biology sol review
DESCRIPTION
Biology SOL Review. A General Overview. Created by Rhonda Taylor, Menchville High School 2014. Water: Polarity. Caused by unequal sharing of electrons H end is more positively charged & O end is more negatively charged Causes water to be a good solvent (dissolver) - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Biology SOL ReviewA General Overview
Created by Rhonda Taylor, Menchville High School 2014
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Water: Polarity
• Caused by unequal sharing of electrons
• H end is more positively charged & O end is more negatively charged
• Causes water to be a good solvent (dissolver)
• Creates Hydrogen bonds
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Water: Hydrogen Bonds
• Attraction between the positive H of one water molecules & the negative O of another water molecule
• Weak bond
• Breaks & reforms easily
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Other Water Properties• Cohesion – water bonds to water• Adhesion – water bonds to other• Neutral – pH of 7• Surface Tension – cohesion, adhesion
& H bonds resistance to breakage• High Heat Capacity – absorbs a lot of
heat before getting hot & takes a long time to lose heat
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pH Scale• Shows how Acidic or Basic (Alkaline) something is• Acids: pH 0 – 6.9 • Bases: pH 7.1 – 14 • Neutral: pH 7
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CarbohydratesMonosaccharides
• Builds carb molecules• Used by cells for energy• C-H-O in a 1:2:1 ratio• Ex: Glucose C6H12O6
Disaccharides• 2 Monosaccharidesbonded together• Ex:
Sucrose (table sugar)(glucose + fructose)
Polysaccharides• 3+ monosaccharides bonded together• Used for long term storage of carbs• Ex: Starch (plants) & Glycogen
(animals)
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Lipids
• Fatty Acids are the building blocks • Examples:
Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Fats, Waxes & Oils• Used by the body
for: Long Term Energy Storage
Building Cell Membrane
Insulation Lubrication
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Proteins
• Made from 20 different Amino Acids• Functions:- Enzymes - speed up chemical reactions- Fight Disease (antibodies)- Build Structures (muscles, hemoglobin) • Polypeptides – many amino acids bonded
together = a Protein Molecule
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Nucleic Acids
• Nucleotides are the building blocks
• Examples include: DNA & RNA
• Carry genetic code and code for building proteins
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Cells & Processes
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Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes• Pro no! (Prokaryotic Cells do NOT have a nucleus)
Smaller in size, more primitive, EX: Bacteria
• Eu do! (Eukaryotic Cells DO have a nucleus)Generally larger in size, & contain complex membrane bound organelles, EX: Plant, Animal, Fungi & Protist Cells
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Plant Cell vs. Animal CellPlant Cells
• Eukaryotic• Boxy Shape• Have a Cell Wall• Have Chloroplasts• Have Chlorophyll • 1 Large Vacuole• NO Centrioles
Animal Cells• Eukaryotic• Rounder Shape• NO Cell Wall• NO Chloroplasts• NO Chlorophyll• 1 or more smaller Vacuoles• Have Centrioles
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Cell Organelles
Cell Organelle FunctionNucleus (like the Brain) Controls Functions; DNA is
hereCytoplasm (Jelly Like Fluid) Organelles found floating
around in this; Chemical Reactions happen here
Mitochondria (Powerhouse) Creates ATP; Site of Cell Respiration
Ribsomes (Little Dots) Site of Protein Synthesis; Made of rRNA
Chloroplast (Green) Site of Photosynthesis
Cell Membrane Regulates what enters & leaves
Cell Wall Rigid outer structure for support & protection
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Cell Membrane• Semi-permeable• Phospholipid Bilayer• Protein Channels• Regulates the materials
that enter and exit the cell
• Diffusion and Osmosis occur thru
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Diffusion
• Movement of substances (sugar, salt, ions, oxygen, amino acids, wastes, etc) through the cell membrane from higher to lower concentration
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Osmosis• The movement of water through a semi-permeable
membrane from higher water concentration to lower water concentration.
