Biology and Wildlife of the Mediterranean

Region

Jacques Blondel

and

James Aronson CNRS, Mmllpellifr

France

Original Drawings by Rene Ferris

OXFORD UNIV.ERSITY P R E SS

LLRC

MCAST

Contents

Glossary xvii

1 Setting the Scene 1

The birth of Ihe Mediterranean 1

The physical background 7 Biological delimitation of the Mediterranean arca 13

Adjacent and transitional provinces 18

Climate 21

Climatic vicissitudes during the P1eis!Ocene 25

2 Determinants of present-day biodiversity 31

The Mediterranean as a melting PO[ and crossroads 31 Processes that define the Mediterranean flora 34 The mammal fauna from the P1cistoccne to the present 42 A history of the bird fauna,

or why arc there so few indigenous species? H Geographical and climatic events 49 Specification from the Mioccnc \0 the rlioccne 50 Summary "

3 Present-day biodiversity: plants and animals 57

Introduction 57 Flora 58 InvertebraTes 64 Freshwater fishes 67 Reptiles and amphibians 71 Birds 75 Terrestrial mammals 79 Marine biodiversity 82 Convergence and non·convcrgence among

mediterranean-type ecosystrlOs 84

4 Scales of observation 90

The regional tapestry 90 Transects 95

xiv Contents

Small-scale dh'crslIY Summary

5 A patchwork of habitats

Forest MalOrraJs Steppe and grassland Old fields RivCfLlH: forest

Cliffs ,md caves Wcthmcls Summary

6 Populations, species, and community variations

\Ve~t--casl substitution patterns Life on islands Community dynami<:s in heterogeneous landscapes Adaptation, local differentiation, and polymorphism Species turnovC[ in time: migrating bin!::.

Summary

7 Life-history traits and ecosystem functioning

E\crgreennes .. •• and sclcrophyll}' Precocious-flowering gcoph}'tcs Annuals in highl}' seasonal cm·ironmcnts Copmg with fire l-IcrhJvory and plalll dtfcm:es Pollination fruit dispersal by birds Decomposition and dccomposers Summary

to II

II

II II 12 12 12 12 12 13

13

13 13 14 14 16 16

16

t6 17 17 17 t

t t t9

8 Humans as sculptors of mediterranean landscapes 19

A lOOOO-year 'love story' between humans and nature forest destruction and transformation Animill domestication Plant domeslication 110\\ did humans mainl311l their living space? Multiple uses of forest Tradiuonal landscape deSIgns Summary

t9 lot 2 21

21 224 229

1 233

Biology and Wildlife of the Mediterranean Region xv

9 Biodiversity ups and downs 13.f

Mass extinction: ,he Holocene holocau!>t of Insular mammals 234

The decline of dLversity In recent Limcs 239 Pros and cons of human LmpaCt H9 Biologicd) innsion!> 253

10 Challenges for the future 264

:\ microcosm of world problem.:; 264 Conservation 268 Reintegratlon of fragll1C'llIcd landscape.:; 278

InlC'mational cooperation 285 Alternative futures 286 Conclusion 287

Afterword 289

References 291

Index 115

Index

Where thrre art several pagr lnlrie'_~, bold Mumben indiall( rhe key ,",lilies

acacia trees 36, 91,232- 3 acorns 17B, 214, 2)0--1 ailllpta!ion, Sf/' species

adaptation Adriatic Sea 9 , \)4, 133 Aegean 9,67, 102, 156, 144,

271 Africa

continental drift 1--4 pesticide use 243 tropical plants 35--6 Sf/' also Cape Province;

North Africa agcr-sahus-sylva triads

229-30, 249-50. 269 agriculture 201 - 2,210--12,

230,265 sa also crops; livestock

agroforestry 230--2 alde rs 122 alfalfa 21 5. 259-61 algal: 5,127, 164 Algeria

birds 4K 50, 57 cholls 132 conservation 274 fish 258 £orests 267 inlenSlve land use 267--8 mammals 46, 81 plant cxtinctions 239 primitive man 197

Alghero Convention 286 alldopamy 182 almonds 100, 104

conservalion 275 human us.e of 216, 223-4,

232, 249 pollination 185

Alps 4, 125,253 bi rds 138, 191 butterflies 64-5 dephants HI foresL~ 202 subalpine zones 93-4

ahitudinal f~ctors 90--8, 104 sa /./150 mount~ins

amaryll is 174 amphibiJnS 70-5, 130-2 ,

239, 276 su also names DJ individlWI

amphibians and groups DJ amphibians

Anatolia 71 , RD, 224, 226, 286

Animals 27,29, 254,270- 2, 280

ancient varieties 273-5 cave pamtmgs

(prehistonc) 43, 45 commensal 46, 2'59, 261 conservation 268-78 domestil'ated, su

domestication dung 194-5 feral 237 fossil 28-9, 43-4 game 227,136, 2'H ,

257 insular, ,a Lslamls marine 81-4 , 219 migrating, _~ff migrauon mutualL5tic associauons

with plants 93 , 178, Ifll, 186-93,133

range management 217- 20

tammg, su domestication vicariant pairs U5-6 sce also livestm:k; human

influences annual plants 3.'5 , 104-5,

121,130,175-7 adapted to disturbance 63,

145 colonizanon by 255 and herbivory 180 species diversity 109- 10

antelopes 41,44, 46 , 81, 237

Anti -AlIas mountains 4 Anti -Lehanon ranRe 105 ants 66, 146-7, 184, 241 Apennines 3,65. 125 aphIds 179 apple fanllly 38. 92. 104,

216, 224 Aral Sea 4

archipelagos 12, 138 sce also islands

arRan tree 35, 91, 231-3 ash trees 91. 104, 106, 102 asphodels 181 . 284 assc.~ 46, 79, HI . 207, HI

_~ff al_~o donkeys Atlantic Ocean 2, 5, 9, 81,

83 Atlas mountains 4, 10,64-'5,

91, 94, 125, U2 aurochs 43---5, 208 Australia 61, 84-7, 118, 256,

287 avadavar, red 257-8 avocels 128, 130,251 Axios ri\'er 12'5 Azov Sea 9

hactena 254 badlands 112. 170,285 Baetlc Cordillera 4, 59. 276,

286 Balcanc Islands 75, US-9,

237, 249 coastal development 266 cydamen 151-2 endemirs 60, 138. 151 tec tonic movements 4

Balearic Sea 9 &llk:ms 64,71. 80, 103,126,

244,261 economics 264 lakes 125 riverine forest 122 tectonic movemenL~ '}

Barhary macaque 43, SO, 81 Barbal)' thuja 61 , 63,91 .

118,177,248 barhels 69,246 Barcelona Convention 285-6 barley 211- 14, 231

see al.~o cereals basil 182 bass 258 bath'a 105, llS-19, 120-1,

173, 250 bats 81 , 124, 139 beJrs 43-5,52, 54-5, BO.

242, 272

316 Index

beech 10, 66, 96,98, 217 as bioindi{'ators 15, 93 (On,H\'ation 180--1 Holarctic comp()nent 16

bee-caters 165 be<:-flles 18.f hees

humhle 159 dedme of 246, 250 habitat "hangts 150--1 honey 18'>, 2')9 \n'-asions 259 pollination 184- 5, 188 '>OliWy 110, 185,188,

251,259 species ri{'hness 64

bcetb 66, 131 , 178 Carahid 64,66, 12H, 281 conscn'ation 271 dung 19+--6 endemism 65 Jhlllination 184 scarab 196

Reqa'a ,-allty 105.106 Bern Cmwention 271, 286 biodivCfsity 31- 111,

134--68. 110. 148 amphihian~ 70---4. 176 coml}()llenL, (alpha, beta,

gamma) 107- 9. 149- 50

decline of H9-49, 2')8 d<:terminants of 31-56 flunuatiom; 134--63 hahitat 10. 33, 109-10,

147 human Impact on 33-4.

239. 148-53. 159--6.f increase in 2'50-3 invertebrates 64-6 and land us<: pranire, 33.

