bismilllaaah senjata untuk eap
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Bismilllaaah senjata untuk EAP, dibela-belain 2 minggu liburan untuk berkutat di sekitar
Solo saja semoga ada hasil dan tidak sia-sia aamiin.
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
Active voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time.
You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object
receives the action of the verb:
Example
active subject verb object
>
Cats eat fish.
Passive voice
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the
verb:
Example
passive subject verb object
<
Fish are eaten by cats.
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
Example
subject verb object
active Everybody drinks water.
passive Water is drunk by everybody.
Use of Passive
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know,
however, who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following
example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone
(e.g. You have made a mistake.).
Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is
dropped)
Examples of Passive
Tense Subject Verb Object
Simple Present Active:Rita writes a letter.
Passive: A letter is written by Rita.
Simple Past Active:Rita wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written by Rita.
Present Perfect Active:Rita has written a letter.
Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.
Future I Active:Rita will write a letter.
Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.
Hilfsverben Active:Rita can write a letter.
Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.
Examples of Passive
Tense Subject Verb Object
Present Progressive Active:Rita is writing a letter.
Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.
Past Progressive Active:Rita was writing a letter.
Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.
Past Perfect Active:Rita had written a letter.
Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.
Future II Active:Rita will have written a letter.
Passive: A letter will have been writtenby Rita.
Conditional I Active:Rita would write a letter.
Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.
Conditional II Active:Rita would have written a letter.
Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.
Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two
objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform
into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.
Examples of Passive
Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2
Active: Rita wrote a letter to me.
Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.
Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.
As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That�s
why it is usually dropped.
Personal and Impersonal Passive
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the
subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can
form a personal passive.
Example: They build houses. - Houses are built.
Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive
sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you
want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction -
therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.
Example: he says - it is said
Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g.
German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of
perception (e. g. say, think, know).
Example: They say that women live longer than men. - It is said that women live longer
than men.
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.
Example: They say that women live longer than men. - Women are said to live longer
than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the
sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is
added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are
dropped).
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of
an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence
The object of the verb takes the position of Subject.The Subject of the verb in the active
voice becomes the object and is usually preceeded by the preposition ‘by’.The tense of
the verb in the passive voice remains the same as in the active voice.In the passive voice,
third form of the verb is used.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
Tense Rules
Present Indefinite Tense is/am/are + V3
Present Continuous Tenseis/am/are + being+V3;
Present Perfect Tense has/have + been + V3
Past Indefinite Tense was/were + V3
Past Continuous Tense was/were + being +V3
Past Perfect Tensehad + been + V3;
Future Indefinite Tense ; will/shall + be + V3
Future Perfect Tense will/shall + have+been + V3
Modal Verb: will, shall, would should, can, could, may, might,must,ought to + V1
Modal Verb + be + V3
Infinity: to + V1 to be + V3
I, We, He, She, They are changed into tome, us, him, her, them
Take care of singular and plural nature of nouns or pronouns. Verb/helping verb
requires to be adjusted accordingly.
Interrogative sentences beginning with ‘wh’ words like what, why, when etc.
thequestion word is retained in the beginning of the sentence. An interrogative sentence in
theactive voice remains an interrogative in the passive form. An imperative sentence is a
sentence showing order, or request. So, accordingly, in the passive voice, we say:
You are requested/ordered/advised + infinive with ‘to’.
Sentences involving order/advice are preferably changed into passive by using the
word‘let’ or ‘should’. Please close the door. You are requested to close the door. Save
your soul. Your soul should be saved. Let your soul be saved. Do it. Let it be done. It
should be done. In some sentence the subject is understood type. Here the subject
has to be suppliedaccording to the context while changing them into active form. The
thief was arrested. (by the police.)
Preoposition attached with the verbs in the active form continue to be attached
with themeven in the passive form. Please listen to him. You are requested to listen to him.
He turneddown my proposal. My proposal was tuned down by him.k In the case of a verb
having two objects in Active Voice, either of them can be retained inthe passive.
Hari gave me an apple. I was given an apple by Hari. An apple was given to me byHari.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive forms. I go to school. Go is intransitive verb. Sono
passive form. What is done, cannot be undone. What people do, they cannot undo.
Quasi Passive Verbs: The rose smells sweet. The rose is sweet when smelt. Quinine
tastes bitter. Quinine is bitter when tasted. Lemons taste sour. Lemons are sour when
tasted.
With some verbs, preposition ‘by’ is not used. Like know (to), surprise (at), annoy
(with),contain (in), vex (with), please (with), displease (at), alarm (at), line (with), throng
(with)
The object of the verb takes the position of Subject.The Subject of the verb in the active
voice becomes the object and is usually preceeded by the preposition ‘by’.The tense of
the verb in the passive voice remains the same as in the active voice.In the passive voice,
third form of the verb is used.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
Tense Rules
Present Indefinite Tense is/am/are + V3
Present Continuous Tenseis/am/are + being+V3;
Present Perfect Tense has/have + been + V3
Past Indefinite Tense was/were + V3
Past Continuous Tense was/were + being +V3
Past Perfect Tensehad + been + V3;
Future Indefinite Tense ; will/shall + be + V3
Future Perfect Tense will/shall + have+been + V3
Modal Verb: will, shall, would should, can, could, may, might,must,ought to + V1
Modal Verb + be + V3
Infinity: to + V1 to be + V3
I, We, He, She, They are changed into tome, us, him, her, them
Take care of singular and plural nature of nouns or pronouns. Verb/helping verb
requires to be adjusted accordingly.
Interrogative sentences beginning with ‘wh’ words like what, why, when etc.
thequestion word is retained in the beginning of the sentence. An interrogative sentence in
theactive voice remains an interrogative in the passive form. An imperative sentence is a
sentence showing order, or request. So, accordingly, in the passive voice, we say:
You are requested/ordered/advised + infinive with ‘to’.
Sentences involving order/advice are preferably changed into passive by using the
word‘let’ or ‘should’. Please close the door. You are requested to close the door. Save
your soul. Your soul should be saved. Let your soul be saved. Do it. Let it be done. It
should be done. In some sentence the subject is understood type. Here the subject
has to be suppliedaccording to the context while changing them into active form. The
thief was arrested. (by the police.)
Preoposition attached with the verbs in the active form continue to be attached
with themeven in the passive form. Please listen to him. You are requested to listen to him.
He turneddown my proposal. My proposal was tuned down by him.k In the case of a verb
having two objects in Active Voice, either of them can be retained inthe passive.
Hari gave me an apple. I was given an apple by Hari. An apple was given to me byHari.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive forms. I go to school. Go is intransitive verb. Sono
passive form. What is done, cannot be undone. What people do, they cannot undo.
Quasi Passive Verbs: The rose smells sweet. The rose is sweet when smelt. Quinine
tastes bitter. Quinine is bitter when tasted. Lemons taste sour. Lemons are sour when
tasted.
With some verbs, preposition ‘by’ is not used. Like know (to), surprise (at), annoy
(with),contain (in), vex (with), please (with), displease (at), alarm (at), line (with), throng
(with)
Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.
For example:-
The grey dog barked. (The adjective grey describes the noun "dog".
The good news is that the form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter
if the noun being modified is male or female, singular or plural, subject or object.
Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun - age, size colour etc (fact
adjectives - can't be argued with). Some adjectives show what somebody thinks about
something or somebody - nice, horrid, beautiful etc (opinion adjectives - not everyone
may agree).
If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how many, you need
an adjective to be able to answer.
There are different types of adjectives in the English language:
1) Numeric: six, one hundred and one
2) Quantitative: more, all, some, half, more than enough
3) Qualitative: colour, size, smell etc.
4) Possessive: my, his, their, your
5) Interrogative: which, whose, what
6) Demonstrative: this, that, those, these
Ammu is tall.
Job is taller than Ammu.
Mohan is the tallest of the three.
In the second sentence, the word ‘taller’ is the comparative form of the adjective.
The comparative form of the adjective denotes a higher degree of the adjective ‘tall’ when
two people or things are compared.
In the third sentence, the word ‘tallest’ is the superlative form of the adjective. The
superlative form of the adjective denotes the highest degree of the adjective ‘tall’ when
more than two people or things are compared.
Here are some simple rules to keep in mind when forming comparatives and
superlatives.
RULE 1
For most adjectives, ‘er’ is added for the comparative form and ‘est’ for the superlative
form. Tall – Taller – Tallest
Strong – Stronger – Strongest
Short – Shorter – Shorter
Kind – Kinder - Kindest
RULE 2
For adjectives ending with ‘e’, ‘r’ is added for the comparative form and ‘st’ for the
superlative form. Wise – Wiser – Wisest
Large – Larger – Largest
Nice – Nicer – Nicest
Fine – Finer - Finest
RULE 3
For adjectives ending with ‘y’, ‘y’ is removed and ‘ier’ is added for comparative form
and ‘iest’ for the superlative form.
Lazy – Lazier – Laziest
Crazy – Crazier – Craziest
Wealthy – Wealthier – Wealthiest
Heavy – Heavier - Heaviest
RULE 4
Usually for longer adjectives, ‘more’ + adjective is used for comparative form and
‘most’ + adjective is used for superlative form.
Handsome – More Handsome – Most Handsome
Beautiful – More Beautiful – Most Beautiful
Intelligent – More Intelligent – Most Intelligent
Difficult – More Difficult – Most Difficult
RULE 5
Irregular Adjectives: There are some irregular adjectives for which the comparative
and superlative form follow no particular rule.
Good – Better – Best
Bad – Worse – Worst
Many – More – Most
Little – Less - Least
Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function
of the adjective. The usual order is:
Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material
Order of adjectives
Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming
Size small, huge, tiny
Age/Temperature old, hot, young
Shape round, square, rectangular
Colour red, blonde, black
Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese
Material plastic, wooden, silver
Examples:
a lovely old red post-box
some small round plastic tables
some charming small silver ornaments
Adverbs of certainty express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event.
Usage
Common adverbs of certainty:
certainly , definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely
1. Adverbs of certainty go before the main verb but after the verb 'to be':
He definitely left the house this morning.
He is probably in the park.
2. With other auxiliary verb, these adverbs go between the auxiliary and the main
verb:
He has certainly forgotten the meeting.
He will probably remember tomorrow.
3. Sometimes these adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence:
Undoubtedly , Winston Churchill was a great politician.
BE CAREFUL! with surely. When it is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it
means the speaker thinks something is true, but is looking for confirmation:
Surely you've got a bicycle?
Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective.
Here are some
Examples
quickly,softly,strongly,honestly,interestingly
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. "Friendly", for example, is an adjective.
Some adverbs have no particular form, for example:
well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
Tenses & Rules
adjective adverb
dangerous dangerously
careful carefully
nice nicely
horrible horriblely
easy easyly
irregular forms
good well
fast fast
hard hard
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about) verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs. In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the
word that it modifies is in italics.
Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly. But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.
an adverb modifies other verbs(verbs are in bold/adverbs are in italics)
· The thief acts stupidly. (answers the question:how?)
· The thief never shoots, because he has no gun.(answers the question: when?)
· The thief robs locally. (answers the question:where?)
an adverb modifies other adjectives (adjectives are in bold/adverbs are in italics)
· The thief is extremely stupid.
· This very dumb thief is now in jail.
an adverb modifies other adverbs (adverbs in italics)
· The thief walks incredibly clumsily.
· The thief acts really stupidly.
Adverbs also have other functions. You may see them modify a prepositional phrase:
· The thief was arrested just outside the apartment.
You may find an adverb modifying an entire sentence:
· Certainly,the thief chose the wrong profession.
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:
Front (before the subject):
-Now we will study adverbs.
Middle (between the subject and the main verb):
- We often study adverbs.
End (after the verb or object):
- We study adverbs carefully.
Adverbs of Frequency
always, sometimes, never...
You will find adverbs occupying multiple positions within a sentence:
· Now,get in the police car. (front)
· The thief was immediately arrested. (before the verb)
· The thief sat nervously after being arrested. (after the verb)
· After the botched robbery, the thief decided to give up crime completely. (end)
The 3 articles in English are a, an and the. The learner has to decide noun-by-noun
which one of the articles to use.
The word a (which becomes an when the next word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o,
u) is called the indefinite article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general.
The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives
more emphasis. It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book, but the second
sententence emphasizes that I do not have two or three or some other number of books.
The word the is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing. The
difference between the sentences I sat on a chair and I sat on the chair is that the second
sentence refers to a particular, specific chair, not just any chair.
Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable nouns must have an article. In
English, it is not possible to say I sat on chair without an article, but a demonstrative
or possessive adjective can be used instead of an article as in the sentences I sat on that chair
and I sat on his chair.
Definite Article – ‘The’
Indefinite Article – ‘A’ or ‘An’
‘A’ is used:
Before a word which begins with a consonant.
Example:
A woman
Before a singular, countable noun
Example:
A banana
When we mention something for the first time
Example:
I saw a dog
Before a word with a long sound of ‘u’
Example:
a university, a uniform, a useful book,a European
Before the word one
Example:
a one-way street, a one-eyed man, a one-year course, a one-day holiday, etc.
‘An’ is used:
Before a noun which begins with a vowel.
Example:
an apple
Before a word which begins with a vowel sound or a silent ‘h’.
Example:
an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honour, an honourable man, etc
Before a singular, countable noun which begins with a vowel or silent ‘h’
Example:
an orange
‘The’ is used:
When the same thing or person mentioned again, that is, a particular thing or person
Example:
I bought an orange.
The orange is sweet.
When there is only one such thing.
Example:
the earth, the sun, the moon
Before the names of famous buildings, etc
Example:
The Eiffel Tower, The Great Wall of China
When a singular noun is used to point out a whole class, race, group, etc.
Example:
The bear is a strong animal.
Before the special names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands,
certain organizations, political parties, and countries such as the U.S.A., the U.K., the
U.S.S.R. and the U.A.E., The Nile, The Dead Sea, The Pacific Ocean, The
Himalayas, The United Nations, The Republican Party, etc
Before the names of holy or important books
Example:
The Khuran, The Bible
Before an adjective when the noun is understood.
Example:
The poor need help.
Articles are not used::
Before the name of a person:
Example:
I am a fan of Michael Jackson. (not A or The Michael Jackson)
Before the name of a place, town, country, street, or road.
Example:
Barcelona is a beautiful city. (not A or The Barcelona)
Before names of materials.