Importance to Living Things:• Carries nutrient rich liquid into cells• Balances pressure & concentration• Helps expel wastes• Needed by plants to absorb water from soil
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Photosynthesis
• Carried out by plants, some varieties of protists and some types of bacteria
• Occurs in the chloroplasts
• Chlorophyll is green pigment that traps light energy
CO2 + H2O + Sunlight C6H12O6 + O2
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Cellular Respiration
• Carried out by all living things
• Occurs in the Mitochondria
• ATP is created which is the energy molecule used by cells to do work
O2 + C6H12O6 H2O + CO2 + ATP (energy)
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DNA
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DNA vs RNA
• Deoxyribose sugar
• Thymine• Double Strand• Double Helix• Contains code
for building Proteins
• Found in the nucleus
• Ribose sugar• Uracil• Single Strand• 3 Types:
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
• Makes copies of proteins
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DNA Technology• Human Genome Project – mapping all human
genes on each of our 46 chromosomes• Detection & prevention of genetic disorders &
diseases • Advances in Genetic Engineering (insulin, disease
resistant fruits & vegetables, medicine)• Eugenics – the practice of improving the genetics of
the human race• Cloning – producing genetically identical individuals• Forensics – using DNA evidence for identification
purposes
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Genetics
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Genes: Dominant vs RecessiveDominant Genes
• Produces the Dominant Phenotype whether it’s allele is identical or not.
Recessive Genes• Will only produce the
Recessive Phenotype if both alleles are Recessive.
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Punnett Squares
Possibility for Offspring:
Genotypes –50% Bb 50% bb
Phenotypes – 50% Brown Eyed50% Green Eyed
Cross a Homozygous Recessive Green Eyed Mother with a Heterozygous Brown Eyed Father
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Protein Synthesis
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Transcription
• RNA Polymerase enzyme unzips DNA• mRNA makes a copy of the DNA code for
building a protein
Inside the Nucleus of the cell where DNA is located
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Translation• mRNA takes the DNA’s protein code to the
Ribosome in the cytoplasm• tRNA brings in the Amino Acids to build the Protein
Start codons & Stop codons tell the RNA where to begin & end when building a Protein
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Protein Structure & Function in the Body• Involved in virtually all cell functions• Each protein has a specific role. • Constructed from 20 types of amino acids• Have a distinct 3-D shape (Lock & Key Model)• If shape is altered (Denatured), it won’t
function
Proteins build many structures in our bodies…
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Evolution
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Darwin• Developed the
Theory of Evolution• Traveled to
Galapagos Islands on HMS Beagle
• Wrote book: On the Origin of the Species
• Found evidence for Evolution with Finches/Beaks
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Natural vs Artificial Selection
Natural Selection• Gradual process where
traits become more or less common in a population based on their usefulness to survival
• A basic mechanism of evolution, along with mutation, migration and genetic drift
Artificial Selection• Process where humans
purposely breed or engineer certain traits into populations
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Common Ancestry• Common descent
could provide a logical basis for classification
• Common ancestry between organisms of different species arises during speciation
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Evidence for Evolution
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Taxonomy
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Taxa
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups.
There are 7 groups or Taxa for classifying organisms.
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Binomial Nomenclature: Writing a Scientific Name
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Dichotomous KeysSystem used to identify organisms by answering questions to narrow down characteristics.