JOB-IO livestock 106-7 mammals .fl--6. 137 marine 8 1-4.139,241 plants 58--64, 109-10, 286 present-day 57-89 regional 90--5. 176. 186 reptiles 70-4.276 small-scale 107-10. H5-6 in space and timt I. 30.

114,143--5,162-7 transects 90,95-107

bIOgeography, sa geography hioindicators H - 16, 39,

90-1. 243, 279 biologil'al invasion 153--63 biosphere r<:scrv<:s 276-7 hirch 20 BirdLife International 153,

286 Imds 47- 9, 7'5-9, 76.

97-9. 101. 12'5. 116, 143-4

cliffs 113- 4, H5-6 {'ommunity dynamics

47- 9,89, IH-5, 280 consen-ation 171- 2 convergence .f7, 87. 89 dispersal of plant, 1 iN- 91 ,

266 distrihution ()f 76-7 cnd<:mics .f7, 50, 76-9.

137--8 extinct ions 237, 239,243 and fire H3-7 forests 47. 76--8. 190, 2.f 3,

250. 280 human influences on

76-7, 130.243--5

envIronment 243 imroduced 157 invasions 257-8 islantb 137-43, 14.f migrating 29, ilK 132- 3,

162-7.192. 243--5. 253

mbtk1i>e dispersal 179 Pleislocene 47-9.52. 23S,

237 population changes

H]-6, 247, 250--3 shoming and trapping

144-5 shrubland 76-9 , 140-1,

144,190. 243,250 steppes 76, 78, 145 and storms 24 suh-species 79, 137 vicariant pairs US wctland 76,127- 33,

104- 5, 152- .3, 2iB _~ct al", namr_~ of indn'idual

birds and bird groups bison .f3 hlackhird 192 blackcap H4,192 BIKk S<:a .f , 9. 15 . 18. 102.

242, 152, 261 hoars .f3, .f6, 80,181 , 207.

237, 253 botanIcal conservatoriesl

gardens 274-S boxwood 20, 170. 172, 227 brin<: shrimp 128 British Trust for

Ornithology H4 brooms 119- 20,171.181 hrowsing 79.87. 208,117.

2Hl scc also herbivory

hUl'kthorn 93. 106 buffalo 208, 273

bulhs lOS, 121, 174_5 bulbuls 191 bulls 208. 231

sec also cattle buntings 144. 245,250 bustanb 96. 23S, 239 buuercups 130. 2')6 hutterflics

and ants 1.f6 (In'line of 246 endemism 64-S on islands 6'5, 137, 1]9 monarch 66 pollin~llon 184- 5 tropical influences 66-7 two-tailed pasha 66, 9f1--9,

H6 huzzards 141, 24S, 250

Calabrian mountains 159, DO

California 1'). 8.f- 7, 89, 11 8 Camargue (delta ) 97. 122.

128----30.163-4,250--2. 282-4

Canary Islands 17, 178 birds 137-8 bUl1erl1ies 66 coastal development 266 endemics 17.60,61,63.

137-8 forests 113 indigenous plants .f2 life zones 91 planl extinctiollS HO speciation 137

Cmtahrian mountains 51. 65

Cape Proyince. South Africa 35-6. 84-7, llS. 2'56

cap<:!!; 12.1 caroh 102_3,119,170, In

cultivatnl 210, 2\(\,224 li fe wnes 91 tropical relict 117

carp 127.258 Carpathian mountains 4.65 Caspian S<:a 4. 20. }1, \01 caterpillars 146.160---1 cats 45,81 . 210.237 callle 178. lO8, 231. 2.16--7.

273. 282 caves 4],45, 122-4, 242 ceclar tre<:s

as hlOindicalors 15,91 fOTt:.sLS 118 introcluceci 180 Lebanon lOS, 226

cereals 202,21 2- 14,122-3, 2~3

-

scc aho barley; oats; wheat

CeH.nnes mountams 131, 272

chaffinches 19, 117, 1-'" chamacleons 71 chamMphyt~~ 123,126 chamois 251 charcoal 98,227-8,231 chasmophytcs 121-3 Chau\,et c~ve 43, 45 cheetah 42 chemotype 154,183,215 chestnuts 15,230-1 chirrchaIT 19 Chtle 8-+-7, 8Y, 118,256 chotts 131-3 chough 76 cicadas \)8, lOO, 247 ClHEA~1 274--5 CITES 271 citru~ tTees 14 chITs 7t>, 101, 122--4, 245-6 climate 13,21-.30241

and convergence 84 and deciduous trees 169 defining the

Mediterranean 16-18 and erosion 25 and extinct ions 234 and life-zones 90 'mnlitcrranean-t}llc' 84- Y microdimatcs 22 Pleistocene period 25-30 Tertiary period 2 unpredirmbility 24 variation 21 - 4 SI'/' al.~o rainfall; snow;

sunshine; kmpera ture; "inds

coasts 96-7, 126, 286 ea\'es 242 diffs 76.101, 122--4,14')-6 lagoons 76, I H, 115-30,

282 marshes 96, 126 sand dunes 101-6 steepness of 9 swamps 7t> lOurism 266-7.277-8

(OI'volu tlon 186. 191-3. 197 colonization 31, 25J-63

amphibians 75 community dynamics

14'-0 of dung 194-5 human 134, 137 of islands 137--8. HO . 197 mammals 4t>, 55, 81. 253 plants 55, 140, 17t>,

254-7. 266 stowaways 236, 263

Communities 134--68, 276 birds 47-9,89,143-5,280

convergence 47,87,89 dynamics 143-7.205 plants and hcrbivory

100-1 conifers 103- 5, 117- 1!:!

as bioindicators 15-16.93 see al~o names of indil'idual

(-onif(rs conservation 242- '),253,

26S-81, 283--8 wntincntal drift 1--4 conl'ergence 47.1:14- 9, 170 Conyza 255-7 coot 164 wriander 182_ 215 cork oaks Y I . 155, 177-8,

231,248 l'ormorants 115 Corsica 226, 230, 264- 5

amphihians 57,75 birds 24,47-8.137-42,

160-1,251 hUlIerllies 137 cndemics f>D, t>Y, 118. 143 fish 69-71 forests 204. 205. 230 human inlluenl'cs 198,

202 invertebrates 66 m~mmals 236----8 planls 271 rodents 143 spcl'ia tion 137 tectonic mo\'ement~ 4

Cosqucr cal'e 43, 45 cottontail 46 Counl'il of ~urope 286 Cousleau r'oulldalion 166 coypu 46 crag martin 245 cranes 164,239 Lt erau' (Provence) 96, 130 Crete ~mphibians 75 hirds 141 endemic flora 00 grafting 124 human settlement 197---8 life zones 91. 101 mammals 81. 237 plants 42, 226 reptiles 71

crickets 128 nocodiks 71. 239 crocus 174---5 crops 210-11, 21+-15. 254

cons.crvation of v~rie\ies 274

Near East 105, 106 traditiolllll methods 230-3 sa: <I!w l'ereals; fruits; nUl~;

vegelahles

Index 317

cro5Sbtlls 101 crow_ hrown 245 crustaceans 117-9,131 l'ultiv~rs 63, 148---9. 274

set' also crops cydamen 121. 151-52, IN Cypress 35, 101

a, biolndicalOr IS rorest~ 118 as wmd breaks 9t>

Cyprus amphIbians 75 lmds 118, 244 carob trces 101 coastal dewlopment 266 end~ml<.:S 60, 138 grafting 124 human influences 197-8,

234- 5 mammab 143,234-5.237 plants 42 reptiles 71 wh~al varieties 210

Cyrenaica 11.61,71

daphn~ 94 dayas 132- 3 Dead Sea 101-2, lOt>, 221 dcdduous Irees 106,119

adaptive signilk'anre 156-7

Arcto-Tertiary origins 20 as bioindicalors 15-16.91 and dimale change 169 foresl~ 113-18,204--5 Holarctic components

36-7 lrano-Turanian pla01

group 37-9 northern spread of 29 oaks, Sf( oaks. deciduous riYerine foresl 122 sorting processes 88 ,-i<:arialll pairs 135. 156 _lee also namrs of indl\'lduu/

de(iduou_~ lref.

