bioactivation of herbal constituents: what is the difference?the case of aristolochic acids • in...
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Bioactivation of Herbal Constituents:
What is the Difference?
Bo Wen, PhD
GlaxoSmithKline
Collegeville, Pennsylvania
Email: [email protected]
Outline
• Introduction
• Herb-based substructures associated with
bioactivation
• Summary
2
Reasons for Termination of Drug Candidates in Development
Wen B and Zhu M, Drug Metab Rev, 2015, 47:71-87.
The principal barrier to bringing a
continuous stream of innovation to
the market place is that converting a
chemical with interesting biological
properties into a drug involves
solving multiple complex issues
“simultaneously” in a single molecule.
The Challenge for Pharmaceutical Industry:
Solving the Multiple Issues Simultaneously
Non-toxic metabolites
Elimination/Excretion
Therapeuticallyactive metabolite
Drug
detoxification
detoxification
Elimination/Excretion
Excreted/repaireddetoxification
Signaling proteins,enzymes and transporters
Reactive metabolites
MacromolecularAdducts
bioactivation
Phase I
P450, PO (MPO, HRP), FMO, MAO, AO
Phase II
UGT, SULT, NAT, GST
GSH depletion
ROS
DNA, nucleic acid Autologous proteins
Teratogenicity Carcinogenicity Necrosis Apoptosis Hypersensitivity
Oxidative Stress
covalent binding
Circumstantial Evidence Links Reactive Metabolites to Adverse
Drug Reactions (ADRs)
Reactive Metabolites in Adverse Outcome Pathways
Mathieu V, Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2015, 28:1391-1397.
• Reactive metabolite-mediated protein alkylation and covalent protein binding in the liver are typically considered as
the molecular initiating event (MIE, blue) for liver fibrosis AOP. This serves as a trigger to provoke hepatocyte
injury, including apoptosis, which in turn activates Kupffer cells.
• As a result, transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) expression is induced, which is a key factor for stellate cell
activation. The latter goes hand in hand with the occurrence of inflammation and oxidative stress.
• The overall end result is accumulation of collagen and changes in the extracellular matrix composition in the liver
(orange), which becomes clinically manifested as the adverse outcome, namely liver fibrosis (red).
Name Substructure Reactive species
Hydrazines, hydrazides R1
HN
HN R2 R1, R2 = alkyl or aromatic groups
diazonium ions, free radicals
Thiophenes, furans, pyrroles X = S, O, NH
X
epoxides, S-oxides (thiophenes),α, β-
unsaturated dicarbonyl (furans)
Anilines, anilides and precursors NH2
nitrosos, quinoneimines, free radicals
Quinones and precursors HO X X = NH2, OH, etc
quinones, quinoneimines, free radicals
Nitroaromatics NO2
nitroso intermediates, free radicals
Halogenated aromatics (Br > Cl > F) X X = Br, Cl, F
arene oxides
Thiazolidinediones
NH
SR
O
OR = alkyl or aromatic groups
isocyanates, isothiocyanates
3-Alkylindoles
NH
3-methyleneindolenines
Alkynes, acetylenes R1 C C R2 R1, R2 = H or alkyl groups oxirenes, ketenes
Arylacetic acids, arylpropionic acids COOH
n = 1, 2n
acyl glucuronides
Structural alerts: a starting point for testing and beyond
Wen B & Fitch W, Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 5:39-55 (2009)
Does “Natural” mean Safe?
1 Chalasani N et al., Gastroenterology. 2015, 148:1340-1352.2 Navarro VJ et al., Hepatology. 2017, :363-373.
Data from the US DILI Network
indicates HDS are the second
leading cause of DILI1
Use of herbal supplements is
increasing as is their percentage
of DILI cases2
Outline
• Introduction
• Herb-based substructures associated with
bioactivation
- aristolochic acids
- alkenylbenzenes
- indoloquinazoline alkaloids
- furano diterpenoids
• Summary
9
Aromatic amines and nitroaromatics
The case of aristolochic acids
10
• Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) is a unique, chronic renal disease often
associated with tubulointerstitial fibrosis and upper urothelial cancer (UUC) which was
first recognized in the late 1950s.