Example:
Gold is found in Australia. (not A or The gold)
Before abstract nouns used in a general sense.
Example:
We love all beauty. (not a beauty or the beauty)
Uncount nouns
You cannot say a/an with an uncount noun.
You cannot put a number in front of an uncount noun. (You cannot make an uncount
noun plural.)
You use an uncount noun with no article if you mean that thing in general.
You use the with an uncount noun when you are talking about a particular example of
that thing.
Count nouns
You can put a number in front of a count noun. (You can make a count noun plural.)
You can put both a/an and the in front of a count noun.
You must put an article** in front of a singular count noun.
You use a plural count noun with no article if you mean all or any of that thing.
You usually use a/an with a count noun the first time you say or write that noun.
You use the with count nouns:
the second and subsequent times you use the noun in a piece of speech or writing
when the listener knows what you are referring to (maybe because there is only
one of that thing)
You use an (not a) when the next word (adverb, adjective, noun) starts with a vowel
sound.
Note:
The above rules apply whether there is or there is not an adjective in front of the noun.
Some nouns can be either count or uncount, depending on the context and meaning:
Do you have paper? I want to draw a picture. (uncount = a sheet of paper)
Can you get me a paper when you’re at the shop? (count = a newspaper)
Uncount nouns are often preceded by phrases such as: a lot of .. (luck), a piece of ..
(cake), a bottle of .. (milk), a grain of .. (rice).
* Instead of an article, the noun can also be preceded by a determiner such as this,
that, some, many or my, his, our, etc
Following are some of the most important guidelines listed above, with example
sentences:
Tenses & Rules
You use an uncount noun with no article
if you mean all or any of that thing. I need help!
I don't eat cheese.
Do you like music?
You use the with an uncount
noun when you are talking about
a particular example of that thing. Thanks for the help you gave me yesterday.
I didn't eat the cheese. It was green!
Did you like the music they played at the dance?
You usually use a/an with a count noun
the first time you say or write that noun. Can I borrow a pencil, please?
There's a cat in the garden!
Do you have an mp3 player?
You use the with count nouns the second
and subsequent times you use the noun,
or when the listener already knows what you
are referring to (maybe because there is
only one of that thing). Where's the pencil I lent you yesterday?
I think the cat belongs to the new neighbours.
I dropped the mp3 player and it broke.
Please shut the door!
You use a plural count noun with no
article if you mean all or any of that thing.
I don't like dogs.
Do they have children?
I don't need questions. Give me answers!
Basically, auxiliary verbs are function words, a type of closed class which is constituted
of words that have a grammatical function as opposed to content words, which are an open
class of lexical words. An auxiliary verb is used to add functional or grammatical content to
the information expressed by another verb, considered to be the main verb.
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs
Examples:
I am writing a book.
He has done the work.
We will be there in a minute.
Would you help me with this homework?
Can you open the door?
Did you visit New York last holiday?
Do you like chocolate?
They must get there on time.
The 23 auxiliary verbs
am is are
was were
has have had
do does did
will would
shall should
cancould
may might must
Be Been Being
Progressive Verbs
In present progressive sentences, the verb expresses action that is in progress as the
speaker says it. “I am typing” is an example of present progressive. In it, the main verb
is “type” while the auxiliary verb “be” is conjugated according to the subject, “I.”
We also use past and future progressives to explain what was or will be happening
when some other event occurred or will occur.
He was watching TV when the phone rang. Here, “was” is the auxiliary that helps us
understand when the main verb (watch) happened.
We’ll be driving to Virginia during your party. The future progressive actually uses
two auxiliary verbs (will and be) to tell us that this action (drive) takes place in the
future.
Passive Voice
If you can add the phrase, “by a purple monster” to the end of your verb phrase and still
have a grammatically correct sentence, you’re probably using passive voice. Here are
some examples:
The chair was moved (by a purple monster) to the other side of the room.
I was hit in the head (by a purple monster) and knocked unconscious (by a purple
monster).
It has been decided (by a purple monster) that the play will be canceled (by a purple
monster).
There’s nothing grammatically wrong with passive voice; it’s an excellent use of
the verb “be.” It’s just not very exciting writing. It’s more interesting to say:
A purple monster moved the chair across the room.
A purple monster hit me in the head and knocked me out.
A purple monster has decided to cancel the play. Take it up with him.
Perfect Tenses
The perfect tenses in English explain the order of things. When we use present perfect,
we are explaining what has happened up until now. Past perfect explains what had
happened in the past before something else happened in the past. And future perfect tells us
what will have happened up to a certain point in the future.
All the perfect tenses use at least one auxiliary verb, “have.”
I have visited Stockholm many times.
He had seen many cathedrals, but none so grand as that one.
The future perfect also uses “will.”
We will have traveled to every country in the world after this trip.
And the progressive perfect tenses also use “be.”
She has been living in Sweden for 10 years.
He had been touring Europe for 3 months.
We will have been flying for 31 hours by the time we get home.
Capitalization means using a capital letter (for example, A instead of a). The use of
capital letters helps readers read your writing without confusion.
Always capitalize the following: The first word in a sentence.
I grew up in India.
S he left a message on my phone.
The pronoun I.
This country is where I dreamed of.
The first letter of a proper noun (specific name).
D avid wants to play soccer with us.
This letter is from C hang.
I graduated from the U niversity of N ew Y ork.
I like C oca- C ola.
She likes G odiva chocolates.
The first letter of months, days, and holidays (but not seasons).
Today is J une 8, 2011.
Susie's birthday is this T hursday.
The shops are closed on E aster.
This summer is going to be very hot.
The first letter of nationalities, religions, races of people, and languages.
We often eat I talian food.
I want to master many languages, such as S panish, K orean, C hinese, and R ussian.
There is one C hristian church in my town.
The first letter in a person's title.
This is D r. Simon.
I got it from M r. Tom.
Geographic areas: cities, states, countries, mountains, oceans, rivers, etc.
My destination is P aris, F rance.
Hawaii is in the middle of the P acific O cean.
Historical periods.
The R enaissance began in the 14th century.
The Q ing D ynasty is the last dynasty in China.
The first letter of each major word in the title of a book, movie, article, etc.
Tolstoy's W ar and P eace is my favorite novel.
I found the article " H ow to W rite a G ood C over L etter" in this magazine.
Correctly write each sentence using proper capitalization.
1) i was born in shanghai, china, but grew up in the united states.
2) mrs. ohana gave me the bible.
3) if you walk two more blocks, you will be able to see mt. rocky.
4) my family will have a summer vacation in hawaii.
Wrong : I have visited Niagara Falls last weekend.
Right : I visited Niagara Falls last weekend.
Wrong : The woman which works here is from Japan.
Right : The woman who works here is from Japan.
Wrong : She’s married with a dentist.
Right : She’s married to a dentist.
Wrong : She was boring in the class.
Right : She was bored in the class.
Wrong : I must to call him immediately.
Right : I must call him immediately.
Wrong : Every students like the teacher.
Right : Every student likes the teacher.
Wrong : Although it was raining, but we had the picnic.
Right : Although it was raining, we had the picnic.
Wrong : I enjoyed from the movie.
Right : I enjoyed the movie.
Wrong : I look forward to meet you.
Right : I look forward to meeting you.
Wrong : I like very much ice cream.
Right : I like ice cream very much.
Wrong : She can to drive.
Right : She can drive.
Wrong : Where I can find a bank?
Right : Where can I find a bank?
Wrong : I live in United States.
Right : I live in the United States.
Wrong : When I will arrive, I will call you.
Right : When I arrive, I will call you.
Wrong : I’ve been here since three months.
Right : I’ve been here for three months
Wrong : My boyfriend has got a new work.
Right : My boyfriend has got a new job. (or just "has a new job")
Wrong : She doesn’t listen me.
Right : She doesn’t listen to me.
Wrong : You speak English good.
Right : You speak English well.
Wrong : The police is coming.
Right : The police are coming.
Wrong : The house isn’t enough big.
Right : The house isn’t big enough.
Wrong : You should not to smoke.
Right : You should not smoke.
Wrong : Do you like a glass of wine?
Right : Would you like a glass of wine?
Wrong : There is seven girls in the class.
Right : There are seven girls in the class.
Wrong : I didn’t meet nobody.
Right : I didn’t meet anybody.
Wrong : My flight departs in 5:00 am.
Right : My flight departs at 5:00 am.
Wrong: “I see a conflict of INTEREST as Mr A is our financial consultant and his
firm is selling financial products to us.
Right: “I see a conflict of INTERESTS as …”
(EXPLANATION: It takes more than one interest to conflict.)
Wrong: “Last month, I INFORMED that our production cost had been rising.”
Right: “… I INFORMED ALL OF YOU that …” or “… I REPORTED that …”.
(EXPLANATION: The word “inform”, unlike the word “say” or “report”,
must be followed by an object.)
Wrong: “The reason for the increase in our cost IS BECAUSE commodity prices
have been going up relentlessly.”
Right: “The reason for the increase in our cost IS THAT commodity prices have
…”.
(EXPLANATION: “Because” is used only when the sentence is written in a
different way: “Our cost has increased BECAUSE commodity prices have been …”.)
Wrong: “I don’t think SO that commodity prices have risen that much.”
Right: “I don’t think that commodity prices have risen that much.”
(EXPLANATION: The word “so” is redundant.)
Wrong: “Please do not repeat the mistake again.”
Right: “… Please do not repeat it.”
(EXPLANATION: “Repeat” means “do again”. So to “repeat again” means “to
do again again”.)
Wrong: “After you have studied the proposed agreement, please REVERT to me.”.
Right: “… Please COME BACK to me.”
(EXPLANATION: “To revert to ” means to transform back into the shape
of”.)
Wrong: “We should meet soon to discuss ABOUT the reception for our foreign
visitors.”
Right: “… to discuss the reception for …”.
(EXPLANATION: “To discuss” means “to talk ABOUT”. So the word “about” is
redundant.)
Wrong: “With regards to Project A, can you update me on its progress?”
Right: “WITH REGARD TO …”
Right: “AS REGARDS to Project A …”
Wrong: “Our team COMPRISES OF people from various disciplines.”
Right: “Our team COMPRISES people from various disciples.
Wrong: “The supplier will not be able to deliver the new desk-top computers in time. AS
SUCH we have to continue to use our existing computers for at least another week.”
Right: “… SO we have to continue …”
(EXPLANATION: We use “as such” only when we can answer the question: “As
what?”.
Example: “John has just been appointed team leader. As such (as a team leader), he
now has a greater responsibility in the office.
Wrong: “Although Jane’s report is not exactly a well-written one, we can consider it
AS completed since it serves the purpose intended.”
Right: Drop the word “AS”.
Wrong: “I must catch HOLD OF the boss before he goes on vacation.”
COMMENT: The phrase “hold of” is redundant.
Wrong: “We spent half a day SEARCHING for a missing document.”
Right: “… SEARCHING THE OFFICE for a missing document.”
Right: “… LOOKING for a missing document.”
(EXPLANATION: “To search” means “to check or examine”. It must therefore be
followed by a word depicting a place or an area.)
Wrong: “I like my eggs HALF-BOILED.”
Right: “I like my eggs SOFT-BOILED.”
(EXPLANATION: So far there is no cooking equipment for boiling only half of an
egg while it is still in the shell.)
Wrong: “I go MARKETING only once a week.”
Right: “I go TO THE MARKET only once a week.”
(EXPLANATION: “Marketing” is done only by the marketing executives of a
company.)
Wrong: “Why are you not DRINKING your soup?”
Right: “Why are you not HAVING your soup?”
(EXPLANATION: As soup typically contains solid ingredients, unlike water or milk or
juice, it is generally not appropriate to use “drink” to describe its consumption.)
Wrong: “Have you FINISH eating?”
Right: “Have you FINISHED eating!”
(EXPLANATION: “Finish” here is used as part of the verb “have finished”.)
Wrong: “This restaurant operates on a ‘first come, first SERVE basis.”
Right: ” … ‘first come, first SERVED basis.”
Wrong: ” No fish? Prawns ALSO CAN.”
Right: “No fish? Prawns ARE FINE TOO.”
Wrong: Cake-seller to customer: “Okay, two banana muffins and one peach tart.
SOME MORE?”
Right: “… ANYTHING ELSE!”
Wrong: “Sorry. I LEFT only one Sri Lanka crab. CAN TAKE local crabs instead?”
Right: “… I HAVE only one small Sri Lanka crab LEFT. CAN you TAKE
local crabs instead? ”
Wrong: “Please excuse me. I have to leave now to put my children TO SLEEP.”
Right: “… I have to leave now to put my children TO BED.”
(EXPLANATION: It is a criminal offence to put a person “to sleep”. In Singapore it
carries the death penalty.)
Wrong: “I SEND our son Joey to school everyday.”
Right: “I DRIVE/TAKE our son Joey to school….”
(EXPLANATION: To “send” someone means that you are not accompanying that
person on the journey.)
Wrong: “John, you look groovy. You aim to win at the best DRESS competition
tonight, don’t you?”
Right: “… You aim to win at the best DRESSED competition tonight, don’t
you?”
(EXPLANATION: If it is a “best dress” competition, John would not be eligible unless
he is a cross dresser.)
Wrong: “Do you like the FRAGRANCE of the wine?”
Right: “Do you like the BOUQUET of the wine?”
Wrong: “I can see that you prefer the champagne coloured roses THAN the red
ones.”
Right: “I see that you prefer the champagne coloured roses TO the red ones.”
Wrong: “I will wait for you at Ya Kun while you are at the hair dressing
SALOON.”
Right: ” … hair dressing SALON.”
Wrong: “We just met. Please don’t hold my hand here. AFTER people talk.”
Right: ” … OR people may talk (gossip).”
Wrong: “Can you call me BACK soon? ”
Right: Drop the word “back” as it is redundant.
Wrong: “Mary, I have a cocktail this Friday at the office. Would you like to join
me?”
COMMENT: “A cocktail” means a glass of alcoholic drink. Mary may rather go to
a “cocktail party”.
Wrong: “I saw you holding Bee Hong’s hands. You are both in love, ISN’T IT?”
Right: “… You are both in love, AREN’T YOU?”
Wrong: “Can you hold my hand as I am SCARED of the dark.”
Right: “… as the dark SCARES me.” or “… as I am AFRAID of the dark.”