d~n conservation 273 Corsica 216 extinl'lions 234 incre~s;ng 253 mtroduced 4t> migration routes 119 In Pleis\<.X:enc period 43-4

deforeslation 201-6 and bees 151 and mammals 45. 217 In Morocco 168 and space for humans 199 and traditional land use

m

318 Index

deh~ 230-3,249-50,209, 282, 287

deltas 12)-10 N"e<;tlK 122 Rhone, Str Camargue

desertifiCiltion 2B, 267, 285 deserts

'asphodel' 284 Israel 102, 106--7 Sahara 21, 4Q, 166-7, 192

desiccauon 117, 132, 206 _~I'I' also drought

diU 182,215 Dinaric alps 05, 125 dipper<; 97,99 distributton, Sf'( ~peci(:l;

distribution disturbance (regime) I08-Q,

144-6,153,177. 216, 233,256,267,270,284

diversity, st( hiodi,ersity Djelx-I Akhdar 1l ,61 DJebel Mhassc:ur 246 dogs 45,81,207,236-7 domestication 201,206- 16,

23o...s, 273-5 Sff al.~o crops; livestock

Doftana marshes 130 donkfys 207-fl. 236

5ff a/.~a asses doves IB, 140, 235 downy oak QH

and anl..~ 147 and blue ILlS 159---62, 204 charcoal 227 {'onsen.ation 280 deforestauon 20i life zones 92 in rlrlstocene 4Q

dragonme~ 66, 118, 131, 246 drought 108,143

dung Ix-t'tle~ 195--6 planl~ I~ , 170. 172, 174,

178 unpredinable climate 14 in "rtland~ 127,131

ducks 76, 127-9, 16-+, 235, 253

dung Ix-etles 194-6 dunnoch QA, 166 dwarfISm 95, 120-1. I·n.

149,28"

eagles IN, 142, IM, 244-5. m

eanhquake~ 7,9 c:arthwonns 193----4,247 ~brodd!alriver 125,251 ecological processes 134,

Ll9-H, 169-96,201-2, 148

economic i~sucs 264---7, 272-5,282-)

eCOS}'Slems 16I}-96, 279 con\"ngent A4---9 rehabilitation/restoration

278 suslalllablf 208, 277~,

282,2A6-7 e{'ownl'S 133 eCOlounsm 271, 277~. 28) eels 117 Egypt IH, 259 Elburz mountams 10,12,16.

102 clcpham~ dome~l1caUOn of 210 dwarf on Islands 143,

234-5 eXl1nctions 46.241 forest-dwelling 201 North Afrka 81 in Pleistocene period 43-4

elm tree~ 20, 122 rndl'miq,/endeml!>m 5b-8.

63,81.85. ]02, Ill , 134, 276

amphihians 71-5 birds 47.50, 76-9, 137~ fish 67-9, 125, 2+6, 258,

276 nora 4!. 59-63, 276 Ktne!ic varillbilil\ 152 and gcologr 12, 32 lllvertebrales 64--6, 276,

'"' islands 17, H, 59--63, 66, 137-9.1-+3.151-2. 236--8.148

mammals 79.81 neo-endcmic~ 41. 49 palat'oendemics 33, 41, 49 planL~ 41. 59-63. 91, 91,

102, 276 replile~ 71-~, 106.276

ero~ion n . 206. 2B. 247. 207

eucalyptus 232, 2')] Europt'an Union for Bird

Ringing (EUR1NG) 243 naporites 5 e\'Crgreen~ )5. R7. 106,

169-74 adapuve slgmficanee

156-7 and altitude 98 as bio111diealors 15--16 roreslS 113-18.204---5 oaks, ~f oaks. evergreen PontiC" pro.,nce 20.37 vicarianl paIrs 135. 156 ~ee aho matorrals: name~ 0)/

inrlhldua! ner>:rerns

evolution 134,248 (oe~oIUlion 186, 192_1

197 . connrgent 8+-9.170 dj,ergenl. su Sptt"ialion ecolog)" 169--96 human mnucnces 33 islands 137,151

bros delta/river 125,251 r .xtlllctioll.s )2, 234

amphibians 75. 132. 239 birds 137, 239. 241 tummunilY d),llarnics

143---4 fish 258 inVt'rtebrales 239-i I mdmmals 45--6. 2.34--11,

241-2 marine SpeCIes 81, 239 p1anl~ 32,239-41,149 rept iles 75, 239

falcons 123-4,116.142, 143-5.153

famtmg, ~r agnculture feedback cycles 268 fcnnel 182-1,215 ferahzation 237 ferns 58,96, 122-1 flcld~

abandoned (old) 110, 121-2,145.266

a>:cr-sllllus-syh'a 229---30 , 249-50. 269

cuiti.'ated 202 paslUr~ 217-19. Z19---31.

266 fig~ In, 186-7. 216,llJ..-.l.

274 finches 10 1,137-8.245 fire 45, H7. 177--8, 283-5

and bird communities 143-7

first human pos~lOn or 200-1

and landscape 216-17, 284-5

and plants 108-9,144, 172, 178, 283-5

firtree537,I05 as bioindlcators n.93 endemic 61 forests 117-18

n~hes 67_71,145--6,258--9 decline in diversit}" 219,

245-6,258 endemic 67-9, 125.146,

258,276 lagoon 127-8 !K'"a 127 see also ntlmes of in(livldulll

fish and groups ()J fish "'lI\lngocs 76,97, 127-8,

\30.112-3,ISl la\'anOlds 159 lIeS 65, ISO. 184-5, 194 .00o:lIn& 25, ll~< 132,

Ht Rycalchers 166--7.19\-2 .,..t'St5 t8, Ill-Ifl

llga.salrU5-'iylva tnad~ 229-30

.gro(orrsITY 230-2 ~Irds 47.76-8,190,2-43,

250. 280 burnmg. Sf( rire clurinwdestruclion, )tr

detorestallon tXlent of 203---4 and fire 144 , 2S}-S RB~mg 227, 230, 278 human mfluences 76,

\13-14,118. 201-6, 224-9,250, 267. 270

bunphyllous IU. 11 7, 17)

life zones 93 mIx of trees 98, 101, 106,

,>9 Mt Vcnloux 279-80 mu1tipk u~s of 224-9 m PltislOccnc 29-.30 pnmc\'al 118, 203 Ttcovcry/reSl0r3110n of

26~. 279-81, 285 ripanan/ri,erine 97. 122,

m and shrubland 29-30 u:c also trees

formen\cra 139 wils

algae III salt dcposil~ '5 animals 28-9,43-4.261 human 197, 234 pollen 26--7. 30, 202

founder effect 153 b't 45.236-7 France 9')-101, 108-9, \21,

126, 138, HO cicada..~ 247 coastal development 266 conseryation 271-2,274 Convergence m bird

communlt,,:!> 89 forests 201-2, 204, 229,

2f){),21:14 house mOll5.C 261 kunung on wetl;..nds 283 life zones 91, 94 m.atorlllls 129,266 m'ers 125 transhumance 219

vicanant pairs 135 wolve~ 25) ~r a'~o Camargue;

Languedoc: Montpellier: Provence; Samte­lliIume

fram;olin, black 157 frogs 57,74,131-2 frost 21 fruLls

di~pcrsal br birds 190-), 266

human U)e of 211, 215-16, 224-5,227, 149,274-5

~t' also ;"(eUs

funellonal groups 146, 194 270

fungi 224,227-8, HO

gallinule, purple 15) gall o.ak I(}.; galls 178-9, 180,224 gannets 29 garngucs 97-K I HI gazelle!> 79,81

conservation 281-2 e}(tmcllOIIS 46, 241 ill Plelstoc("ne period 42

geese Ill, 164, 235 gene flow 135, 162 gene! 45,46,81,210 geneti( fa([ors 137-8,

14R-56 blue titS 161 -2 cucab 212 con<;tr.allon ISSues 272--4 e\'ergr~n trees 205 mammals 237 phylogeneli('s 69-70, I*l

Geographic Information Systems 269

geogr,lph)' 1-30,49-55 blOgeograph)' 31-2,47

geology 1-13,32- 3 geoph)tcs 1l0, ID, 151.