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Diversity of Life
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Viruses
• Nonliving particles• Made of a protein coat that surrounds DNA or
RNA (nucleic acid)• Can only reproduce within Host Cells• Lytic Cycle- kills host cell• Lysogenic Cycle – creates a Prophage by putting
viral DNA into the Host cell’s DNA; Virus stays dormant for years eventually causing disease later
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Example of a Bacteriophage Virus attacking a Bacteria Cell…
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BacteriaEubacteria
• Cell wall with Peptidoglycan• Found everywhere – very
common• Examples: E.Coli,
Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus
Archaebacteria• Cell wall NO Peptidoglycan• Live in extreme or harsh
environments (high temperatures, sulfur, volcanoes, no oxygen, salt)
• Examples: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles
Both share common shapes: Coccus, Bacillus, Spirillus
Both share common arrangements: diplo, staphylo, strepto
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Protists• Plant-Like, Animal-Like & Fungus-Like• Move using pseudopods, flagella or cilia• Some don’t move at all• Some are autotrophs & other heterotrophs• Examples: Algae, Amoebas, Diatoms,
Dinoflagellates• Can cause disease and red tides
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Fungi• Some unicellular = yeast = used in baking• Some multicellular = mushroom, mold• Decomposers• Can cause disease – athletes foot, jock itch, ringworm• Reproduce Asexually (budding & spores) or Sexually
(Gametangium)• Mutualistic Symbiotic Relationship with plant roots =
Mycorrhiza Fungi
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Animals
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General Animal Characteristics
• All Multicellular• All Heterotrophic• All are capable of movement at some point• Reproduce: Sperm + Egg = Zygote• Zygote grows into Blastula & Gastrula• Gastrula produces layers: Ectoderm,
Mesoderm & Endoderm• Layers develop into organ systems
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Invertebrates
• No backbone• Very Diverse Phyla:- Sponges- Cnidarians – Jellyfish & coral- Worms – flat, round & segmented- Mollusks – octopus, snails, clams- Arthropods – crabs, insects, spiders- Echinoderms – sand dollars, starfish
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Vertebrates
• Backbone• Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata• Classes:- Jawless Fish, Bony Fish, Cartilaginous Fish- Amphibians- Reptiles- Birds (Aves)- Mammals
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Adaptations• Ectothermic – must get heat from environment• Endothermic – can produce their own body heat• Mammary Glands - milk for babies• Amniotic Egg – has a protective shell
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Plants
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General Plant Characteristics
• All Multicellular• Autotrophs (producers)• Have Roots, Stems & Leaves• Cell Walls made of Cellulose
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Non-Vascular vs Vascular
Non-Vascular• No veins (Phloem & Zylem)• Low growing plants• Likes shady, moist areas• Ex: Mosses
Vascular• Have Veins (Phloem & Xylem)• Includes Gymnosperms &
Angiosperms• Ex: Trees, Grass
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Gymnosperms vs AngiospermsAngiosperms
• Cone bearing plants• Seeds produced in cones• Ex: Pine Tree, Fir Tree
Gymnosperms• Flower producing plants• Seeds produced in a fruit or
nut• Can be Monocot or Dicot• Ex: Squash, Grass, Peanuts
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1. Photosynthesis2. Transpiration: Loss of water through leaves3. Gas Exchange: take in carbon dioxide and
release oxygen through the stomata
Processes of a Leaf
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• Chloroplasts contain Chlorophyll, the green pigment that traps light energy
Chloroplasts & Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water → sugar + oxygen light
CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
light
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Energy Flow• Energy flows in one direction• Energy on Earth comes from the sun• Food Chains & Food Webs show how Energy
Flows in an Ecosystem
Food Chain Example:
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Food Web: Arrows show the direction of energy flow.
Autotrophs Herbivores Carnivores Top Carnivores
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Symbiotic RelationshipsMutualism Commensalism Parasitism
Both organisms benefit
1 organism benefits but 1 organism is
neither harmed nor benefits
1 organism benefits but 1 organism is
harmed
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SuccessionPredictable changes to a community over time.
Primary Succession: Brand new community forms – EX: new land created from a lava flow or earthquake
Secondary Succession: Community starts over after a natural disaster destroys an existing community
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Other Ecological ConceptsNiche
• The role an organism plays in its community
• No two organisms can occupy the same niche
• Examples:- Oak tree provides habitat- Honey Bees pollinate flowers- Worms provide food for
Robins- Termite Queen lays eggs for hive
Limiting Factors• Controls the growth of
organisms• Can be Biotic, such as:Predation, Disease, Starvation, Competition• Can be Abiotic, such as:• Habitat loss, Natural
Disasters, Temperature, Drought
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Populations• Carrying Capacity (K) –
represents the population number of individuals the environment can support
• J-Curve & S-Curve Graphs
• Initial Growth, Exponential Growth, Steady State, Decline, Extinction or Absence
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Scientific Investigation
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Determining VariablesIndependent Variable –
The condition you have control over changing – you decide the
conditions
Dependent Variable –The condition that changes as a
result of the Independent variable
In a data table, the Independent Variable is usually the first column!
In a data table, the Dependent Variable is usually the second column!
On a graph, the Dependent Variable is on the Y-Axis!
On a graph, the Independent Variable is on the X-Axis!