Wrong: “Please SWITCH your mobile phone to silent mode.”
Right: “Please PUT your mobile phone on silent mode.”
Wrong: “Children, please OFF the lights when you leave the room.”
Right: ” … Please SWITCH OFF the lights …”
Wrong: “I will APPRECIATE if you can keep your voice down.”
Right: “I will APPRECIATE IT if you can keep your voice down.” or “I will
appreciate your keeping your voice down.”
(EXPLANATION: The word “appreciate” must be followed by an object.)
Wrong: “He is late. MUST BE he overslept or missed the bus.”
Right: “… IT MUST BE THAT he overslept or missed the bus.” or “… He MUST
HAVE overslept or missed the bus.”
Wrong: “LAST TIME we lived in a kampong house.”
Right: “PREVIOUSLY, we lived in a kampong house.” or “We USED TO live in a
kampong house.”
Wrong: “It may rain this afternoon. You GOT bring umbrella OR NOT?”
Right: ” … DID YOU bring an umbrella!”
Wrong: “From the way he speaks, I would consider him AS a snob.”
Right: Drop the word “AS”.
Wrong: “You BETTER apologise to him as he is really mad.”
Right: “IT WILL BE GOOD if you apologise…”
Wrong: “Sorry, I am really busy with work Right now. Can we discuss
tomorrow?”
Right: ” … Can we discuss IT tomorrow?”
Wrong: “You ONLY JUST found out about the sale? Today is the last day.”
Right: “You found out ONLY NOW about the sale? …”
Wrong: “I used to love durians, but NOT SO MUCH nowadays.”
Right: ” … but LESS SO nowadays,
Wrong: ” The Japanese numbers game sudoku is very popular among the staff of my
office. MYSELF, I took it up a year ago.”
COMMENT: Drop “myself”.
Wrong: “No idea.”
Right: “I don’t know.”
The words, 'accept' and 'except' are homophones which are often confused by
English speakers. 'Accept' is a verb which means 'to receive' or 'to agree'. Most of the time
'except' is used as a preposition which means 'excluding'.
The following examples will make the usage clear.
Examples of Passive
ACCEPT (VERB)EXCEPT (PREPOSITION)
Amit accepted the job offer.
I can come with you on all days except Sunday.
Sanjiv accepted the allegation that he had cheated.
All the athletes except Anjali finished the race.
He accepted the invitation to the party.
Everyone except Shantanu was invited to the party.
Use of 'Bought' and 'Brought'
The difference between these two words is a very simple one. They are the past tenses
of two different verbs.
'Bought' is the past tense of 'buy': I bought a new car last week.
'Brought' is the past tense of 'bring': I brought him a glass of water.
The difference can be remembered easily too, as 'bring' shares its first two letters with
'brought' ('br').
Use of 'Can' and 'May'
Many English speakers are confused about the usage of the words 'can' and 'may'. For
e.g., 'Can I drink water?' is incorrect. 'May I drink water?' is the correct phrase to use in
this case.
The key difference between 'can' and 'may' is that 'can' talks about ability and 'may'
talks about permission.
CAN
Can is used in two cases:
To talk about ability.
I can finish my homework by 5 pm.
Can you finish your homework tonight?
To ask or give permission informally.
Can I use your pen? (To a friend)
You can use my pen. (To a friend)
MAY
May is generally used to ask or give permission formally.
Let us take a situation between a student and a teacher.
May I drink water?
Teacher: Yes, you may.
Let us take a situation between two strangers.
May I borrow your pen?
Yes, you may.
Use of 'effect' and 'affect'
Two words commonly confused by English speakers are 'effect' and 'affect'. 'Affect' is
used as a verb and means 'to have an influence on' and 'Effect' is used as a noun and
means 'the result'.
AFFECT
The dropped catch did not affect the result of the game.
The heavy rainfall affected the grains kept in the old warehouse.
EFFECT
The effect of the tsunami was devastating.
The side effect of the cough syrup was drowsiness.
Use of 'Have' and 'has'
'Have' and 'has' are both used to denote possession, form the perfect tense, and the past
tense of both is 'had', but they are used differently.
'Have' is used with
- the following pronouns: I, you, we, they. Examples : 'I have a pencil.' 'We have a
big house.'
- pluralised nouns: Example : ' Doctors have a rough time, dealing with illnesses all
the time.'
'Has' is used with the third person singular ( he, she, it) . Examples : ' She has your
money.' 'Amit has the book.'
Use of 'There', 'Their' and 'They're'
Many speakers tend to get confused between 'There', 'Their' and 'They're' and
knowing how to use these three words correctly is an important step in learning
English.
The words 'There' and' Their' are homophones. Homophones are words that are
spelt differently but pronounced the same. It is a common mistake to replace one for the
other.
'There' always refers to a place, whether concrete or abstract, whereas 'Their' shows
belonging or possession. 'They're, on the other hand, is the short form of they are
Let's look at these examples for each of them
THERE:
How can anyone live there?
Let's go there.
There will be a party tomorrow,
THEIR:
Let us buy their car.
Let us not go to their house.
Return their books tomorrow.
THEY'RE:
They're sitting there in their car.
In this sentence, notice how 'there' is used to signify a place whereas 'their' is used to
show possession. The word 'they're' is a contraction of the word 'they' and 'are' and
should not be confused with 'their' and 'there'.
What are conditionals in English grammar? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They
describe the result of something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have
happened but didn't (in the past) . They are made using different English verb tenses.
There are four kinds:
The Zero Conditional:
(if + present simple, ... present simple)
If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.
The First Conditional:
(if + present simple, ... will + infinitive)
If it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema.
The Second Conditional:
(if + past simple, ... would + infinitive)
If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
The Third Conditional
(if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle)
If I had gone to bed early, I would have caught the train.
We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the
'if clause' and one in the 'main clause'):
If + present simple, .... present simple.
This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100
degrees, it always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular
situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main cluase.
The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the
meaning.
For example: If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils . (It is always true, there can't
be a different result sometimes). If I eat peanuts, I am sick. (This is true only for me,
maybe, not for everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)
Here are some more examples:
Examples
If people eat too much, they get fat.
If you touch a fire, you get burned.
People die if they don't eat .
You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen.
Snakes bite if they are scared
If babies are hungry, they cry
The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other
clause:
if + present simple, ... will + infinitive
It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know
what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily
come true.
If it rains , I won't go to the park.
If I study today, I 'll go to the party tonight.
If I have enough money, I 'll buy some new shoes.
She 'll be late if the train is delayed.
She 'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
If I see her, I 'll tell her.
First vs. Zero Conditional:
The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional
describes what happens in general .
For example (zero conditional): if you sit in the sun, you get burned (here I'm talking
about every time a person sits in the sun - the burning is a natural consequence of the
sitting)
But (first conditional): if you sit in the sun, you'll get burned (here I'm talking
about what will happen today, another day might be different)
First vs. Second Conditional:
The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the future,
whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think will really happen. It's
subjective; it depends on my point of view.
For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam (I think it's
possible she will study harder and so she'll pass)
But (second conditional): If she studied harder, she would pass the exam (I think that
she won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass)
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
if + past simple, ...would + infinitive
(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal
writing).
It has two uses.
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true.
Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
She would pass the exam if she ever studied .(She never studies, so this won't happen)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because
it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:
If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for
me to call him).
If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
How is this different from the first conditional?
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a
lot more unlikely.
For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with
twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's
just a dream, not very real)
But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more
likely that'll have enough money to buy some shoes)
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have'
and the past participle in the second part of the sentence:
if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle
It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to
imagine the result of this situation.
If she had studied , she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't
study and so she didn't pass)
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel
sick).
If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine
A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.
Here are some example conjunctions:
Examples
Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless
We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.
Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:
Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that
Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are
grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main
clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.
Position
Coordinating conjunctions
always come between the words or clauses that they join.
Subordinating conjunctions
The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or
independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating
conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:
Look at these examples
- the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square
brackets [ ]:
I like [tea] and [coffee].
[Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to
place a comma before the conjunction: I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I
am studying Russian at university. However, if the independent clauses are short and
well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:
She is kind so she helps people.
When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.
He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three
letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell:
F-For
A-And
N-Nor
B-But
O-Or
Y-Yet
S-So
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause to a main clause.
The following is a list of the most common subordinating conjunctions.
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,
when, where, whether, while
An adverb clause is always introduced by a subordinating conjunction. A noun
clause and adjective clause sometimes are.
Adverb clause: Before you go, sign the log book.
Noun clause: He asked if he could leave early.
Adjective clause: That is the place where he was last seen.
A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause. Many subordinating
conjunctions can be other parts of speech.
Adverb: Jill came tumbling after.
Preposition:Jill came tumbling after Jack.
Subordinating Conjunction: Jill came tumbling after Jack had fallen.
Adjectives change in form to show comparison,they are called Degree Of
Comparison.
Type of Degree Of Comparison
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Example :
John is a tall boy.
John is taller than Ancy.
John is tallest of them all.
In the first sentence it explains only that, John is a tall boy. Here John is not compared
with any others. In such cases, when adjective is used with out any comparison to other
nouns we call it as POSITIVE DEGREE.
In the second sentence the adjective is used for comparison between two people, such
cases when adjective is used for comaprison of two person,thing we call it as
COMPARATIVE DEGREE . In Comparative Degree use 'than' after the adjectives.
taller than
greater than
In third sentence the comparison is between more than two people,such case we say it
as SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.
If ' er ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Comaparative degree is formed and
when ' est ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Superlative degree is formed.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
clever
long
high
great
sweet
young
tall cleverer
longer
higher
greater
sweeter
younger
taller cleverest
longest
highest
greatest
sweetest
youngest
tallest
If positive ends in 'e' add 'r' and 'st' to form comparative and superlative.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
large
wise
white
brave
pure
fine
able larger
wiser
whiter
braver
purer
finer
abler largest
wisest
whitest
bravest
purest
finest
ablest
We can add more and most before adjective to form comparative and superlative.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
beautiful
useful
famous
difficult
important
honest
powerful more beautiful
more useful
more famous
more difficult
more important
more honest
more powerful most beautiful
most useful
most famous
most difficult
most important
most honest
most powerful
If positive ends in 'y' add 'er' and 'est' to form comparative and superlative after
changing 'y' to 'i'.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
lovely
wealthy
holy
easy
happy
heavy
healthy lovelier
wealthier
holier
easier
happier
heavier
healthier loveliest
wealthiest
holiest
easiest
happiest
heaviest
healthiest
For some adjectives that ends mainly with 'd, g, t, m, n' to form comparative and
superlative, add the last letter twice and then add 'er' and 'est'.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
red
sad
big
hot
fat
dim
thin redder
sadder
bigger
hotter
fatter
dimmer
thinner reddest
saddest
biggest
hottest
fattest
dimmest
thinnest
For some adjectives(positive) form comparative and superlative that are entirely
different from the positive form.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
late
good
bad
much
near
little
many later, latter
better
worse
more
nearer
less, lesser
more latest, last
best
worst
most
nearest, next
least
most
A Determiner is a word, phrase or affix that occurs together with a noun or noun
phrase and serves to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. That
is, a determiner may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element
of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person
or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc.Common kinds of determiners include
definite and indefinite articles (like the English the and a[n]), demonstratives (like this
and that), possessive determiners (like my and their), and quantifiers (like many, few
and several).
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to.
The word ' people ' by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If
someone says 'these people', we know which group they are talking about, and if they
say ' a lot of people' we know how big the group is.
' These ' and ' a lot of ' are determiners in these sentences.
Classes of Determiners
There are several classes of determiners:
Articles
The definite and indefinite articles are all determiners. Definite article - the Indefinite
article - a or an (a is used before a consonant sound; an is used before a vowel sound.)
Close the door, please. I've got a friend in Canada.
Definite and Indefinite articles
the, a, an
Demonstratives
There are four demonstrative determiners in English and they are: this, that, these and
those Note that demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative pronouns.
When they are used as determiners they are followed by the nouns they modify. Compare:
This is my camera. (Demonstrative used as a pronoun, subject of the verb is) This
camera is mine. (Demonstrative used as a determiner modifying the noun camera.)
Demonstratives
this, that, these, those
Possessives
Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun
following it in order to show possession. Possessive determiners are different from
possessive pronouns - mine, his, hers, yours, ours, their. Possessive pronouns can stand
alone and are not followed by nouns. Possessive determiners, on the other hand, are
followed by nouns. Compare: This is my house. (my is a possessive determiner. It is
followed by the noun house which it modifies) Is that car yours? (yours is a possessive
pronoun. It is not followed by a noun.)
Possessives
my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are followed by nouns which they modify. Examples of quantifiers
include: some, any, few, little, more, much, many, each, every, both, all, enough, half,
little, whole, less etc. Quantifiers are commonly used before either countable or
uncountable nouns. He knows more people than his wife. Little knowledge is a
dangerous thing .
Quantifiers
a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc.
Numerals
Numbers are cardinal (one, two, three, etc) and ordinal (first, second, third, etc).
Cardinal numbers are adjectives that indicate quantity (There are five apples on the
table), and ordinal numbers indicate rank or order (This is the first time for me on a plane).
There are five apples on the table
Numbers
one, ten, thirty, etc.
Distributives
The words all, both, half, each, every, either and neither are known as distributives.
All my life I have been waiting for this moment. Both the dogs have passed away. Half
the village perished in the floods.
Distributives
all, both, half, either, neither, each, every
Difference words
other, another
Question words
Which, what, whose
Defining words
which, whose
The following words are pre-determiners . They go before determiners, such as
articles:
You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways:
by repeating the words spoken ( direct speech )
by reporting the words spoken ( indirect or reported speech ).
Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct
speech in writing, we place the words spoken between inverted commas ("....") and
there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW
(for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous
conversation
Examples
She says "What time will you be home?"
She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! "
"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."
Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of
the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word
'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him."
She said that she had seen him .
'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy.
She told him she was happy.
'Say' and 'tell':
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect
object):
He told me that he was tired.
'Talk' and 'speak' are used:
- to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
- with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.
Tense Changes When Using Reported Speech
Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in
direct speech:
She said, "I am tired."
She said that she was tired.
The changes are shown below:
Examples of Passive
Simple present Simple past
"I always drink coffee", she said
She said that she always drank coffee.
Present continuous Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained.
He explained that he was reading a book
Simple past Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.