174-5 gerbils 79, 81 germination 146,176-7,182 Gibraltar 9,80, 156, 244,

m giganusm 143 gilt-head 127 glaciation

and birds 47-9 and mvertebrates 65 lakes 125 and mammals 4) P1ctstocene 26-9,43.65

goats 79, 105

Index 319

conservallon issues 273-4 Corsica 236-7 de.helOa) and montado~

23<}-J domesucallon of 207-10 matomlls 281 Plelstocene 43-4 to}(ic planl~ 178

goldfinch 140 gor~ 120 gO'ihawk 76 grapes 216,22),249

su also vines and vinerard~ gnl~ses 105, I'H

angel'~ hair 96 bunch 20, 95, III fl:.scue 94,215 herbl\'Ory \80-1 orchard 148-51. ll5 perenlllal 20, )9, 93, 271 ~a/salt 126, 13J, 239 tropka! relict 102 tufted 101

grasshopper~ grassland 95, 121 , 126, 144,

2"" grayhnl/, 99 grazing 87, 105

in fore.:.ts 227, 230, 278 mcreasingly intensive

267..q and landscape 208,

217-20 matorrals 280-2 andplanL~ 108--9,177,

180,25) traditional methods 230-1 wetbnds 2f13 Sf( also herbl\'ol):

1I\'escock great auk 2Q Gren'e

coastal development 2"'-7

{'onscrvauon 2H--{J, 286 cork O1Iks 248 fish 67,246 i",'crtebr.:l1es 65 lake~ 125 life zones 9}-4 mammals 4J. 242 mIstletoe 179 orchid!> 120, 174 pmes 159 plant exunetions 241 reptiles 71 rivcrine forest 112 ri"~rs 125 Iradilionallandscapes 2)1 \icariant pairs 135

Greek Centre for Wella"d Conser\'lllion 284

320 Index

C;uadalqUlvlT delta/river 115, 164

gueha~ 1)2-1 gllepard 81 gUineafowl 76. 239 Gulf of Gabt~ III gull> 2'1,76, llB-30, 166,

251-1

habl!al~ 148. 111-33 and hecs 150--1 and bmb H3 categurie<; 112 di\'er~1!r of 10, 33,

109-10.147 and f;:.h 14s-n mammal exuncuons NI mos:l1C. Ut mDSaI('

landstapt"!> SI:a le ~rrt':Cl~ 90, 95-101 selrClion rcgmles 147-8,

162, 105 ut': also CoaS1S; fore§ts;

L~lands: lagoons; lake!>; landscapes; malUrrais: muuntaln!>; steppe~: wctlands

haloph}te<; 116, 131 halU<;tcrs 79 hares +4,81 ha"kmmhs 185 h.l\\thorn 4(}, 10i, 216, IN hazelnut 10. 26--7, 36, 91,

216 heather<; 171 heathland 30 hedg~hog!> 46 hellebore, hlack 178 hemlcryptophytes 105 herbICides 250 herbi\'ory 14'), 154.171,

180-3 Uf also brow!>'"g: grazmg

herds, $It h'e~tock herons 115.165.143.253 hlppopol,unUl>, dwarf 143,

134-5 Hoggar range L1: hoiarctic fac lor!> 32, 36-7 holly 10,91:1. 261 holm·oak trees 101-3,123,

280 as biumdicalor<; 14-15,92 and hi rd<; 47,49, 159-61 fire 177 human innuencesluses

US , lOi, 217-8. 231 250

malorrab 96-8. L18 sderoph} lly L 70--2 ,icariant p;\Jrs 13'5-6

Holocene pcnod 1, 105, 234-8

Homo errclUS 197 honeysuckle 93 hops 122 hOTllheams 37,91, 104 horse radish ITee 106 hursn 42,45, 46,178,207,

236 hOlSpot5' 57.175--6.288 bLrd~ III endemIsm 56 fish 125 plant dlversily 60, 286 wel1and~ 283

hu\'crfliC'i 184, 189 human mfluences 85--6,

197-233 on amphIbIans 75 on hlodll'cT5Lty 33-4,239,

248-53,259- -64 on bi rd~ 76-7, 130,

2H-5 on coasts 266 colomzation 197--8.

23-4-'.237,253-4 un n&~ IR6 on forests 76, 111-14,

ll8, 20 1-6, 2 2+-9, 2~1, 267, 170

. .,u also defurestation on fruLts 211,2 15-16,

224-' 227.2-49, 274-5

in I Lo locenc epoc h 2 human populalioru;

102-3, 264-5, 267-9 on ins«ts 66 lrano-Turaman plant

group 19 on land.'iCapcs 2l6--JJ

.~u al~o habitat .. : land use practices

un mammals '45--6,79. 234-7,1'41-],253

matorrab 201, 218-9 muuntaln~ 198 '\lear East 101. 106 on plant~ 17, 33, 108-9,

21 0-16,248-9 poSill\'C and negatl"e

249 on replllc~ 75 tuuri~m 2~7, 271.

277--8, 283 on tree~ 63, 15'5-6, 159 urban developments

266-7,287 on \'IOTlanc p.urs 135 on "elland~ 130, 283 sce al~o agrku\ture; fire;

hunting

hummingbIrds H9 hunting 4;;, 227, 236--7

241-3,2:;), 183 ' hyaena 45 h\ bndizatlon H8

alfalfa 259, 26 1 birds 136 (;t;Teals 211, 214 fish 71 goots 210 houst mice 261 Irees 135. 157

II)rcaman prOVInce 20,37

Iberian pcmnsula amphibians 71 butlernirs 66 dehesa and moncado

S)'SICms 131 endemic flora 60 fish 67 fOTesls 117 mammals 79--80,261 lllalorrals 119 repl ile~ 71, 276 tamarisk 126 leClOnic movcmcms J....4 \i cariam pairs 135 wetlands III S{'f al.\./) Portugal; $p;lin

IheX 43, 1I0, 253, 273 lhlSCS 125, 239, H~ Ichkrul lake 164 icicle plant 256 Incense 104, 226 mdlgenuus species ($le

endemic) 39-42, 47--9. 67,237

insecticides 2:;0 msects 259,

aqua tic 128, 131, 283 cochineal 97, 225 conser.-alion 271 decline of 246-7 defoliation 180 endemLc 66, 276. 283 gall -making 180 in garrigucs 98 and migrating buds 166 plant pollmanon 183,

184. 185-9,248 species nchness 64. 109 Iff also namts 01 indi\iduDl

insws and groups of in.~f(IS

mternallunal iSSucs 15J. 273-4, 283--4, 285-6

,"Iroducllon~. $It species introducUon~

m\'asion 253-263, S(f

cololllzation

invHtvbratvs 64-7. 98 dvdine in dlver~lly 246--7 endemic 64-6,276,283 extinctions 239-41 wdland~ 127--8, 131 s(e also ",ml(S DJ ind"'iduClI

inl,etubralcs and groups of inl'frtcbrau_,

Ionian Sea Oslands) 9, 84, 142

Irano-Turanian pro\ince 20, 37- 9, III

Jraq 17- 18,105 iris family HH, I H ironwood 37 irrig~tion 221, 253 islaod~ 12,137-43

amphibians 75 archipelagos 12, 138 birds 137-43, 244 bunerflies 65, 137, 139 ecotourism 277 endemism 17,33,59-63.

66,137- 9,143, I') 1-2, 230----8, 248

human settlement 197 mammals 81,139, HI,

143,23+-8 planl~ 151-2,271 reptiles 75, 139, 141.