• Occurs exclusively in residents of specific farming villages in the Danube river basin
(Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Romania) where
~25,000 have the disease.
Aromatic amines and nitroaromatics
The case of aristolochic acids
11
• The plant Aristolochia clematitis (Birthwort) grew in local wheat fields as a weed and led to
contamination of the wheat grain during harvesting process.
• Similar nephropathy developed in rabbits after administration of Aristolochia seeds or fed with flour
containing Aristolochia seeds.
• It was proposed that contamination of the baking flour in endemic areas by seeds of the plant
Aristolochia clematitis was the cause of BEN (Ivic and Lovrie, 1967)
• However, Ivic’s work was neglected for many decades till 1992.
Ivic and Lovrie. Acta Medica Med 5:1-3, 1967
Aromatic amines and nitroaromatics
The case of aristolochic acids
• In 1992, an epidemic of Chinese herbs nephropathy (CHN), lately known as aristolochic
acid nephropathy (AAN), was first reported in Belgium in a cohort of young female
patients who take slimming pills containing Chinese herbs Aristolochia fangchi rich in AAs.
• High similarity of renal histopathology noticed between CHN/AAN and BEN.
Debelle FD et al, Kidney Int. 74:158-169, 2008
Association of AT→TA transversion mutations with
AA-DNA adducts and upper urothelial cancer (UUC)
• A specific AT→TA transversion mutation in codon 139 of exon 5 in the tumor suppressor gene TP53 is
associated with urothelial tumors and formation of the AA-DNA adducts in CHN/AAN patients (both
serve as diagnostic biomarkers of UUC).
• Mutation pattern in TP53 of UUC in the IARC database. A) AAN patients in United Kingdom; B) BEN
patients in Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia; C) AAN patients in Taiwan; D) UUC patients not associated with
AA exposure.
Stiborová M et al, Arch Toxicol. 90:2595-2615, 2016
Aristolochic acids in BEN, CHN, AAN
Debelle FD et al, Kidney Int. 74:158-169, 2008
Bioactivation and detoxication pathways of aristolochic
acid I (AA-I)
TP53 AT→TA
transversion mutations
Chinese herbs nephropathy (CHN)
Aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN)
Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN)
• Mice treated with dicoumarol,
an inhibitor of NQO1, exhibited
attenuated nephrotoxicity and
higher levels of the non-toxic
demethylated metabolite AA-Ia.
• Pretreatment of CYP1A
inducers in rodents suppressed
formation of DNA adducts and
protected animals from AA-
induced nephrotoxicity.
Chen M et al, Toxicol Sci 122:288-296, 2011.
Feng C et al, Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 36:850-857, 2013.
Mechanisms of aristolochic acid nephrotoxicity
Chang SY et al, JCI Insight. 2017
• AA is converted to AL-NOSO3H in human liver via nitroreduction by NQO1 and sulfation by SULTs,
followed by efflux into blood by MRP3/4 and active uptake into kidney cells by OAT transporters, where
AL-NOSO3H forms DNA and protein adducts leading to nephrotoxicity.
• Interplay of NQO1, CYP1A1/2, SULTs in AA metabolism and MRP3/4, OATs in transport of AL-NOSO3H
may explain the mechanism of AA-induced nephrotoxicity, and genetic polymorphisms in these enzymes
and transporters may be critical determinants on individuals’ susceptibility to AAN and BEN.