He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday
Present perfect Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me.
He told me that he had been to Spain
Past perfect Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he explained.
He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have been waiting for hours".
They complained that they had been waiting for hours.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they told me.
They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future Present conditional
"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said
He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous Conditional continuous
She said, " I'll be using the car next Friday".
She said that she would be using the car next Friday.
NOTE:
1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the
original statement was about something that is still true, e.g.
He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.
2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech:
might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g.
We explained that it could be difficult to find our house.
She said that she might bring a friend to the party.
Example
"I will see you here tomorrow ", she said. She said that she would see me there the
next day .
The most common of these changes are shown below:
Examples of Passive
Today that day
"I saw him today ", she said.
She said that she had seen him that day .
Yesterday the day before
"I saw him yesterday ", she said.
She said that she had seen him the day before .
The day before yesterday two days before
"I met her the day before yesterday ", he said.
He said that he had met her two days before .
Tomorrow the next/following day
"I'll see you tomorrow ", he said
He said that he would see me the next day.
The day after tomorrow in two days time/ two days later
"We'll come the day after tomorrow ", they said.
They said that they would come in two days time/ two days later .
Next week/month/year the following week/month/year
"I have an appointment next week ", she said.
She said that she had an appointment the following week .
Last week/month/year the previous/week/month/year
"I was on holiday last week ", he told us.
He told us that he had been on holiday the previous week .
agobefore
"I saw her a week ago ," he said.
He said he had seen her a week before .
this (for time) that
"I'm getting a new car this week", she said.
She said she was getting a new car that week.
this/that (adjectives) the
"Do you like this shirt?" he asked
He asked if I liked the shirt.
here there
He said, "I live here ".
He told me he lived there .
Other changes:
In general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural, except
when the speaker reports his own words:
I/me/my/mine, you/your/yours
him/his/her/hers
we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours
they/their/theirs:
He said: "I like your new car."
He told her that he liked her new car.
I said: "I'm going to my friend's house."
I said that I was going to my friend's house.
1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before
the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did' :
"Where does Peter live?"
She asked him where Peter lived .
2. Yes / no questions : This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if /
whether + clause :
"Do you speak English?"
He asked me if I spoke English .
"Are you British or American?"
He asked me whether I was British or American.
"Is it raining?"
She asked if it was raining .
"Have you got a computer?"
He wanted to know whether I had a computer .
"Can you type?"
She asked if I could type .
"Did you come by train?"
He enquired whether I had come by train .
"Have you been to Bristol before?"
She asked if I had been to Bristol before .
3. Question words :
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') +
question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the
necessary tense change.
"What is your name?" he asked me.
He asked me what my name was .
"How old is your mother?", he asked.
He asked how old her mother was .
The policman said to the boy, "Where do you live?"
The policeman asked the boy where he lived .
"What time does the train arrive?" she asked.
She asked what time the train arrived .
"When can we have dinner?" she asked.
She asked when they could have dinner .
Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?"
Peter asked the John why he was so late .
1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-
clause .
Examples
He told me to go away.
The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause .
(The indirect object is the person spoken to.)
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order,
warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, forbid .
Examples
a. The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!".
The doctor told me to stop smoking .
"Get out of the car!" said the policeman.
The policeman ordered him to get out of the car .
"Could you please be quiet," she said.
She asked me to be quiet .
The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move!"
The man with the gun warned us not to move .
2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask + for + object :
Examples
"Can I have an apple?", she asked.
She asked for an apple
"Can I have the newspaper, please?"
He asked for the newspaper .
"May I have a glass of water?" he said.
He asked for a glass of water .
"Sugar, please."
She asked for the sugar .
"Could I have three kilos of onions?"
He asked for three kilos of onions .
3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in
these clauses:
She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?"
She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the car. OR She suggested I
get a mechanic to look at the car.
Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request,
propose .
Examples
"It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother.
My mother suggested I see the dentist.
The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush".
The dentist recommended that I should use a different toothbrush.
My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting."
My manager proposed that we examine the budget carefully at the meeting.
"Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said.
She suggested that I sleep overnight at her house.
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb
followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
"I'll pay you the money tomorrow."
He promised to pay me the money the next day.
He promised that he would pay me the money the next day.
Other verbs used in this pattern include:
hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear .
Examples
"I'll be back by lunchtime."
He promised to be back by lunchtime.
He promised that he would be back by lunchtime.
"We should arrive in London before nightfall."
They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall.
They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.
"Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"
He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
These words can be used in the following ways:
Examples of Passive
All +
1
2
3
4a
4b
-
the
my, your, etc.
this, that
these, those
Uncountable noun
or
Countable noun in the plural
Uncountable noun
Countable noun in the plural
Examples
1. All cheese contains protein
All children need affection
2. All the people in the room were silent.
Have you eaten all the bread ?
3. I've invited all my friends to the party.
I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a. Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b. Look at all those balloons!
Examples
Both +
1
2
3
4
-
the
my, your, etc.
these, those
Countable noun in the plural
Examples
1. Both children were born in Italy.
2. He has crashed both (of) the cars .
3. Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4 You can take both (of) these books back to the library.
Examples
Half +
1
2
3
4
a
the
my, your, etc.
this, that,
these, those
Uncountable
or
countable noun
Examples
1. I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2. You can have half (of) the cake .
She gave me half (of) the apples .
3. I've already given you half (of) my money .
Half (of) his books were in French.
4 Half (of) these snakes are harmless
You can take half (of) this sugar .
NOTE : All, both, half + OF : 'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun:
All of you; both of us; half of them
It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when there is
no article
These distributive words are normally used with singular nouns, and are placed
before the noun.
Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns but must be followed by ' of '
:
Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals:
Each child received a present.
Each of the children received a present.
Every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members:
Every child in the world deserves affection.
It can also express different points in a series, especially with time expressions:
Every third morning John goes jogging.
This magazine is published every other week.
Either and Neither are concerned with distribution between two things - either is
positive, neither is negative:
Which chair do you want? Either chair will do.
I can stay at either hotel, they are both good
There are two chairs here. You can take either of them .
Neither chair is any good, they're both too small.
Which chair do you want? Neither of them - they're both too small.
In linguistics, intonation is variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words;
instead it is used for a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of
the speaker, signalling the difference between statement and question, and between
different types of question, focussing attention on important elements of the
spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction. It contrasts with tone,
in which pitch variation in some languages does distinguish words, either lexically or
grammatically.
Functions of Intonation:
All vocal languages use pitch pragmatically in intonation - for instance for emphasis, to
convey surprise or irony, or to pose aquestion. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa
use intonation in addition to using pitch for distinguishing words
attitudinal function (for expressing emotions and attitudes)
grammatical function (to identify grammatical structure)
focusing (to show what information in the utterance is new and what is already
known)
discourse function (to show how clauses and sentences go together in spoken
discourse)
psychological function (to organize speech into units that are easy to perceive, memorize
and perform)
indexical function (to act as a marker of personal or social identity)
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human
speech, or-in the case of sign languages-the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with
the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological
production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.
Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization
of systems of sounds or signs. The field of phonetics is a multiple layered subject of
linguistics that focuses on speech.
In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:
Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory
and vocal tract by the speaker
Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the
speaker to the listener
Auditory phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by
the listener
Phonetic symbols
This is the standard set of phonemic symbols for English (RP and similar accents).
Symbols
Consonants
p pen, copy, happen
b back, baby, job
t tea, tight, button
d day, ladder, odd
k key, clock, school
g get, giggle, ghost
t? church, match, nature
d? judge, age, soldier
f fat, coffee, rough, photo
v view, heavy, move
? thing, author, path
ð this, other, smooth
s soon, cease, sister
z zero, music, roses, buzz
? ship, sure, national
? pleasure, vision
h hot, whole, ahead
m more, hammer, sum
n nice, know, funny, sun
? ring, anger, thanks, sung
l light, valley, feel
r right, wrong, sorry, arrange
j yet, use, beauty, few
w wet, one, when, queen
? (glottal stop)
department, football
Vowels
? kit, bid, hymn, minute
e dress, bed, head, many
æ trap, bad
? lot, odd, wash
? strut, mud, love, blood
? foot, good, put
i? fleece, sea, machine
e? face, day, break
a? price, high, try
?? choice, boy
u? goose, two, blue, group
?? goat, show, no
a? mouth, now
?? near, here, weary
e? square. fair, various
?? start, father
?? thought, law, north, war
?? poor, jury, cure
?? nurse, stir, learn, refer
? about, common, standard
i happy, radiate. glorious
u thank you, influence, situation
n? suddenly, cotton
l? middle, metal
' (stress mark)
Stressing means that speakers of English make certain syllablesand words:
louder
longer
higher in pitch
Basically, stressing means to emphasize a sound. Every word in English has just
one syllable with a primary stress or emphasis. However, it is not only essential to stress
certain syllables and words, but we must also de-stress other syllables and words. De-
stressing means that speakers of English make certain syllables andwords:
more relaxed
weaker
Examples
Engineer -> [en g? NEER] (2nd syllable is de-stressed; 3rd syllable is stressed)
English -> [ING glish] (1st syllable is stressed; 2nd syllable is slightly de-
stressed)
Photograph -> [PHO d? graf] (1st syllable is stressed, 2nd syllable de-stressed, 3rd
syllable is secondary stress)
Stressing and de-stressing syllables and words gives us rhythm in English.
Rhythm is the musicality of English - the ups and downs and the connected speech
and the linking of words, which together, change how we say sentences.Remember,
speaking with correct rhythm (musicality) is essential to being understood when you speak!
Rhythm comes from the combination of the two types of stress in American English:
1) Syllable stress in words (as discussed above)
2) Word stress in sentences
This is a huge area to explain.But some general rules are there and some are quoted
below (exceptions are there). With verbs of two syllables, if the second syllable of the
verb contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, the
second syllable is stressed.
Examples:apply, attract, complete, arrive, resist With verbs of two syllables, if the final
syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant, the first syllable is
stressed.
Examples:enter, open, equal, borrow, profit There are some suffixes (or word endings)
that usually carry stress. Words with these endings usually carry stress on the last syllable:
Examples
-ain entertain
-ee refugee
-eer mountaineer
-ese Portuguese
-ette cigarette (NB American English would stress the first syllable)
-esque picturesque
The main or primary stress usually falls on the syllable before these endings:
Examples
-ion decision, application
-ious / -eous contentious, courageous
-itysimplicity
-ive extensive
-graphy photography, biography
-meter biology
-logy thermometer In compound words or words made up of two elements, there are
again some general patterns. If the first part of the word is broadly speaking a noun,
then the first element will normally carry more stress:
Examples:typewriter, car ferry, suitcase, tea cup If the first part is broadly speaking
an adjective, then the second element will carry more stress:
Examples:loudspeaker, bad-tempered, black market, young learner
A good way to approach an essay is to envision it as a Five Part project. An essay is made
up of the Introduction, Three main points (the body), and the Conclusion. So it looks like
this:
1. Introduction
2. Point One
3. Point Two
4. Point Three
5. Conclusion
Of course depending on the length and breadth of your paper you may have more
than three main points. However by using this structure it will make envisioning your
paper easier.
Introduction
An Introduction should answer three questions
1. What am I talking about in this paper?
By answering this question you let the reader know what the subject of the paper
is. For example, if your paper were about a particular book, your answer to this question
would give the title, author, and any other necessary information.
2. How am I going to talk about it?
This is where you let the reader know how your paper is organized. Here
you very briefly introduce your main points or the evidence that will prove your point.
3. What am I going to prove in this paper?
This is the dreaded THESIS STATEMENT. The thesis is usually the last sentence
in the first paragraph and it clearly states the argument or point you are making in your
paper.
Body
The Body consists of everything between your intro and conclusion and it is where you
discuss your three main points. A good starting place is to envision that each point is a
separate paragraph (or in a long paper each point might be a section). In each paragraph
you:
· Introduce your point
· Explain your point
· Give supporting evidence (this is where quotes go!)
· Explain how the point and evidence relate to your thesis
The whole point of each paragraph is to relate your point to your thesis, but it helps to
spell it out clearly in at least one sentence of the paragraph.
Conclusion
Basically, the conclusion restates the introduction. So just reiterate questions 1, 2,
and 3. It is also helpful to trace your argument as you made it within the essay. A good
way to do this is to create a proof that might look something like this:
POINT ONE+POINT TWO+POINT THREE=THESIS
OR
POINT ONE leads to POINT TWO which leads to POINT THREE therefore
THESIS is true!
So, when planning your essay consider this format:
I. Introduction
Subject
Main Points
Thesis
II. Point One
Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
III. Point Two
A. Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
IV. Point Three
Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
V. Conclusion
Restate subject
Summarize Main Points
Restate Thesis
(B and C can be combined into the proof)
Organization in a paper is important not only because it makes the paper easier to write,
it also guides the reader through the paper. A clearly organized paper will better hold the
reader's interest and convince them that your thesis is valid!
Read the essay question carefully
Highlight key words.
Use the dictionary to check the meaning of any unfamiliar words.
Identify the task words that indicate what needs to be done, eg 'discuss', 'explain',
'compare'.
Identify the topic words that indicate the particular subject of the essay, eg the character
of 'Juliet' in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet , the 'causes' of World War 1.
Identify any limiting words that restrict the discussion to a particular area, eg in
'Chapters 1-3', during the 'nineteenth century'.
Finish any necessary reading or research as background to the essay
Be selective: use sources which are relevant and accessible.
Write notes in your own words.
Write down quotations that may be particularly useful, but ensure the source of these
quotes is acknowledged if they're used.
Take note of sources so they can be provided in footnotes and the bibliography.
Trainstorm ideas in response to the question
Jot down any relevant points.
Make note of any relevant evidence or quotes that come to mind.
Use a mind map to help stimulate lateral thinking.
Develop a thesis (idea/argument) that encapsulates the response to the question
The thesis should be a statement that strongly expresses the overall response to the
question.
Avoid a thesis that's too simplistic - show thought has been put into some of the
complexities behind the question.
The thesis is the backbone of the essay - it will be stated in the introduction. It also
needs to be referred to several times in the essay before restating it and demonstrating
how it has been proven in the conclusion.
Write a plan for the response
Order ideas in a logical sequence.
Make sure every point in the plan is relevant to the question.
After the plan has been written it should be clear where the essay is going.
Write the introduction
Open up the discussion.