H8 tectonic movements 3 sa also names of ind!vidu"i

islands ulld ):roups of isl,mds

isolation 32-1, 49-5 I, 53-4 ser also islands

Isr"d 101 - 9 bumble bees 259 coastal dewlopment 266 conservation 272 crocodile 2W deserts 102, 106-7 emlemics 63, 102 eucalypluS 257 fish 69,2'lfl---9 geophytes 174. 175 house mouse 261 Jerusalem 106---7,175 mountain gazelle 253,

281 - 2 pollination by b\'~ 184 terraces 223 water nl

Italy agrr-salru,-_,yil'a triads

no amphibians 71 bUl1ernies 05 coastal den~lopmem 166 conservation 271-2, 274 lakes 125

Jife zones 94 mammals 43, 79--80, 142,

253 oak trees lO3 reptiles 71 rivers 125 tvt'\onic movement" 3,4 wet lands 2H.1

IVy 170

jackals 44,46 jars 29,79,178 jerboas 44, 79, 81 Jerusalem 106- 7 Jmdan 66, 101-2, 106, 2ll Judas trvv 37 Junipers 104,106,172

as bioindicators I'), 93 cliffs 123 coastal dunvs 126 colonizers 266 foresL~ 118, 159 on mountams 99 in P1cislo,'env 30 lerra('f:~ 223 vicarialll pairs L15

kennes oak dwarf 120 uye-produdng 225 fire 177 human influences 204 life zones 92,93 malOrrab 97 sclcrophylly 171-1

kestrels 96.123-4, HO, 142, 243---5

kiles 245,251 Knets Islands 133

lagoons 96. 114, 125-30. 252, 266, 282

Laguna de GallJX~nta 132 lakes '), 114-5, IM, 182 lammcrgetcr 76. 142, 2+t,

25J, 272 lampreys 07 land bridges .,2 landscapes

communIty d)namics 143-7

and fire 216--17,284-5 fragmenled 278--85 and grazing 208. 217- 20 human influen('(:~ 216---33 mosaic. sa mosaic

landscapes scale effects 90, I 10 spn'ies turnover 109-10

Index 321

traditional designs 119-33 ser ,lIso geography­

geology; habilal~ land use practices 197-9,

229,249-50 and biodivcr,ily 33.

108---10 intensive 267-9 multi-use 276--7 rc-design of 287 re.illlegrated landscapes

278 5(( also deforestalion:

Fields; human influences: terraces

Lmguedoc 96-7,204 laTh 96 latitudinal faClors 90--2 laurels 17

as bioindicator 15,91 and birds 190 culinary use 215 forests 117 herbivory 182 sderoph)ll)' 170

lavender 119, IH2, 11') leaf types 113,167, 173-4

Sf{' Cl/SO deciduou~ Irvc>; e\'crgreens; sclerophrlly

Lebanon 101---6 cedars lOS, 226 Fish 259 oak 103 lerraces 223 shooting migrator}

birds 244 urban development 266 vicariant paIrs 135

lentisk (pistachio) 102, lOo, 154-9, 266, 275

as bioindicalOr 15,91. 93 and birds 189.191 fire 177 gall> 178 human use of 215,216,

224 matorrals 119,121 in Pleistocene period 30 selerophylly 170 vi,'ariant pairs 135

lesseps, f'erdinand de 4, 258---9

lV\<lmine wmdor 42,43 Libya 17-IH, 150,107,248,

259 li,'orke 127 life hiSlory trail~ 14,62, 130,

1')6,159,162.169-97, 10S

life zones 16,90-5, 158 lil) familr 104, 174-5

322 Index

limcJIinden trees 20,92, 281

lime~tOlle 87 linnet 1-4-4 lioIl5 4}, 4';, -+6, HI litani river 106 livestock 217-21

dchcsa~ and mont:ulo~ ll0-3

dhersuy of breeds 206-7 and ecological changes

201-2 in foreslS 217 see also cattk;

domeStication: he rhivory; names of inrlll,tdual animals

lizards 71. 7}, 102, 104, 106, 130, HR

loosestnfe 130 lucerne, see alfalfa lycaon 45 lynx 45

Macaronesia 11, 17, 42, 91 sa also Canary Is1and~;

Mademl Madeira 42,91 , 24{), 142 Maghr~b 12,43 magpie. blue 258 MalloTC1l 57. 151.249.266

su abo Baleane Islands Malta 57, 14{), 143, 197-8.

144.264 mammals 79-1'11

colonizalLon 16, 81, 2'>-1 convergetltt 87 Corsican 236-8 decline ofdll'erslly 141-3 deforestation 45.237 domestic, Set

domestication endemIC 79.81 exllnCIlOIl5 45-6. 234--8.

241-2 human influences on

U-6. 79. 234-7 , 241-],253

influences on biodiversil r 42-6. 237

introduced 45-6 islands 1:11, 139, 141 , 141,

234-8 marine 82 Pleistocene 42-5,52,

2.34-6 worlds smallest 82 ~e also livestock; name'S of

indi~lduar mammals and groups of IMmmals

mammoth 42-3,236

man ancient ci"i1izallons 197.

199.200-2.216.268 Sit a/."4 human mfluence<;;

Romans mantises 9R maple.

conscryallon 281 life zones 92-3,98 matorral~ 119 Monlpelher 111.117,157 Pontic prO\1nce 10 terraces 223

maquis llR marine hlodtversity 81-4,

2)9,242 marshes 114,282- 3

amphihlans 130-132 birds 76.252-3 coastal 96, 126 endureic (temporary)

110-3 Sri' also wCllands.

matorrab 15,97. 105. 118-21

bces2SO birds 53,76-9, HO-I ,

144,190,243,2'>0 conservation of 280-2 extent of 203-4.184 fire 281. lA5 and forest 2~30 human ust' of 201, 228-9 ill pleiSlOcene 29-30.49,

52 rCl:overy of 266

ma)'hug5 247 Meduerranean Basin

alternative futures 286-7 biological delimitauons

13-11:1 civilizations 197. 199.

200-2. 216, 288 "I'e also RomaIl5

COIl5CTvation 142- 5.253. 268-82 , 283-8

convergent ecos}'51ems 47 , 8+-9, 170

as n ossmads 31-4 .49, 101. 198, 288

defimng 13-15 cast-west commstl

subsutution 7,74,

13>-' forested areas In 204 future challenges 26+-88 heritage of 287-8 h15toncal aspects I-56 II\t~rnationallS!>ues 253.

273-4.283-4. 285-6 life zones 16. 90-5, 158 as melting pot 31-4,288

as microcosm of world problems 264-8

ncighbounng provinces 18-21

north/south comrasll shIfts 4. 26--9 2b4 265-8 "

origins of 1-7 physical background 1-30 population ISSUes, Sl'(

populations as protected area 276-8 quadrants 7-8, 79.

95-107 regional dive rsity 90-5.

286 scale dJcns 90--111 subregions 7, 19 sustalnahle development

268,277-8.282, 286-7

urban development 266-1, 287

5e.: also habitats; bndscapes; nam~ of individual countritS and Il'gions

\,lediterranean Sea 9 dry 5 marine specics 82- 3. D9 migraung birds 166-7 names for 4 pollution 266. 285 tides 9.126,133

M [ DUSA 275 MEDVARAVIS 286 Megali Prespa 125, 246 mennaids. 142 Messlman salinity crisis 5-7,

83 metapopulallon 132. 153 mice. Sf( mou~

Middle East 79-80, 144, 259,261

migration anlS If7 birds 29. 128, \32-3.

162-7. 192, 2H-5. 253

deer 219 fish 258-9 humans 198 planlS 26-30

Mlkri rTespa 125, 246 mImosa 257 mint family 119.182 Mioce.ne period 5-7.42.

50-I mistlet~ 178-9 molecular studies SO, 52. 55,

69 moles 178. 236

lIlolluscs 118, 235 mongoose ~6, 81 OlOJ\itor~ 71 t1Ionkey~ 43,80,81,136 lIlontados 230-),249---50,

269, 187 [J1onum~ zon~s 65, 93 MonLpelher 159--60 \ioraca RLver 122 ~Iorou:o

agroforestr) 232 amphiblan~ 74 birds 145-6,1'52 con~l"\iauon 274-5 rrocodile 71, 239 foreslS 20'5, 248, 167~ mten~lve land use 267~ uwertebratcs 64-5,67 hfe zones 91-2 mammals 81 maLorrals JI9 Lnmshumanl'e 220

mO~lc land~ape5 96, 112, ni, 159-62, 227, 266

community dynamICS 143-i,205

fire 284-5 human mflucnccs 198,

201 matorrals 119 species di\'crsily 33, 110,

112 wetlands 126. 266

mosqullo-fish 1'58 moths 66. 147, 180. 246-7 mounon 46, 208, 237, 238

HI. 273 Moulou)'a rt\'cr 252 mountain ash 92,98,110,

m mountlllns 10-11,253

gazelle 253,281-2 human populations 198 m\'ertchrates 64-5 lire zont"S 93-4 tectonic movcmenlS 3-4 lranshumance 217- 20,230 volcanos 7-9, 12 St'f «Iso tultnn DJ individual

mountains cmd rcmgcs Mt Algoual 95--6, 206 Mt Ikgo 10,208 Mt urmel 109, 259 MI Edom 101 Ml Elbur.: 10, 102 Mt Gilboa 109 Mt Hermon 105 Mt KiIlull 241 Ml l.eOOnoo 10, 101-6 Mt Troodos 10,12,105 Mt\entoux 9'5,97, 146,250.

