. K. Goyal. 1981. Distributional pattern of

blue-green algae in rice field soils of Konkan region of Maharashtra

State. Phykos 20(1-2) 102-106.

Subhashini, D. and B. D. Kaushik. 1982. Nitrogen potential of blue-green

algae from saline and alkali soils. Acta Botanica Indica. 10:321-322.

Subhashini, D. and B. D. Kaushik. 1981. Amelioration of sodie soiis with

blue-green algae. Austr. J. Soil. Res. 19: 361-6.