Introduce the thesis.
Indicate how the questions will be answered.
Name any texts to be discussed, if appropriate.
Engage the reader.
Write the main body of the essay
Ensure each point is given a new paragraph.
Use words or phrases at the start of each paragraph that will indicate to the reader how it
relates to the previous paragraph, eg, 'however', 'in addition', 'nevertheless', 'moreover'.
Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that clearly links the paragraph to the rest of
the essay, eg "A striking example of Gary Crew's use of light and darkness imagery to
suggest notions of knowledge and ignorance occurs in the scene on the jetty".
Provide supporting evidence for each point that you make.
Revisit the thesis, and express it in different ways if possible, to emphasise how the
question is being addressed.
Write the essay conclusion
Summarise the main ideas.
Demonstrate how you have proven your thesis.
Finish with an interesting or thought-provoking, but relevant, comment.
Edit the draft
Check for spelling, punctuation and grammar.
Delete any sections that are not particularly relevant.
Change vocabulary to improve expression.
Seek feedback from peers or a teacher before writing the final copy.
Write the final copy
Add any footnotes or bibliography if required.
Present a clean, neat copy.
Submit on time.
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-
word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with
any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the
idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all
convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of
"being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject
and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us
what a subject does or is; they describe:
action (Ram plays football.)
state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural
forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:
to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have thirty
or more forms for a single verb.In this lesson we look at the ways in which we classify verbs,
followed by a quiz to test your understanding:
Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
1)Main verbs
2)Helping verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat.
The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you?
Probably yes!
Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on
their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.In the
following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs.
Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping
verb.
Examples
helping verb main verb
John likes coffee.
You lied to me.
They are happy.
The children are playing.
Wemust go now. I
do not want any.
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following
pages.
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive,
I want to work
He has to sing.
This exercise is easy to do.
Let him have one.
To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
Work well!
Make this.
Have a nice day.
Be quiet!
Base - Present simple
(except 3rd person singular)
I work in London.
You sing well.
They have a lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
I can work tomorrow.
You must sing louder.
They might do it.
You could be right.
Past simple
I worked yesterday.
She cut his hair last week.
They had a good time.
They were surprised, but I was not.
Past participle
I have worked here for five years.
He needs a folder made of plastic.
It is done like this.
I have never been so happy.
Present participle
I am working.
Singing well is not easy.
Having finished, he went home.
You are being silly!
3rd person singular, present simple
He works in London.
She sings well.
She has a lot of money.
It is Vietnamese.
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably
not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They
are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much
alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The
sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to
complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.
We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.
I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.
Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.
I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.
We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.
There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.
She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.
I didn't use to like him but now I do.
'Used to do' is different from 'to be used to doing' and 'to get used to doing'
to be used to doing
We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual.
I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time.
Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now.
They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.
to get used to doing
We use 'to get used to doing' to talk about the process of something becoming normal for
us.
I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.
She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day.
I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.
Let's start off with the easy part. ' I wish to' can mean the same as 'I want to' but it is
much, much more formal and much, much less common.
I wish to make a complaint.
I wish to see the manager.
You can also use 'wish' with a noun to 'offer good wishes'.
I wish you all the best in your new job.
We wish you a merry Christmas.
Notice that when you want to offer good wishes using a verb, you must use 'hope ' and
not 'wish'.
We wish you the best of luck.
We hope you have the best of luck.
I wish you a safe and pleasant journey.
I hope you have a safe and pleasant journey.
However, the main use of 'wish' is to say that we would like things to be different from
what they are, that we have regrets about the present situation.
I wish I was rich.
He wishes he lived in Paris.
They wish they'd chosen a different leader.
Notice that the verb tense which follows 'I wish' is 'more in the past' than the tense
corresponding to its meaning.
I'm too fat. I wish I was thin.
I never get invited to parties. I wish I got invited to parties.
It's raining. I wish it wasn't raining.
I went to see the latest Star Wars film. I wish I hadn't gone.
I've eaten too much. I wish I hadn't eaten so much.
I'm going to visit her later. I wish I wasn't going to visit her later.
In the case of 'will' , where 'will' means 'show willingness' we use 'would'.
He won't help me. I wish he would help me.
You're making too much noise. I wish you would be quiet.
You keep interrupting me. I wish you wouldn't do that.
Where 'will' means a future event, we cannot use 'wish' and must use 'hope'.
There's a strike tomorrow. I hope some buses will still be running.
I hope everything will be fine in your new job.
In more formal English, we use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was' after 'wish'.
I wish I were taller.
I wish it were Saturday today.
I wish he were here.
We use 'should' for giving advice.
You should speak to him about it.
He should see a doctor.
We should ask a lawyer.
We use 'should' to give an opinion or a recommendation.
He should resign now.
We should invest more in Asia.
They should do something about this terrible train service.
'should' expresses a personal opinion and is much weaker and more personal than 'must'
or 'have to'. It is often introduced by ' I think'.
I think they should replace him.
I don't think they should keep the contract.
Do you think we should tell her.
We can use 'should' after 'reporting verbs' such as
demand insist propose recommend suggest
He demanded that we should pay for the repair.
She insisted that she should pay for the meal.
I have proposed that he should take charge of the organization.
The committee recommends that Jane should be appointed.
We have suggested that Michael should be given a reward for his hard work.
However, it is also possible to say exactly the same thing by omitting the 'should' and just
using the infinitive form without 'to' . Some people call this the 'subjunctive' form.
He demanded that we pay for the repair.
She insisted that she pay for the meal.
I have proposed that he take charge of the organization.
The committee recommends that Jane be appointed.
We have suggested that Michael be given a reward for his hard work.
We can use 'should' after various adjectives. Typical examples are :
funny interesting natural odd strange surprised surprising typical
It's funny that you should say that. I was thinking exactly the same thing.
It's interesting that they should offer him the job. Not an obvious choice.
It's natural that you should be anxious. Nobody likes speaking in public.
Isn't it odd that he should be going to the same tiny hotel? What a coincidence.
It's strange that you should think so. Nobody else does.
We can use 'should' in 'if clauses' when we believe that the possibility of something
happening is small.
If you should happen to see him before I do, can you tell him that I want to speak to him
urgently?
If there should be a problem, just give me a call and I'll sort it out.
If anyone should ask where I am, say I'm in a meeting.
We use 'should' in various fixed expressions.
To show strong agreement
They're paying you compensation? I should think so.
To express pleasure when you receive a gift
What a fantastic present. You really shouldn't have.
To emphasize a visible emotion
You should have seen the look on her face when she found out that she had got the
promotion.
We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in American English.
It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.
What time shall we meet?
Shall we vote on it now?
What dress shall I wear?
Shall I open the window?
You only really need to know that about 'shall' in modern English. Read the rest of this
only if you want to know more about how some older speakers still use 'shall '.
Formerly, in older grammar, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'.
Today, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall', it has an idea of a more personal,
subjective future.
I shall go to see the boss and I shall ask him to explain this decision.
Notice that the negative of ' shall ' can be ' shall not ' or ' shan't ' - though the second one
is now very rare in American English.
I don't like these people and I shall not go to their party.
I shan't object if you go without me.
We can use let to mean to rent out a house.
We moved to Australia and let our house in London.
A major use of let is for talking about 'allowing' and 'permission'.
My mother let me come.
I let her leave early.
One pattern is let followed by an OBJECT followed by a BARE INFINITIVE
She let me have the last one.
You must let us know when you are coming to New York.
I didn't let my friend drive my car.
Why did you let Jane do that?
Another pattern is let followed by an OBJECT followed by a COMPLEMENT
Let me past.
The police aren't letting anybody out of the building.
Don't let him get away.
Why did you let him in?
Notice that we can use reflexive pronouns to talk about what we allow ourselves to do.
I let myself be influenced by her.
She let herself out.
I didn't let myself be talked into it.
Did you let yourself in?
Notice that we do not make a contraction out of let us when asking for permission.
Let us help you.
Let us pay for this.
Let us buy that.
Let us take the risk.
We use let's when we are making a suggestion.
Let's go to the cinema.
Let's stay at home.
Let's not argue. (formal)
Don't let's argue. (informal)
Compare these
Let us watch TV, please. (asking for permission)
Let's watch TV. (a suggestion)
There are many fixed expressions, idioms and phrasal verbs using let.
Let alone means 'much less'
I've never been to Africa, let alone Ghana.
I've never met any actor, let alone Brad Pitt.
Let go can mean to dismiss
My company let 20 people go.
I was let go three weeks ago.
Let your hair down means to lose your inhibitions.
At the office party, everybody let their hair down and we had fun.
Don't let it get you down means to stay cheerful although something bad has happened.
Everybody makes mistakes. Don't let it get you down.
let you off'/let you off the hook means that you are excused, even though you did
something wrong or had something bad to do.
I made a mess but the boss let me off.
I was supposed to tidy up after the party but I was let off the hook as Sandra did it.
Letting off steam means to get rid of excess energy or frustration.
After work I go to the gym and let off steam on the treadmill.
We need to go out after the exams and let off steam.
Let me see and let me think are expressions used to give you time to think.
You want a raise? Let me think. Can we discuss this later?
A good place for lunch? Let me see. How about the Italian restaurant?
Let's say and let's suppose are used to talk about hypothetical situations.
Let's say that you were boss. What would you do?
Let's suppose that we don't get the contract. What do we do?
Let's hope is used to express a hope.
Let's hope he gets the job.
Yes, let's hope so.
A question tag is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-
question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a
"question tag".
We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English.They are not really
questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the
conversation open.
Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there is no
auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a
negative sentence, make a positive tag..
The basic structure is:
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
Statement Question Tag
+ Positive statement, - negative tag?
Snow is white, isn't it?
- Negative statement, + positive tag?
You don't like me,do you?
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean
something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.
Notice that the question tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb when be) from the
statement and changes it to negative or positive.
Here are some rules to follow:
1.QUESTION TAG = AUXILIARY + PERSONAL PRONOUN:
Tony can run really fast, can't he?
The twins are very nice, aren't they?
2.If there is no auxiliary in the statement, use a form of do in the question tag:
Mum cooks fantastic meals, doesn't she?
3. Positive statements => Negative question tags;
Negative statements => Positive question tags:
That's your workbook, isn't it?
That's not true, is it?
They will help us, won't they?
4. Orders and commands are followed by "will you":
Don't open the windows, will you?
Help your dad in the garage, will you?
5. Let's is followed by "shall we":
Let's start homework now, shall we?
Let's go shopping, shall we?
6. AND DON'T FORGET :
The question tag "am I not" is totally incorrect; always say: "aren't I":
I am late, aren't I?
The statements and the question tags take the same tenses:
Bob helped you a lot, didn't he?
You will help me tomorrow, won't you?
There are five ways in which we normally use question tags and they are easily explained
here.
1. Positive/negative
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative.
Example: “He’s a doctor, isn’t he?”
Example: “You work in a bank, don’t you?” ( Note that if there is not an auxiliary use do,
does, or didn’t at the end of the sentence)
If the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
Example: “You haven’t met him, have you?”
Example: “She isn’t coming, is she?”
2. With auxiliary verbs
The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary
verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.
Example: “They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?”
Example: “They weren’t here, were they?”
Example: “He had met him before, hadn’t he?”
Example: “This isn’t working, is it?”
3. Without auxiliary verbs
If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an
appropriate form of ‘do’.
Example: “I said that, didn’t I?”
Example: “You don’t recognise me, do you?”
Example: “She eats meat, doesn’t she?”
4. With modal verbs
If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same
modal verb.
Example: “They couldn’t hear me, could they?”
Example: “You won’t tell anyone, will you?”
5. With ‘I am’
Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I am’ is
‘aren’t I?’
Example: “I’m the fastest, aren’t I?”
or in a negative form we use the same “am” form at the end as in the positive form of the
sentence.
Example: “I’m not fat , am I?”
Quantifiers form a sub-class under determiners. They are adjectives or phrases that serve
to answer two possible questions:
1. How many?
2. and How much?
For example: a few, a little, much, many, most, some, any, enough, etc., are quantifiers.
Quantifiers that describe quantity
Words and phrases that describe quantity include a little, none, a few, etc. Some of these
are used only with:
Countable nouns - These are the nouns that answer the question How many? For
example: a few, a number of, several, etc.
Uncountable nouns - These are the nouns that answer the question How much? For
example: a little, a bit of, etc.)
Some of them are also used with both. These are the ones that answer both questions. For
example: such as no/none, some, a lot of, etc.
Quantifiers that express attitude
The words few, little and the phrases - a few and a little serve to describe the speaker's
attitude to the quantity being described. The first two carry negative suggestions, whereas the
last two carry positive suggestions. For e.g.:
The phrase I have little time means that the speaker hardly has time, whereas the phrase
I have a little time means that while the speaker may not have all the time in the world, but
s/he has enough for the purpose at hand.
'Enough'
Enough is used to indicate the necessary amount or quantity; it is placed before nouns.
For e.g.: There is enough time, You have enough money, Is there enough food?, etc.
Comparative quantifiers
There are ten comparative or grade quantifiers: much, many, more, most, few, fewer,
fewest, little, less, and least.
Much, many, more and most describe (in ascending order) increase; much is used only
with uncountable nouns, many only with plural countable nouns, and more and most with
both.
I have much time. < I have more time. < I have the most time.
I have many apples. < I have more apples. < I have the most apples.
Few, fewer, fewest, little, less and least chart decrease. The first three (in descending
order) are used only with countable plural nouns. The last three (in descending order) are
used only with uncountable nouns.
He has few friends. > He has fewer friends. > He has the fewest friends.
He has little time. > He has less time. > He has the least time.
Figure of Speech is departure from the ordinary form of expression, or the ordinary
course of ideas in order to produce a greater effect.
Figure-of-Speech may be classified as under:
1. Those based on resemblance
* Simile
* Metaphor
* Personification
* Apostrophe
2. Those based on Contrast:
* Antithesis
* Epigram
3. Those based on Association:
* Metonymy
* Synecdoche
4. Thos depending on Construction:
* Climax
* Anticlimax
In Personification, inanimate objects and abstract notions are spoken of as having life and
intelligence.
Examples:
* Death lays its icy hands on King.
* Pride goes forth on horseback, grand and gay.
* Laughter is holding her both sides.
In Simile, a comparison is made between two object of different kinds which have at least
one point in common.