27.....,

mouse house 46,57,201-3 spiny 81

llIUdnaL~ 126, In mulberry 231 mullclS 127, 259 mushrooms 214, 227~. HO musk ox 43 muskrat 46 mu~tard family 1l2-3 , 115 myrtle \70-1,182,189,215

nalure reserves 276 Near East 101-7

amphibians 71 ooth'a l.W lire zones 91 mammals 80. 1:11,261 matorrals 119 rept iles 71 <.tbkhas 132 transhumancc 220 water 221

neClar 18i, 185 Nestos dell .. 122 newts 50-1,14,131 Olche enlargement 140--1 nighlingab 98,140,144,166 ntghl~hade 178 Nile Ri\'er 5,81 North Africa

amphibians 71. 74 bIrds 239, 14'5, 25) euca.l),ptus 257 foresl;, 117.118,201.203,

206 herbl\'ory 181 im ... nsiv ... land use 267 life zones 91,93 mammals i3 , 46, 79-1:11,

HI-2,261 matorrals 119 reptiles 71 sacred trees 226 Steppes 121. 181. 235,

268---9,279 water 211 wetlamls 132-3 sce alsn Algeria; Morocco;

Tumsia nutcracker 191 nuthatches 47.50.57,77, 136 nuts 36,216,224,149,275

oak 100,154-9, HI(} deciduous, su oaks,

deciduous distrlbUlion 113 evergreen, sce oaks,

e\'ergrcen

Index 323

galls 178 human :>election 155-6,

270 migrallon 26-7, 29 ~ pioneering

colonizfTS 37 sacred 225 terraces 223 lImber production 227 vicariam paIr) 135-6, 156 sce also uall1(1 oJ indi\-iJucd

(Xjh~

oaks, d ... dduous as bioindlcalors 15 blue illS 159-62 dehaas and

monlad~ 231 In eastern

Medllemmean 39, 10)

lea\'e~ compared with cvergreens 173

hr ... zones 92,98 matorr.IIs 119 In plelstocene period i9 n\'ennc forest 122 \'ICilrianl paIrs 156

oaks, evergreen as biOmdicaiOr~ 15 blue tits 159-62 and chart:oal production

22A dismbuuon of 136 and fire 177 lene$ compared v-ith

deCiduous 173 life zones 92 matorrab JI9 in Pleistocene period 49 secondary succession 205 \'kariant paIrs 156

oalS 212-14, 231 sce also cereals

occumene 201. 216 old fields, su field~ Oils 211 , 215

argan 232-3 defence again)1 herbivory

182-3 human uses of 216, 228 oli\e 215,233 pollination 11:14 thyme 152-4 volatile 153,182,215.116

oleander 106, 172 ohvc 17,96, lOO, lO2

as bioindicators H, 91, 93 and birds 190,192 conscr"~lIon 27'5 fal~ 91, 171, 177 fruit use by humans 216 gTllfting 224

324 Index

loss or \<arieue~ 249 oil 215,133 'Rand·flora' wnlponent

" ;,aned Hees 225 sc1croph}'l1} 171-2 temlCCS 221 tradulOnal melhods 230,

232- 3 onager 46 orchids no, 174, 184--1j ,

141,148 oregano IH2, 215 ow"

barn 237.2H capt: 76 eagl~ 1Z3--4, 164, 245 flighlle~ 234 hulc H7 ~now)' 29 Tengmalm's 97. 98

o),slereatlhers 128

raleSlInf 101. 203 palm fatmly 17.1~, 91-2.

106.216 panda 42 panther 45, 46. 242 parakeet. ring·nccked 257 parasitt'!> 254. 259 raratclh>~ Sea 4.42 par~lcy 182 partridgcs ')(). 76 paslUrt~ 217-19,229-11,

266 palch uynamks 14-1 pear lrtt) 104,216.224 pelican~ 125 Pdoponnesian peninsula 9,

1284 reloponncsian phta .... nt~

C\·C HI pellLn~\llas 4, 65, 67-8

sec also Iberian penin~uIJ; Pdoponnc~IJn

pemnsula perch 258 perrumes 104,2 15.226 pcsuciUt's 241, 250 phl'aSOlnh 257 ph~nohc compou!1d~ 154 phenOIYPK plaSlICU) 148,

IW.l62.168 phylogentlics, ~rr gt'!1cue

ranors phy!ogfograph} 52 phrygana 1IS-19, 120-1.

173. 250, 259 pigeon~ H-H pip 207, 231. H6 pike 127.258

pme trees 98-100, 102, 104, 154-9

a .. bioindlcalors 15, ~9. 91 _3

and IllTd~ 191 wasta! dune~ 126 conscrvauon 280 defences of 180 lhstnhutlon of 111, 158 IIrc 178, 2t:15 rOrtSls 117-18,203,205 human u!>\.' of nut;Jrl'SllI

216,224.127 inncase in 266 1'0011ic pro\'\IIce 37 "lcariant paIrs 115-6

piplls 98,250 pistachio trec~, Sf"f lentlsk plane uees 36 plants 26-9, 34-42, 58,

63-4,94-5,126, 145-7. 184-7, 280

anCient .... ncues 1-19, 273-5

annual. :lU annual plant, aquatic 82-3, 12';-7. no,

112.283 An:to.Tertiary' 18, 20, 37 aromat ic 152-3,182-1,

215.226.274-5 a!>!>CmblageYilssocial ions

1>-16,40.90.126. l3l

sua!wcommuni\ICS; life zont)

biennial 121. DO. 146 blodher~itr 58-64.60.

109-10, 286 blolndicator~ 1+-16,90 eolOlllzallon J 40, 176,

25+-7. 266 eonscr..-auon 271. 27-1 COIwcrgencc 85, 87. 170 noplculli>'atcd, VI' nops dbper .... 1 h\ birds 189-93.

266 dtstnbUlion 61-3,113.

158, 254-6 domesticated 210-16.

273--5 su abo [fops; cuhtvars

drought 1'50,170,172, 1H. 17a

economic mtcrest 274-5 endemiC 41, 59-63. ~l.

93. iOl , 276 c\'Cr~reen. su evergrecns c>;tlncUons 32, 239--11 ,

249 flrc 108-9,144,172,178,

283-'5 fodder/forage 110-11,

215,224,230-3, 249 259, 274 .

su also herlm'ory grafting 214 and )iTazing 10S-9, 177.

180. 253 SI'C also gras..o;es

gums 105,215,228 hralin,l\ 215, H8 herbaceou~ 37,91.

109-10.231 and herbt\·ory 171 180-3 htstoryof 31-42 bolarcuc influence:. 32.

3&-' human Influences 17, 33,

108-9, 21 0-16,24H-9 lrano· Turnnlan Influences

37-9 Islands 151-2, 17J marine 82-3 IIIcdkilUl 215. 227-8,

254, 27+-5 mlgrallon:. 26-30 nlonOCOl 120. 174 mutuahslic a~iallOns

\'olth ammals 178. 181, 186-91, 233

ornamental 274 perennials 93. 109-10,

14~.180

ploneenng 122, 178 plOidy HA-50. 259 poi'-Onous 178. 181 pollinaTion 183-9.248 rdiCt 35-7.61. 281 reli,l\ious uses 22~, 280 resins 215,226,227.228 <;crd dispersal 178,

189-93,266 Spl1l} 92,95, 105. 117. 120 tmdc compounds 178, 181 lroplCa!lIIfluences 31-2.