The Simile is introduced by the word 'as…as'.
Examples:
* As active as quicksilver
* As afraid as a grasshopper * As afraid as a grasshopper
* As ageless as the sun
* As agile as a cat
* As agile as a monkey
* As alert as a bird
* As alike as two peas
* As alone as a leper
* As alone as Crusoe
* As ambitious as the devil
This Figure-of-Speech is widely used by us in our writings.
NOTE:
A comparison of two things of same kind is not a Simile.
In Antithesis, a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments is made in the same
sentence.It is employed to secure emphasis.
Examples:
* Man proposes, but God disposes.
* Not that I loved Caesar less, but I loved Rome more.
* Speech is silver, but Silence is Gold.
* Many are called, but few are chosen.
* To err is human, but to forgive on divine.
An Apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a personified object or
idea. This figure is a special form of Personification.
Examples:
* Milton! You should not be living at this hour.
* Friend! I know not which way I must look for comfort.
* Roll on! Thou deep and dark blue ocean , roll.
* Death! Where is thy sting? O Grave! Where is thy victory?
An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequently introducing antithetical ideas which
excite surprise and arrest attention.
Examples:
* The child is the father of the man.
* Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
* In the midst of life, we are in death.
* Art lies in concealing art.
* He makes no friend who never made a foe.
* A man can not be too careful in the choice of his enemies.
* The proper study of mankind is man.
Noun that distinguishes between male and female s called Gender.
There are three genders properly so called: Masculine, Feminine and Neuter. The
distinction of male and female in nature is called sex. The distinction between Masculine
and Feminine in words is called Gender. Masculine Gender
A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of Masculine Gender.
Example:
boy,drake,drone,brother
Feminine Gender
A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of Feminine Gender.
Example:
girl,duck,bee,sister
Neuter Gender
A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of Feminine Gender.Neuter means
neither male or female.
Example:
book,pen,room,tree
Objects without life are often personified that is spoken as if they were living
beings.We than regard them as males or females.
The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence.
Example:
The Sun,Summer,Winter,Time,Death
The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for
beauty,gentleness, and gracefulness.
Example:
The Moon,the earth,Spring,Autumn,Nature,Liberty
People
Masculine Faminine
actor
author
bachelor
boy
Boy Scout
brave
bridegroom
brother
conductor
count
czar
dad
daddy
duke
emperor
father
father-in-law
fiance
gentleman
giant
god
governor
grandfather
headmaster
heir
hero
host
hunter
husband
king
lad
landlord
lord
man
manager
manservant
master
mayor
milkman
millionaire
monitor
monk
Mr.
murderer
Negro
nephew
papa
poet
postman
postmaster
priest
prince
prophet
proprietor
protector
shepherd
sir
son
son-in-law
step-father
step-son
steward
sultan
tailor
uncle
waiter
washerman
widower
wizard
actress
authoress
spinster
girl
Girl Guide
Squaw
bride
sister
comductress
countess
czarina
mum
mummy
duchess
empress
mother
mother-in-law
fiancee
lady
giantess
goddess
matron
grandmother
headmistress
heiress
heroine
hostess
huntress
wife
queen
lass
landlady
lady
woman
manageress
maidservant
mistress
mayoress
milkmaid
millionairess
monitress
nun
Mrs.
murderess
Negress
niece
mama
poetess
postwoman
postmistress
prietess
princess
prophetess
proprietress
protectress
shepherdess
madam
daughter
daughter-in-law
step-mother
step-daughter
stewardess
sultana
tailoress
aunt
waitress
washerwoman
widow
witch
Creatures
Masculine
Faminine
billy-goat
boar
buck (deer, hare)
buck-rabbit
bull
bull-elephant
bull-seal
bullock
bull-whale
cob (swan)
cock
cockerel
cock-pigeon
colt (young horse)
dog
drake
drone
fox
gander
hawk
he-bear
he-goat
he-wolf
jack-ass
leopard
lion
peacock
ram (sheep)
stag
stallion
tiger
tom-cat
turkey-cock
nanny-goat
sow
doe
doe-rabbit
cow
cow-elephant
cow-seal
heifer
cow-whale
pen
hen
pullet
hen-pigeon
filly
bitch
duck
bee
vixen
goose
bowess
she-bear
she-goat
she-wolf
jenny-ass, she-ass
leopardess
lioness
peahen
ewe
hind
mare
tigress
tabby-cat
turkey-hen
WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS
There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:
By using an entirely different word; as
Masculine -- Feminine
Bachelor -- maid, spinster
Boy -- girl
Brother -- sister
Buck -- doe
Bull (or ox) -- cow
Bullock -- heifer
Cock -- hen
Colt -- filly
Dog -- bitch
Drake -- duck
Drone -- bee
Earl -- countess
Father -- mother
Gander -- goose
Gentleman -- lady
Hart -- roe
Horse -- mare
Husband -- wife
King -- queen
Lord -- lady
Man -- woman
Monk (or friar) -- nun
Nephew -- niece
Papa -- mamma
Ram -- ewe
Sir -- madam
Son -- daughter
Stag -- hind
Uncle -- aunt
Wizard -- witch
By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
Masculine -- Feminine
Author -- authoress
Baron -- baroness
Count -- countess
Giant -- giantess
Heir -- heiress
Host -- hostess
Jew -- Jewess
Lion -- lioness
Manager -- manageress
Mayor -- mayoress
Patron -- patroness
Peer -- peeress
Poet -- poetess
Priest -- priestess
Prophet -- prophetess
Shepherd -- shepherdess
Steward -- stewardess
Viscount -- viscountess
[Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine
ending]
Masculine -- Feminine
Actor -- actress
Benefactor -- benefactress
Conductor -- conductress
Enchanter -- enchantress
Founder -- foundress
Hunter -- huntress
Instructor -- instructress
Negro -- negress
Abbot -- abbess
Duke -- duchess
Emperor -- empress
Preceptor -- preceptress
Prince -- princess
Songster -- songstress
Tempter -- temptress
Seamster -- seamstress
Tiger -- tigress
Traitor -- traitress
Waiter -- waitress
Master -- mistress
Murderer -- murderess
Sorcerer -- sorceress
Note:- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from
the Masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
Masculine -- Feminine
Hero -- heroine
Testator -- testatrix
Czar -- czarina
Sultan -- sultana
Signor -- signora
Fox -- vixen
By placing a word before or after; as,
Masculine -- Feminine
Grandfather -- grandmother
Greatuncle -- greataunt
Manservant -- maidservant
Landlord -- landlady
milkman -- milkwoman
peacock -- peahen
salesman -- saleswoman
The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive.
Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in
meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.
Example:
I prefer to live in an apartment.
I prefer living in an apartment.
Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:
allow
attempt
begin
bother
cease
continue
deserve
fear*
hate*
intend*
like
love
neglect
omit
permit
prefer*
recommend*
start
Notes:
1. Allow is used in these two patterns:
a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:
Her parents allowed her to go to the party.
b. Allow + gerund:
Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.
2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or
where there is a passive meaning:
Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.
These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).
3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is
general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must
always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.
Compare:
I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.
I hate looking after elderly relatives!
I love dancing .
I would love to dance with you.
Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning :
Verbs marked with an asterisk * can also be followed by a that-clause .
Examples
come
forget *
go on
mean *
regret *
remember *
stop
try
Examples
Come:
Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that
the subject is doing something as they move:
She came running across the field.
Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the
subject's control:
At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour.
How did you come to be outside the wrong house?
This word has come to mean something quite different.
Forget, regret and remember:
When these verbs are followed by a gerund , the gerund refers to an action that happened
earlier:
I remember locking the door ( = I remember now, I locked the door earlier)
He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken
rudely at some earlier time in the past.)
Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form:
I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time.
When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive , the infinitive refers to an action
happening at the same time, or later:
I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.)
Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.)
We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry
before we tell you this bad news.)
Go on:
Go on + gerund means to continue with an action:
He went on speaking for two hours.
I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted.
Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a
process:
After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company.
John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member
of Parliament.
Mean:
Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary:
If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day.
We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel.
Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan:
Did you mean to dial this number?
I mean to finish this job by the end of the week!
Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.
Stop:
Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress:
I stopped working for them because the wages were so low.
Stop tickling me!
Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the
infinitive is used to express a purpose:
I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was
doing in order to eat.)
It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answer the phone
every five minutes.
Try:
Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your
problem.
If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or
you could try drinking some warm milk.
'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?'
Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very
difficult or even impossible:
The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table.
We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone.
People have to try to live together in harmony.
The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund.
The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the word does in
the sentence.
The present participle
This is most commonly used:
as part of the continuous form of a verb,
he is painting ; she has been waiting
after verbs of movement/position in the pattern:
verb + present participle ,
She sat looking at the sea
after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle ,
We saw him swimming
as an adjective, e.g. amazing , worrying , exciting , boring
The gerund
This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be
used:
as the subject of the sentence:
Eating people is wrong.
after prepositions:
Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
She is good at painting
after certain verbs,
e.g. like , hate , admit , imagine
in compound nouns,
e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird- watching , train- spotting.
This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common
to call both forms 'the -ing form' . However it is useful to understand the difference between
the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so
it can be used:
as the subject of the sentence:
Eating people is wrong.
Hunting tigers is dangerous.
Flying makes me nervous.
as the complement of the verb 'to be' :
One of his duties is attending meetings.
The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.
One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.
after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition:
Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
She is good at painting .
They're keen on windsurfing .
She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.
This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no
point in..:
There's no point in waiting .
In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.
after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb
Example:
to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on:
I look forward to hearing from you soon. ( at the end of a letter)
When are you going to give up smoking ?
She always puts off goi ng to the dentist.
He kept on asking for money.
NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a
preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive : - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to,
to be used to. It is important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be
followed by a gerund:
We are looking forward to seeing you.
I am used to waiting for buses.
She didn't really take to studying English.
It is possible to check whether 'to? is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive : if you can
put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a
gerund:
I am accustomed to it (the cold).
I am accustomed to being cold.
in compound nouns
Example:
a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird- watching , train- spotting
It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous verb.
Example:
the pool is not swimming, it is a pool for swimming in .
after the expressions:
can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the adjective worth:
She couldn't help falling in love with him.
I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
It's no use/good trying to escape.
It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.
The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following
ways:
as part of the continuous form of a verb
Example:
I am working
he was singing
they have been walking
after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle
Example
She went shopping
He lay looking up at the clouds
She came running towards me
This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go' , as in these common
expressions :
Examples
to go shopping
to go ski-ing
to go fishing
to go surfing
to go walking
to go swimming
to go running
to go dancing
after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle
Example
I heard someone singing .
He saw his friend walking along the road.
I can smell something burning !
NOTE : There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive
rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to
an incomplete action, or part of an action.
Compare:
I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on
afterwards)
I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance )
as an adjective
Examples
amazing, worrying, exciting, boring.
It was an amazing film.
It's a bit worrying when the police stop you
Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.
Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph.
He was trapped inside the burning house.
Many of his paintings depict the setting sun.
with the verbs spend and waste , in the pattern:
verb + time/money expression + present participle
Example
My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.
Don't waste time playing computer games!
They've spent the whole day shopping .
with the verbs catch and find , in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle:
With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger:
If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!
Don't let him catch you reading his letters.
This is not the case with find , which is unemotional:
We found some money lying on the ground.
They found their mother sitting in the garden.
to replace a sentence or part of a sentence:
When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we
can use a present participle to describe one of them:
They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went. They went laughing out into the
snow.
He whistled to himself. He walked down the road. Whistling to himself, he walked down
the road.
When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we
can express the first action with a present participle:
He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house.
She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in
the air.
The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because , and it
explains the cause or reason for an action:
Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.
(= because he felt hungry...)
Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.
The gerund is used after certain verbs.
Example: miss : I miss living in England.
The most important of these verbs are shown below.
Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause
Example
Verb Gerund
She admitted...
breaking the window
That-Clause
She admitted...
that she had broken the window.
Note:
Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund
does not refer to the subject.
Compare :
I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...)
I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...)
Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and
the gerund (both common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund
(more formal and less likely to be said):
Excuse me interrupting .
Excuse me for interrupting .
Excuse my interrupting .
Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but Be Careful .
It is important not to confuse these patterns:
suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund:
He suggests going to Glastonbury
He suggested going to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury
suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted):
He suggests that I should go to New York
He suggested that I should go to New York
He suggested/suggests I should go to New York
He suggested/suggests I go to New York
He suggested I went to New York.
suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive:
He suggested where to go.
Propose is followed by the gerund when it means ' suggest':
John proposed going to the debate
but by the infinitive when it means 'intend':
The Government proposes bringing in new laws ..
Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning.
Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think' , in the expression 'I dread to
think':
I dread to think what she'll do next.
Prevent is followed
Either by a possessive adjective + gerund:
You can't prevent my leaving .
OR by an object + from + gerund:
You can't prevent me from leaving .
Example:
Normally, a girl wouldn't think of marrying a man she did not love.
Most people don't like receiving bad news.
We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes.
If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night.
I can't imagine living in that big house.
If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London.
She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge.
They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved.
There is no one 'future tense' in English. There are 4 future forms. The one which is used
most often in spoken English is 'going to', not 'will'.
We use 'going to' when we want to talk about a plan for the future.
I'm going to see him later today.
They're going to launch it next month.
We're going to have lunch first.
She's going to see what she can do.
I'm not going to talk for very long.
Notice that this plan does not have to be for the near future.
When I retire I'm going to go back to Barbados to live.
In ten years time, I'm going to be boss of my own successful company.
We use 'going to' when we want to make a prediction based on evidence we can see now.
Look out! That cup is going to fall off.
Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain soon.
These figures are really bad. We're going to make a loss.
You look very tired. You're going to need to stop soon.
We can replace 'going to go' by 'going'.
I'm going out later.
She's going to the exhibition tomorrow.
We use "had better" plus the infinitive without "to" to give advice. Although "had" is the
past form of "have", we use "had better" to give advice about the present or future.
You'd better tell her everything.
I'd better get back to work.
We'd better meet early.
The negative form is "had better not".
You'd better not say anything.
I'd better not come.
We'd better not miss the start of his presentation.
We use "had better" to give advice about specific situations, not general ones. If you want
to talk about general situations, you must use "should".
You should brush your teeth before you go to bed.
I shouldn't listen to negative people.
He should dress more appropriately for the office.