35-6, 88 "'reds 40. 176

srr also ruderals; wgclais wood} 88-9,109-10,112.

189-93. 255 S(r illso forl"5LS;

matorrals; sclerophylly; trm

Pl(istocenc period hird~ 47-9,52. 235. 237 chmatc 25-30 rorests 29-30 glaciation 26-9.43,65 lakes 125 mammals 42-5, 52. 23H matorrnls 29-30,49.52 refugc, 5(( rdugia spccie~ dtlTerenlialion

52-5

pliocenr. per"x1 2\. 42, 50-1 pJon~rs, Kentish 128 PO delta/river/valley 122,

1Z5, 251 polecat 46 political issues 272, 2HH pollen, fossil 26-7. 3D, 10l pollin~1ton LW, 183--9, 248 pollunon 119-40,243,

146-7,266,285--6 polymorphism 147-61 pomegran~te 216, 224, 226,

174 pondweeds 164 Pontic province/range 4.

H~-20, 37 poplars 122 populauons 83, 13+-68,

205, HO, 242. 254 birds 243----6 , 247,250-3 decline of 239----40,143--5 human 198,102-3.

264-5. 267---9 mcrease in 25()- 3 island 140-1, 151-2 i~lated. su isolation reinforc~.m(;"nt of 272- 3 vortex effect 271

porcupine 43, SO. 241 Portugal 231, 257, 258 ~u also Iherian pel\in~\lla

pratincole 253 prn-ipitation, sa rainfa ll;

snow protoanthocyanids 159 Provence 48,96-7,130

Sfr "Iso Cam~rgul' pulses 214 Pyrenees

birds \38.1H bUllerflies 64- 5 forests 202 bkl's 115 mammals 241 - 2,272 lautavcl man 197 tectomc movements 3-4

pyrophytn 177

(IUail, Californian 257 quillwort 130

r,lbbilS 46 racoon-dog 42 rainfall 16,95

v~ria1ton 21---4,106.110 wet lands 130. 132.283 sa al.lo wate r

Ramsar Convention 283---4, 286

Rapoport's nlle 5H

raptors 123. 142, IM, 160, 243-6,171

rat~ 46, 141 ravcns 121---4 Red Sl'a 106 rnlshank 118---9 red~tam 77, In, H5 reed beds 127 rdugia 16-9.31,35,37.43,

49-50, 52, 55--6, 59, 64. 67,81,123

reindeer 29,43 reptiles 70-5, 106

l'onvergnKe 87 distribution 70-'5 endemic 71-5,276 l'xtinctions 75, 139 islands 75, 139, 14 1. 148 species impoverishment

75, 139 spedes richness 70--4,176 Sff also nam/'s (if indn'idual

repUles mid groups of reptiles

re*rvoir~ 221, 152 re<;()urce ll1anag("mt'nt 33,

199,216,267 sec also land use practices

rhuH)<.:("ros 43---4,81 rhododendron 17 Rhone River 5, 112, 125

sa "Iso Camargue Rif Mountains 4,64,267 nvcrine fo rests 97, 122, 255 riVeTS 10, 76. 98, 115-6

sr( also namfS oJ indiviJlwl ri~·e,-.;

robin 144, 191 ro(:k - ro~cs 40, 104

fire 177 incense from 210 matorrals 118-19, III mimicry by orchid~ lH8 oils and perfumes 2 L'5 terraces 123

TOiknb 44, 46,80---1,142, lRl, 234, 216--7

sec also mouse rollers 97, 165--6, H7 Romans 198--200,257

agrr-5fdrlls-sylvu triads 230

Barhar} thuja wood 248 elephants 101 . 210,241 fort:Sts 103 kermes oak dye 125 oliHs 215 w~ter s),ste.ms 221-1 wetland drainage 181

rosemary 93,119, IR2-3,

'" mderals 63, 122, 170, IIl1

rue. IH2,215 rye 112-13

sage 182

Index 325

Sahara Desert 1\. 49,166-7, 192

Saharo-Arahian prOl'ince 20-1, .19

Sainte-Baullle rdictual fo r("sl 281

salamande.rs 71, 74, 75 salinity 5-7,9,81, 124-.32 S<lltbushes 20,39. \05, 121 <;;lit pan~ 251 sand bank..,dunes 101---6,

116 Silndgrousc 96,97 ~andpipus 165 sand-smelt 127 sapote trees 17 Sardinia

amphibians 75 birds 138, 140, 252 human fossils 197,134 mammals 236, 238 tectonic mo\'emenl~ 4 traditional landscapes 231

S<lwnies 185 sclerophyllr 169- 74

as bioindicator 15-16 forests 118, 10+-5 rnatorrab 119 III mediterranean-type

ecosystellls 87-8 in Pkis\()(:enc period 30 .~ff al.~o names oJ indhidual

sderopny!!ollI rrees scorpions 98 sea - ba~~ 127 seablrds 29 sea daffodil 101-2 *ahorsc;; 117 seal, monk 242 Sea of Galilee 106 ~a-onion, sce SI\uiJl sea samphin.· 101 seasonality

annual plants 175-7 ant assemblage~ 147 bird migration 103--6 leaf habit5 169 salinity/water kvels 116.

131 species richness 145-6 transhuman<:c 217- 20,

130 scbkhas 5. 131-3 ~eeds HI

hanks 274 dispersal by animals 17H,

189-93, 266

326 Index

fire 178 gt:rmination 146, 176--7,

"2 hcrbivory ! S()""2 marshes 130 polyploIdy 150 wood) plants B8 Set also fruits

segctals 63, Ill, 176, 212 sele(!ion pressure~ 147--8,

162, 205 Serrania de Ronda 60 serval 46 sheatfish 246, 258 sheep 105,217-20

l'onservation of varieties m

Corsica 2.10-8 domestication of 207-8 effect of decline in 240 malOrrals 281 - 2 toxic plants 178 tradillonalland use

systems 230--1 and wolves 2';1

shclducks 127-8, 133 ~hrews 57,80--2,236-7 shrikes 247 shrublands, ~et matorrals SiCily

agmforeslry 230 amphibians 75 birds 140,237 butterflies 139 endemic flora 60,63 shrew 81 Sicily-Tunisia sill 7

Sierra Nevada mountains 10, 59-60, 94, 12')

silkworms 231 silt 120, 122, 283 Slovenia 71 slugs 154 smilax llO , 192 snails 154 snake.s 7l, 73. 75, 102, 104,

'0<> snapdragon 123 snow 21 $ocolra 126 sodium chloride 5 soils 12-13,87, 170

de<.:Omposition of 193-6 erosion 25,206,223,247,

267 micro-organisms 64, 109,

194,241,211 reconstitution of 280

sole 121 SOT(ing processes 34,88-9 South Africa, Cape Province

35--6,84-7,118,250

Spain birds 243,252,257--8,212 coastal development 200 conservation 272,27+-7,

286 dehe,s;ls 230--3 endemic Imtluflies 05 eucalyptus 257 fish 258 fore.sts I H!, 201, 204, 248,

284-5 life zones 91 mammals i3, 80, 242 mar~hes 130 pollination by ants ISi rivers 125 te{'lonic mowment~ 4 tomillares 120 trnnshumance 219 woody plants 88 Set also Iberian peninsula

Spanish oak 93 sparrows 1 iO spel'iallon 32- 3,49- 55, 134

islands i37-R local 147--62 new ,pedes discoveTl·d

57,64 and vicariance 136

species adaptation H7--62 convergence IH, 88, 170 to disturbance 177 human influCllces 33 sclerophylly 170--1

~pede. diITerenllal ion, see specmlion

species distribution ~mphibian~ 70-4 bIrds 70---7 declimn!'; 239 patchy 112 planls 61 - 3, In, 158,

25+-6 reptiles 70--5

species diversilY, see biodiversity

species-genus ranos 61 speCIes

impoverishment 70--5, 138-9

spe<.:ics introdul'Iionsl reinlrodUClions H8, 257,272-3

amphibians 75 birds 257 fish Ho forests 265--6,279-81,285 invertebrates H7 mammals 45-0 reptiles 75 src also {·olonizalion.

II1vaSlOn

species pairs, sce vicariann species protection, SfI'

conservation speCies tll'hness, Sf(

biodivusity species turnover 31,95

after fire 144 mammals on islands 236 migrating birds 162_7 sll1all-S(:ale diversity 107,

109--10 species variation, Sf(

biodiveNily spider~ 65 spindle 178 >poonbills 125 ~pr\l<.:e 37,93,280 spurges 121 sqUill 181-2 'stacte' 104 steppes 121

bird species 76, 78, 245 ecosystem indi<.:ators 279 herbi\'ory 181 Irano-Turanian plant

group 37 'la Crnu' 96 Lebanese transect 105-6 Norlh Africa 121. 181.

235 , 268-9,279 ovngrazing 268-9

stilts 127--1:1, 132 St.John's bread trfe, sce carob stoneflies 65 stor-.IX 37,104,215 storks 166,243 storms 24 ~trawberr)' trce

as hioindicator 15 and butterflies 98-9 endemism 61-3 and fire 177 mdigenous 40 malOrr.lb 118

Strymon River 122 sturgeon 67 styrax 225 subalpine zones 93-4 sllh-species 79,137,150,

159, 261 sUlTe~sional processes 95,

144,203-4 succulents 123, 174,257 Sudanian vegetation 36, 38,

W, 106-7,205 '>un Canal 4,83, 258 summergreenness, su

deciduous m:e5 sunflowers 182 sunshine. 24 swallows 123, 139-40,166 swans 164

,wifL~ 123, 139 Syria 43, 101, 105--6, 174

tabor oak 49, 103 tamarisk W, 107, 126 U\nnin~ 178,181, 227---H,

131 tapir 42 Tauru~ mountains 4, 10, 64,

'H-4, 105 Tavarola 236 tea trees 17 tectonIC plat<'s 1--4, 31, 59 temperature 16, 21--4,239 tnebinth 104, 179, 225 terminolog>

Mediterranean Sea 4 perfume 226 regions of MediterT<lncan

basin 7,19 sclerophyll}' 170 shmblands llB-19 sorting prm:essc.s H transhutl1ance 211'1 turnonr 34 wormwood 105

term 1 ~B-30, 151 leql£nes Ifll terraces 122- 3 terrapins 72 Teth)s Sea 1--4, 6, 1'), 8.1

fish relicts 69 land bridges 42 buriph)l1ou~ for<'-sts 173 tectonic llllcroplates 31.

39--40, 49-50. 59 thorns 181 Ihrurn"ort 131 thrushes 76, 98, 123, 166,

191-~, 250 thym ... 119-20. 147, 1')2--4,

182-1,215 libesn range 12 tides 9, 126, 133 limbeT, sec trees: \\ood

consumplion tits 141

blu"" H. 7<.J , 141-1, 159--62. 205

marsh 250 sombrt: 47

toads 71- 5, 131-2,139 tomillares 119, l20-1 topography 10-11

SI:( «Iso landscall£s tortOIses 29,57,71-2, 134 Tour du Valat Biologil'al

StatiOn 2I:lH tourism 266-7, 271,27743,

283 transects 90. 95- \ 07

tmnshllmam:c 217- 20, 230, 269

tTees ')1'1, 123, 126 broad-leaved, see

deciduous [TeeS citrus H deciduous, sec deciduous

trees evngrccn. sa eyeril,reens fruit 215-16 , 222,224,

130, 274 ,ec also citrus tree.s

human influences on 63, 15')--6, 159

hybrid 135, 157 sa er e d 22 S----6 'iClerophyllous, sec

sclerophylly species in Meditnranean

\13---16 yi(ariant pairs 135, 156 .Iee alIo forests; "limes of

mdividulIllI(fS Tripolitania 9,74 tropical factors/influences

31- 2 around Jnu...a1em \06-7 invertehrates 66-7 mammals 81 plants 31 - 2, 35--6, H8 reptiles 71

trout 69-71. 99,246 tmfflcs 240 tulip;. 174 Tunisia

amphibIans 74 birds 251 cholls 112 consernuon 275 elephants 201 fish 69. 2,)<.J forests 203, 148 mudflats 133 o\'ngrazing 26H rehabilitation efforts 278 steppe 279 wctlands 164

Turke~' 224 hirds 50, 139 coastal development

260 conservation 275 early man 197 fbh 67 foresls 103,117 , 224 Jife zones 94. 105 mammals 81 . 242 orchids 174. 241 phrY)I;ana 110 vil'anant palfs 135 wellands 112

Turkey oak 92. 103

Index 327

Turnover, .Iee species turnover

turtles 83-4. 102, 104 Tyrrhenian Sea 9

ungulates 116-7 . 253. 273, 281

sce also cattle; goats; sheep

United Nations agencies 273, 276, 285--6

,alonia oak 224 "an Valen rule 142 VaurluSlan springs 13 vegetahles 211, 214-15. 222.

230, 149. 274 vcgetation, ,rc plants Vcgorilis lake 12') vicariance 32, 74, l35-6,

156 vinc~ and vineyards <.Jo, 2f11

ahandoned 145 black truffles 240 invertebrates 247 ri\'nine forest 122 tmditionailandS(apes

230 tropical components 36

viruses 2H volatile Oils 153, 182, 215,

226 volcanos 7- 9. !2 IOleS 46, 57,81. 18!, 236 n.t!turcs 123--4.142.164,

239. 253, 271

waders 128. 133.164.253 wadis 100.221 wagtaIls 99 wallflowers 123 walnub 36, 216,124 warhlers

and fire IH fruit dispero;al 191-2 increases in 253 llIatorrais 76---7.9743 migration 160---7 P1eisl0cene spcciation 49.

52- 3 retreat of 250

wa!>p!> 184, IHO-fI water 221-2

buffalo 208 defo rested areas 206 eucal),ptus trees 157 levels 114,126---7.253,

283 t~mperature 239

328 Index

sa IIlw de~iccation~ drought floodmg~ Imgallon; lagoon.~;

lake~. mal'ihes; Medllerranean Se", rainfall; resCTvoir,; rivers; w~lb; "etland~

wea:;,cl '0, 2)7 weeds -+0. 176

Sl"f (llw ruderal~; '>t'gel,lls wells 221 wetland~ 120+-13

arlltklal 282 huds 76. 127- 33. 104-5.

252-3. 281 t'onWr\aIlOn 186 drainage 96. 181 Greek Centre for \\etl~nd

C<l!l<;t':rvation 18 hl"n~n influences on 1 }O,

2834 increa!>Cs in hitxhwrslI)"

2~l

invasion hr fish 258 in\fnehr.ne~ 127--R 131 mismanagement!

ovrr-e,pIOllaIlOn 21n ramfall 130. 132. l8} r('"integrallon 281-3 reml)()rar\ 110-3 ~r (llw maT'5hes

Wetbnd<; Imem,l!Ional 284 "heal 210.212-14,BLHQ

.\.Ce 1I15() I'ereals wheatear<; 77.96.101. 1 l5.

16t'!.245 whitclhroat 192 whonlcbcrrie, 29 "ildfo,,1 164

S((" (ll~o dud,~; geese "illm",> 29, 122 "inds 22-4, 183 Wilt'h-hazcl 37. 113 "ohcs 42-3.207.237.253 wood consumption 201 .

227-11 248,267

I'hart'oal 98.127-8.23\ "ood1and~, ~r fore<.t;; w'oodlark 1 H woodpeckfr.. 47, Q8. HO.

"" World !lank 2H6 \\orld Conservation Union

(TUCN) 242,245.176. 281. 2H6

\\orld Wtldhfc I-und (\VWF) 184. 286

w .. mmHx·1d 20.27.105,121 "rens 1 00 wrynrck 140

\f" 20.98. 281 Yugoslan,1 9-10. 12-3.18.

61. 122, 208

Zagms moum,1ms 4. 156 zccn oak 93 Lohary'~ law "U:l-9. 121 :00, 271