When we give advice about specific situations, it is also possible to use "should".
You shouldn't say anything.
I should get back to work.
We should meet early.
However, when we use "had better" there is a suggestion that if the advice is not
followed, that something bad will happen.
You'd better do what I say or else you will get into trouble.
I'd better get back to work or my boss will be angry with me.
We'd better get to the airport by five or else we may miss the flight.
Homonyms generally include two categories of word types: homophones and
homographs.
Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings.
Homophones are words that sound the same when you pronounce them, but have
different meanings.
This list contains both homophones and homographs.
ade - drink type, as in lemonade
aid - to help or assist
aide - assistant
affect - change
effect - result or consequence
air - atmosphere (the stuff we breathe)
err - to make a mistake
aisle - walkway
I'll - I will
isle - island
allowed - permitted
aloud - out loud
ant - picnic pest
aunt - relative, as in your mom's sister
arc - curve
ark - Noah's boat
ate - chewed up and swallowed
eight - number after seven
bare - uncovered
bear - grizzly animal
berry - fruit from a bush
bury - to put underground
base - bottom part
bass - deep or low
be - to exist
bee - buzzing insect
beach - sandy shore
beech - type of tree
beat - to pound
beet - type of edible plant
berth - tie up
birth - to be born
bite - nibble
byte - 8 bits (computer data)
blew - past of blow
blue - color of ocean
boar - pig
bore - not interesting bore - to drill
borough - area or district
burrow - dig through
burro - small donkey
bough - branch
bow - bend or curtsy
buoy - floater
boy - young man
brake - stop pedal
break - smash
bread - bakery food
bred - form of breed
broach - mention
brooch - pin
brows - eyebrows
browse - look around
buy - purchase
by - beside
by - originating from,BR. bye - short for goodbye
cell - compartment
sell - vend
cent - penny coin
sent - did send
cereal - breakfast food
serial - sequential
Chile - country in South America
chili - bean stew
chilly - frosty
chord - musical tone
cord - rope
cite - quote
site - location
sight - view
close - opposite of open
clothes - clothing
complement - enhance; go together
compliment - praise
council - committee
counsel - guidance
creak - squeak
creek - stream of water
crews - gangs
cruise - ride on a boat
dear - darling
deer - woodland animal
dew - morning mist
do - operate
due - payable
die - cease to exist
dye - color
doe - female dear
dough - uncooked bread
dual - double
duel - battle
ewe - female sheep
you - second-person personal pronoun
eye - sight organ
I - me
fair - equal
fare - price
fairy - elflike creature with wings
ferry - boat
faze - impact
phase - stage
feat - achievement
feet - plural of foot
fir - type of tree
fur - animal hair
flea - small biting insect
flee - run
flew - did fly
flu - illness
flour - powdery, ground up grain
flower - blooming plant
for - on behalf of
fore - front
four - one more than three
forth - onward
fourth - number four
knew - did know
new - not old
gorilla - big ape
guerrilla - warrior
grease - fat
Greece - country in Europe
groan - moan
grown - form of grow
hair - head covering
hare - rabbit-like animal
hall - passageway
haul - tow
halve - cut in two parts
have - possess
hay - animal food
hey - interjection to get attention
heal - mend
heel - back of foot
hi - hello
high - up far
hoarse - croaky
horse - riding animal
hole - opening
whole - entire
holey - full of holes
holy - divine
wholly - entirely
hour - sixty minutes
our - belonging to us
knead - massage
need - desire
knight - feudal horseman
night - evening
knot - tied rope
not - negative
know - have knowledge
no - opposite of yes
lead - metal
led - was the leader
lessen - make smaller
lesson - class
loan - lend
lone - solitary
made - did make
maid - servant
mail - postage
male - opposite of female
marry - to wed
merry - very happy
meat - animal protein
meet - encounter
none - not any
nun - woman who takes special vows
oar - boat paddle
or - otherwise
ore - mineral
oh - expression of surprise or awe
owe - be obligated
one - single
won - did win
overdo - do too much
overdue - past due date
pail - bucket
pale - not bright
pain - hurt
pane - window glass
peace - calm
piece - segment
peak - highest point
peek - glance
plain - ordinary
plane - flight machine plane - flat surface
pole - post
poll - survey
poor - not rich
pour - make flow
pray - implore God
prey - quarry
principal - most important
principle - belief
rain - water from sky
rein - bridle
rap - tap
wrap - drape around
real - factual
reel - roll
right - correct; not left
write - scribble
ring - encircle
wring - squeeze
role - function
roll - rotate
rose - flower
rows - lines
sail - move by wind power
sale - bargain price
scene - landscape
seen - viewed
sea - ocean segment
see - observe with eyes
seam - joining edge
seem - appear
sew - connect with thread
so - as a result
sow - plant
soar - ascend
sore - hurt place
sole - single
soul - essence
some - a few
sum - amount
steal - swipe
steel - alloy
tail - animal's appendage
tale - story
their - belonging to them
there - at that place
they're - they are
to - toward
too - also
toe - foot appendage
tow - pull along
vary - differ
very - much
wail - howl
whale - huge swimming mammal
waist - area below ribs
waste - squander
wait - kill time
weight - measurable load
war - battle
wore - did wear
warn - caution
worn - used
way - path
weigh - measure mass
we - us
wee - tiny
weak - not strong
week - period of seven days
weather - climate
whether - if
which - that
witch - sorcerer
your - belonging to you
you're - you are
Idioms combination of words that has a figurative meaning .Meaning Of Idioms
cannot be understood by refering an english dictionary.
For example, " easygoing "An English dictionary would explain that "easy "
means simple, not difficult ", and that " going " means traveling from one place to
another. Thus you could literally translate easygoing as meaning the path from one place
to another is not complicated or physically far, by adding together these dictionary
meanings. But this interpretation is NOT CORRECT. Idiomatically, we mean that such a
person's personality is warm, friendly, pleasant, and helpful.
Examples:
A piece of cake
Meaning: Easy, simple to do, no difficulties.
A drop in the ocean
Meaning: A very small part of something.
Idioms and Their Meanings.
Absence makes the heart grow fonder
Meaning: You love a person more when they are away.
Et tu, Brutus?
Meaning: Apparently the last words of Julius Caesar.
Brand spanking new
Meaning: A new or unused object.
Break a leg
Meaning: To wish good luck.
Cat bird seat
Meaning: To be a vantage point.
Chew the fat
Meaning: To talk about unimportant things.
Clear as bell
Meaning: To be understood clearly.
Cold Turkey
Meaning: To quit something abruptly and experience severe withdrawal
symptoms.
* Blessing in disguise
Something good which isn't recognized in the first instant.
Eg.Getting out of the place was a blessing in disguise for me.
* A doubting Thomas
A skeptic person who needs a tangible evidence to believe.
Eg.My boss is a doubting Thomas, there is no point trying to convince him.
* A dime a dozen
Something that is available in plenty and commonly.
Eg.Such bags are available dime a dozen on Fashion Street.
* A leopard can't change his spots
You can't change who you are.
Eg.It's true a leopard can't change his spots, but he sure can change his strategy.
* Against the clock
A hectic dash or running against time.
Eg.Finishing the paper was a race against the clock.
* Cry wolf
To intentionally give a false alarm.
Eg."Stop crying wolf, or else no one will come to your help in case of need."
* Devil's advocate
Someone who takes a position in an argument without knowing the truth. Or
someone who counters the argument without believing in it.
Eg.He is just playing devil's advocate. Don't fall for the trap.
* Turn over a new leaf
Changing for the better
Eg.After Ajith was released from prison, he decided to turn over a new leaf and
become an honest man.
* Hit below the belt
To act in an unfair matter
Eg.The candidate of the opposition party spread false rumours about the Minister. People
felt that he was hitting below the belt.
* Gift of the gab
The ability to speak well
Eg.The ability to speak well
A clause is a grouping of words in English that contains a subject and a verb.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. They can be of two types: independent and
dependent. It is important for the purpose of sentence formation to be able to recognise
independent and dependent clauses.
Independent clauses are clauses that express a complete thought. They can function as
sentences. For e.g. 'Ram left to buy supplies' is an independent clause, and if you end it with
a full stop, it becomes a sentence.
Dependent clauses, on the other hand, do not express a complete thought and thus
cannot function as sentences. For e.g. 'When Ram left to buy supplies' cannot be a sentence
because it is an incomplete thought. What happened when Ram went to the shop?
Here, 'when' functions as a 'dependent marker word'; this term refers to words which,
when added to the beginnings of independent clauses or sentences, transform them into
dependent clauses. Other examples of dependent marker words are after , although, as,
as if, because, before, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever,
whether, and while.
Dependent clauses, thus, need to be combined with independent clauses to form full
sentences. For e.g., 'When Ram left to buy supplies, Rohan snuck in and stole the money' is
a complete
An infinitive is a verb combined with the word to. Most often, an infinitive acts as a noun
in the sentence. Less frequently, it acts as an adjective or an adverb.
I want to go home early today.
I hope to be chosen as a member.
I prefer to go there earlier.
You need to consider various rules in writing sentences.
You have to explain your reasoning in detail.
You might wish to act as a teacher.
To leave for a vacation is my only wish at this time.
A common mistake in a relationship is not to trust the other person.
Help me to save the trees!
To be mentally healthy, you must read books.
Do you want me to fill out this form?
Here is our to-do list.
It was nice to meet you.
It is time to move on.
I am young enough to change my habits.
Don't forget not to make grammar mistakes.
You are required to leave all your belongings here.
I came to see a doctor today.
You have to work harder to succeed.
I need to take three more classes to finish my graduate study.
I got closer to the speaker to listen clearly.
Be sure to check if you have tickets.
I am going to buy the new computer.
Generally, it is not common to split to and the verb except for when you want to
emphasize the verb.
I want you to immediately stop doing that.
You have to seriously work hard to succeed.
You need to definitely explain your reasoning in detail.
Commonly, an infinitive is used with the subject it. The sentence structure is "It is
+ infinitive" It refers to the infinitive. Thisexpression is used in many ways.
It is time to do math.
It is common to think that way.
It is appropriate to keep a low profile.
It was nice to see you.
It was my pleasure to meet you.
It was my honor to have dinner with you.
It is good to see you.
It was great to go on a trip with them.
Both gerunds and infinitive phrases can function as nouns, in a variety of ways.
Gerunds and infinitives can follow certain verbs but not others. You need to remember
which verbs can be followed by only a gerund or only an infinitive.
Verbs that can precede only gerunds:
consider, suggest, enjoy, deny, avoid, miss, mind, practice, postpone, resist, finish,
quit, give up, put off
Verbs that can precede only infinitive s:
offer, decide, hope, attempt, promise, agree, afford, deserve, refuse, undertake, learn,
fail, seem, appear, tend, pretend, choose, demand, desire, guarantee, claim, manage,
determine, expect, want, wish
Verbs that can precede either gerunds or infinitive s without changing meanings:
continue, like, love, begin, start, propose, neglect, stand, hate
Verbs that can precede either gerunds or infinitive s but change meanings:
forget, remember, stop, try
I stopped watching the movie. (I no longer watched the movie.)
I stopped to watch the movie. (I stopped what I was doing to watch the movie.)
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like
Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually
more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence,
they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes
followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written. The table below shows some
interjections with examples.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely
common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate
that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when
you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
interjection meaning example
ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand." expressing resignation
"Ah well, it can't be heped." expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!" eh
asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." expressing enquiry
"What do you think of that, eh?" expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?" er
expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." hello, hullo
expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?" expressing surprise
"Hello! My car's gone!" hey calling attention
"Hey! look at that!" expressing surprise, joyetc "Hey! What a good idea!"
hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"
hmm expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement "Hmm. I'm not so sure."
oh, o expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"
expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache." expressing pleading
"Oh, please say 'yes'!" ouch expressing pain
"Ouch! That hurts!" uh expressing hesitation
"Uh...I don't know the answer to that." uh-huh expressing agreement
"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." um, umm expressing hesitation
"85 divided by 5 is...um...17." well expressing surprise
"Well I never!" introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"
Liitle means 'hardly any' and it has a negative meaning.
Example :
There is little water in the jug.
Practically it means no water.
A Liitle means 'some, but not much' and it has a positive meaning.
Example :
There is a little water in the jug.
Practically it means some water
We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical
deduction based upon some clear evidence or reason.
There's no heating on. You must be freezing.
You must be worried that she is so late coming home.
I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old.
It must be nice to live in Florida.
We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means
that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost
certainly agrees with the obligation.)
I must go to bed earlier.
They must do something about it.
You must come and see us some time.
I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him.
We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this
usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary.
I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict.
We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract.
You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you.
I have to send a report to Head Office every week.
In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'.
I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine.
We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.
We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually
means that that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary. (Remember that
'will' is often used to show 'willingness'.)
I'll have to speak to him.
We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip.
They'll have to do something about it.
I'll have to get back to you on that.
As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small and
very subtle. However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms.
We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something.
We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential.
I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me.
You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls.
They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something.
We use 'don't have to' (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO
obligation or necessity.
We don't have to get there on time. The boss is away today.
I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving.
You don't have to come if you don't want to.
He doesn't have to sign anything if he doesn't want to at this stage.
I haven't got to go. Only if I want to
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are
"actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness
(noun) is something you want (verb). Another example is "human being"". A human
being (noun) is something you are (verb).
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing
teacher, school, book
Types
Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns
dog/dogs, rice, hair(s)
Proper Nouns (Names)
Do we say "Atlantic Ocean" or "the Atlantic Ocean"? Should I write "february" or
"February"?
Shirley, Mr Jeckyll, Thailand, April, Sony
Possessive 's
Adding 's or ' to show possession.
John's car, my parents' house
Noun as Adjective
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun is
"acting as" an adjective.
love story, tooth-brush, bathroom
In English grammar, words that refer to people, places, or things are called nouns. They
can be classified in many ways.
One way to classify nouns is according to whether they can be counted or not.
Many English mistakes are related to this point. By reading through this page, you will
understand:
what countable and uncountable nouns are
how to use them correctly in a sentence
Countable (or count) nouns are words which can be counted. They have a singular
form and a plural form. They usually refer to things. Most countable nouns become plural by
adding an ‘s’ at the end of the word.
Example
Singular Plural
chair chairs
bottle bottles
student students
Uncountable (or non-count) nouns are words which cannot be counted. Therefore, they
only have a singular form. They have no plural forms. These words are thought of as
wholes rather than as parts. They usually refer to abstractions (such as confidence or
advice) or collectives (such as equipment or luggage).
Example
Singular
money
furniture
information
Nouns name people, places, and things. Every noun can further be classified as
common or proper. A proper noun has two distinctive features: 1) it will name a
specific [usually a one-of-a-kind] item, and 2) it will begin with a capital letter no
matter where it occurs in a sentence.
Check out the chart below:
Proper Nouns and Common Nouns
Common Noun Proper Noun
writer Herman Melville
teacher Mrs. Hacket
beagle Snoopy
cookie Oreo
cityOrlando Orlando
restaurant Tito's Taco Palace
document Declaration of Independence
school University of Southern California
Read the following sentences. Notice the difference between the common and
proper nouns.
Tina offered Antonio one of her mother's homemade oatmeal cookies but only an Oreo
would satisfy his sweet tooth.
Cookies = common noun; Oreo = proper noun.
Charlie had wanted an easy teacher for his composition class, but he got Mrs. Hacket,
whose short temper and unreasonable demands made the semester a torture.
Teacher = common noun; Mrs. Hacket = proper noun.
Gloria wanted to try a new restaurant, so Richard took her to Tito's Taco Palace,
where no one dips into the hot sauce until the drinks have arrived at the table.
Restaurant = common noun; Tito's Taco Palace = proper noun.
Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and
new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The
second part identifies the object or person in question ( man, friend, tank, table,
room ). The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is
( police, boy, water, dining, bed ):
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
What type / what purpose What or who
police man
boy friend
water tank
dining table
bedroom
The two parts may be written in a number of ways :
1. as one word.
Example: policeman , boyfriend
2. as two words joined with a hyphen.
Example: dining-table
3. as two separate words.
Example: fish tank .
There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you
know well as one word, and the others as two words.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
The two parts may be: Examples:
noun + noun bedroom
water tank
motorcycle
printer cartridge
noun + verb rainfall
haircut
train-spotting
noun + adverb hanger-on
passer-by
verb + noun washing machine
driving licence
swimming pool
verb + adverb* lookout
take-off
drawback
adjective + noun greenhouse
software
redhead
adjective + verb dry-cleaning
public speaking
adverb + noun onlooker
bystander
adverb + verb* output
overthrow
upturn
input
Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two separate
words.
Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun (e.g.
greenhouse ) and an adjective with a noun (e.g. green house ).
In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable:
a ' greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun)
a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun)
a ' bluebird = type of bird (compound noun)
a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun)
* Many common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb + adverb or
adverb + verb).
Examples
breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-up,
hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover.
Noun-Cases is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells us
about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES .
They are:
* Nominative case
* Objective case (or Accusative case)
* Dative case
* Possessive case (or Genitive case)
* Vocative case
All these five Cases have been explained in detail below.
Are you going as you wish in the process of learning Grammar ?
Take a breath.
This section of Noun-Cases will simplify your process.
1. Nominative case:
A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the
person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence)
Examples:
* Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.
Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case.
* The painter paints the portraits.
The painter is a common noun in Nominative case.
* I am buying vegetables for my family.
"I" is a pronoun in Nominative case.
These examples carry another term "pronoun" which is a word used to represent a noun.
For example:
I, We, You, He, She, it and they are the seven pronouns.
There are only seven pronouns.
Only other variations of these seven pronouns are there.
Those variations can be used in place of the nouns.
The next one in the Noun-cases is:
2. Objective case (or Accusative case):
Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of verbs
or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing upon whom
or upon which the action of the verb is carried out).
Examples:
* I met your sister.
"Your sister" is in objective case.
* The vendors sell mangoes.
"Mangoes" is in objective case.
* The book is on the table .
"Table" is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition 'on'.
* This is one of my policies.
"Policies" is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition 'of'.
The next one in the Noun-cases is:
3. Dative case:
A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object of
the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out). There should
not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will be the object of that
preposition.
Examples:
* The teacher gave the students few exercises.
"Students" is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb 'give'.
* The Postman brought me a letter.
"Me" is in dative case.
* Get him a pen.
"Him" is in dative case.
The next one in the Noun-cases is:
4. Possessive case (Genitive case):
A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or
pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it.
Examples:
* This is your pencil.
("Your" is in possessive case.
* It is our idea.
"Our" is in possessive case.
* John's sister has been hospitalized.
"John's" is in possessive case.
The last one in the Noun-cases is:
5. Vocative case:
A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the
attention of) a person or persons.
Examples:
* Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall.
"Mr. Bill" is in vocative case.
* You there, stand up.
"You" is in vocative case.
* Brother, a letter for you.
"Brother" is in vocative case.
* Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago.
"Chairman" is in vocative case.
The nouns do not change their forms in the Nominative and Objective cases. But few
pronouns change their formsbetween Nominative and Objective cases.
Nominative case ________Objective case_________ Possessive case
1. I ______ me _______ my
2. We_______us_____our
3. You______ You_____your
4. He______ him_____his
5. She_____her______her
6. It______it_______its
Phrase:- A group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase.
It is a group of related words without a Subject and a Verb.A Phrase consists of two or more
words lacking a complete sense and a complete verb. It may consist of one or more
incomplete verbs - the Infinitives or the Participles standing on their own.
Words/group of words in italics are phrases in examples below:
1).The sun rises in the east.
2). Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
3). She wore a hat with blue trimming.
4). The accident on the bridge was not serious.
5). The girl with red hair is an artist.
6). Sasha took a long leave.
7). Holding the toy, the child slept.Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is either a single noun or pronoun or a group of words containing a noun
or a pronoun that function together as a noun or pronoun, as the subject or object of a verb.
Examples:
Allthe kids were sleeping.
Theboy in the blue jeans says he'll do it.
He bought her a beautiful red dress.
Mom baked tastychocolate cookies.
Julia was thinking about her friends back home.
Will you talk with these rude people?
You are atrue hero.
My dog is mybest friend.
Under the Noun phrase comes three another phrase they are:
-Appositive Phrase
An appositive (single word, phrase, or clause) renames another noun, not technically
modifying it.
Example:“Bob, my best friend, works here” or “My best friend Bob works here.”
-Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase is just a noun phrase with a gerund as its head.
Example:“I love baking cakes.”
-Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase with an infinitive as its head. Unlike the other noun
phrases, however, an infinitive phrase can also function as an adjective or an adverb.
Example:“I love to bake cakes.”
Verb Phrase
In simple words, a verb of more than one word is called a verb phrase. It is a phrase
consisting of a verb, its auxiliaries (helping verbs), its complements, and other modifiers.
Auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb.A verb phrase is a syntactic unit that
corresponds to the predicate. There are two types of auxiliary verbs. Inflected auxiliary verbs
e.g. be, have, do and Modal auxiliary verbs e.g. will, should, must etc.
Examples:
She kept working like a machine.
They were being exploited.
Mom is making the room.
I came across these old books today.
Take off your clothes and jump in the lake.
Adverbial Phrase
An adverbial phrase (AdvP) is a linguistic term for a group of two or more words
operating adverbially, when viewed in terms of their syntactic function.
Example:
I'll go to bed soon.
Adjectival Phrase
An adjective phrase usually starts with a preposition (e.g., of, in, on) or a participle (e.g.,
taken, leaving) and follows the noun it is modifying.
Examples:
This is the end of a very long road.
Did you see the man leaving the shop?
Participial Phrase
participle phrase will begin with a present or past participle. If the participle is present, it
will dependably end in ing. Likewise, a regular past participle will end in a consistent ed.
Examples:
Dancing under the moon, she found perfect happiness.
Bitten by dog, he limped home in pain. leaving the shop?
Prepositional Phrase
Examples:
There are two children on a sled.
In this garden there are many strawberries.
The woman in the blue coat is looking for her dog.
Absolute Phrase
An absolute phrase modifies an entire sentence instead of a single word in the
sentence.An absolute phrase combines a noun and a participle with any accompanying
modifiers or objects.
Examples:
Legs quivering
Her arms folded across her chest
Our fingers scraping the leftover frosting off the plates
Pluralisation in English can be a bit of a tricky game, and as with any language the key to
mastering this aspect lies in practicing through reading and conversing until the variations
that appear unpredictable in the beginning become second nature, a matter of habit. Having
said that, there are certain principles that are generally applicable that make the task easier by
giving us a broad idea of how common words are pluralised. Let us take a look at these.
For most nouns, add an 's' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Car
Cars
Desk
Desks
Tree
Trees
Ball
Balls
Hand
Hands
For nouns that end with 's', 'x', 'z', 'ch', or 'sh', add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Boss
Bosses
Box
Boxes
Topaz
Topazes
Leech
Leeches
Dish
Dishes
For some words that end with 'o', add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Potato
Potatoes
Echo
Echoes
Hero
Heroes
For some words that end with 'o', add 's' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Photo
Photos
Piano
Pianos
Logo
Logos
Radio
Radios
For some words ending with 'f', replace the 'f' with a 'v' and add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Thief
Thieves
Loaf
Loaves
Half
Halves
Calf
Calves
Leaf
Leaves
For some words ending with 'f', add an 's' at the end of the word.
Examples
Sigular
Plural
Reefs
Reefs
Roof
Roofs
Chef
Chefs
For some words ending with 'ife', replace the 'f' with a 'v' and add an 's' at the end of the
word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Wife
Wives
Knife
Knives
Life
Lives
For common nouns ending with a consonant followed by 'y', replace the 'y' with an 'i' and
add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Nappy
Nappies
Poppy
Poppies
Fly
Flies
Penny
Pennies
Sty
Sties
Some nouns are the same in both forms.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Fish
Fish
Sheep
Sheep
Deer
Deer
Tuna
Tuna
Trout
Trout
For some nouns, other letters must be replaced or added, sometimes changing the words
completely.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Person
People
Ox
Oxen
Child
Children
Goose
Geese
Man
Men
Foot
Feet
A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and
expressing a relation to another word or element,as in:
She left before breakfast.
What did you come for?
(For what did you come?)
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you
think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words.
We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the
prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short
list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more
than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.
Prepositions List
1. aboard 2. about 3. above 4. across
5. after 6. against 7. along 8. amid
9. among 10. anti 11. around 12. as
13. at 14. before 15. behind 16. below
17. beneath 18. beside 19. besides 20. between
21. beyond22. but 23. by 24. concerning
25. considering 26. despite 27. down 28. during
29. except 30. excepting 31. excluding 32. following
33. for 34. from 35. in 36. inside
37. into 38. like 39. minus 40. near
41. of 42. off 43. on 44. onto
45. opposite 46. outside 47. over 48. past
49. per 50. plus 51. regarding 52. round
53. save 54. since 55. than 56. through
57. to 58. toward 59. towards 60. under
61. underneath 62. unlike 63. until 64. up
65. upon 66. versus 67. via 68. with
69. within 70. without ... ...
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no
exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
noun (dog, money, love)
proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
pronoun (you, him, us)
noun group (my first job)
gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb,
we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.In the following
sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible, according to the above
rule:
I would like to go now.
She used to smoke. Here are some examples:
Examples
Subject + verb preposition "noun"
The food is on the table.
She lives in Japan.
Tara is looking for you.
The letter is under your blue book.
Pascal is used to English people.
She isn't used to working.
I ate before coming.
Answer to Quick Quiz: In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It is part of the
infinitive
("to go", "to smoke").
Prepositions of Place:
at, in, on
In general, we use:
at for a POINT
in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
on for a SURFACE
Examples
at (Point) in (Enclosed Space) on (Surface)
at the corner in the garden on the wall
at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
at the door in France on the door
at the top of the page in a box on the cover
at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor
at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet
at the crossroads in a building on the menu
at the entrance in a caron a page
Look at these examples:
Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
The shop is at the end of the street.
My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
When will you arrive at the office?
Do you work in an office?
I have a meeting in New York.
Do you live in Japan?
Jupiter is in the Solar System.
The author's name is on the cover of the book.
There are no prices on this menu.
You are standing on my foot.
There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.
Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:
Examples
at in on
at home in a caron a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school in a helicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television
at the side in a row on the left, on the right
at reception in Oxford Street on the way
Prepositions of Time: at, in, on
We use:
at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATES
Examples
at (Precise Time) in (Months, Years, Centuries and Long Periods) on (Days and
Dates)
at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday
at 10.30amin summer on Tuesdays
at noon in the summer on 6 March
at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day
at sunrise in the next century on Independence Day
at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday
at the moment in the past/future on New Year's Eve
Look at these examples:
I have a meeting at 9am.
The shop closes at midnight.
Jane went home at lunchtime.
In England, it often snows in December.
Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
Do you work on Mondays?
Her birthday is on 20 November.
Where will you be on New Year's Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Examples
ExpressionExample
at night The stars shine at night.
at the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time We finished the test at the same time.
at present He's not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
Examples
in on
in the morning on Tuesday morning
in the mornings on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s)on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s) on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
I went to London last June. (not in last June)
He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of
a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have
pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.
Personal Pronouns
I, you, he, me, your, his...
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for convenience and
comparison.
Examples
number person gender* pronouns possessive
adjectives
subject object possessive reflexive
singular 1st m/f I me mine myself my
2nd m/f you you yours yourself your
3rd me he him his himself his
f she her hers herself her
n it it its itself its
plural 1st m/f we us ours ourselves our
2nd m/f you you yours yourselves your
3rd m/f/n they them theirs themselves their
Examples
pronoun subject She likes homework.
object The teacher gave me some homework.
possessive This homework is yours.
reflexive John did the homework himself.
possessive adjective The teacher corrected our homework.
Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their function in the
sentence.
Their function can be:
subjective (they act as the subject)
objective (they act as the object)
possessive (they show possession of something else)
The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.
Examples
Subjective case Objective case Possessive case
personal pronouns singular 1st I me my, mine
2nd you you your, yours
3rd he she it
him her it his her, hers its
plural 1st we us our, ours
2nd you you your, yours
3rd they them their, theirs
relative/interrogative pronouns who whom whose
whoever whomever
which/that/what which/that/what
indefinite pronouns everybody everybody everybody's
A problem of case: Mary and I or Mary and me?
Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)
The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)
In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case ("I").
In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case ("me").
An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say
"I am delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say "The letter was
addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?