NO2
CF3
HN
O
NO2
CF3
HN
O
HO
NO2
CF3
N
O
OGSH
FLU-G3
GSH
FLU-G2NO2
CF3
N
O
Flutamide (FLU)
NO2
CF3
NH
O
NO2
CF3
HN
O
HO
NO2
CF3
N
O
GS
GS
GSH
NO2
CF3
NH2
HO
GS
FLU-G4
NO2
CF3
HN
O
OHGSH
NO2
CF3
HN
O
OH
SG
FLU-G1
NH2
CF3
HN
O
NH
CF3
N
O
FLU-G6
FLU-G5
NH
CF3
NH
FLU-G7
NH2
CF3
HN
O
NH
CF3
N
O
GSH
OH OH
GSH
NH2
CF3
NH2
GS
NH2
CF3
HN
O
GS
NH2
CF3
HN
O
OH
GS
FLU-6
GSH
Oxidative activation
Reductive activation
NO2
CF3
HN
O
2e
N
CF3
HN
O
O
2e
HN
CF3
HN
O
OHNH2
CF3
HN
O
CY P/ RedNADPH
CY P/ RedNADPH
NO2
CF3
HN
O
ee
O2
O2
2e
CYP/ RedNADPH
FLU FLU-6
Free radicals,redox cycling
Example of anilines/
masked anilines:
Flutamide
Wen B, et al. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 21:2393-2406, 2008
❖ a nonsteroidal
antiandrogen drug that is
widely used for the
treatment of prostate cancer
❖ Nitroaromatics associated
with idiosyncratic
hepatotoxicity in patients
* Rare but severe liver injury caused by flutamide in patients
Outline
• Introduction
• Herb-based substructures associated with
bioactivation
- aristolochic acids
- alkenylbenzenes
- indoloquinazoline alkaloids
- furano diterpenoids
• Summary
18
Alkenylbenzenes
A case of food-borne compounds
• A class of food-borne compounds naturally occurring in spices and herb medicines, including sassafras, nutmeg,
cinnamon, anise, fennel, basil, and tarragon.
• Increased incidents of hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma in rodents; safrole, methyleugenol and estragole were
categorized as “possible human carcinogens” by IARC and “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen” by NTP.
• Flavor and Extract Manufactures’ Association (FEMA) of the United States concluded that the present exposure to
methyleugenol and estragole from spices and other food additives does not pose a significant cancer risk.
Bioactivation of alkenylbenzenes
Bioactivation of benzylic and allylic alcohols
via sulfo-conjugation
• Benzylic alcohols of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) undergo SULT-mediated sulfonation
to form the extremely reactive sulfuric acid esters and carbonium ions that can play a role as
ultimate carcinogenic and mutagenic metabolites.
Surh YJ, Chem Biol Interact 109:221-235, 1998
SAR of alkenylbenzenes bioactivation
• Methyl isoeugenol and isoeugenol possess the alkenyl double bond at the 1ʹ, 2ʹ- position, instead of the terminal
2ʹ, 3ʹ- position, and metabolism of these structural analogs leads to formation of noncarcinogenic 3ʹ-hydroxy
metabolites instead of the proximate carcinogenic 1ʹ-hydroxy metabolites.
• Eugenol possess a free phenolic hydroxyl group at the para-position to the side chain (instead of a methoxyl group
in methyleugenol), which is readily subject to rapid and efficient glucuronidation/sulfation and subsequently
excretion in urine.
nevadensin
Bioactivation and detoxification of alkenylbenzenes
The protective role of nevadensin in methyleugenol-
induced hepatocarcinogenicity in rats
• The basil flavonoid nevadensin, a SULT inhibitor, inhibited SULT-mediated bioactivation of methyleugenol reflected in
a reduction of DNA adduct formation and inhibition of hepatocellular altered foci (HAF) induction, an early marker of
hepatocarcinogenicity in rats.
Alhusainy et al, Food Chem Toxicol. 74:28-34, 2014
Indoloquinazoline alkaloids
The case of evodiamine and rutaecarpine
❖ Main active alkaloids of the herbal
medicine Evodia rutaecarpa (Wu-zhu-yu
in Chinese) for the treatment of
gastrointestinal disorders, headache, and
hypertension.
❖ However, immune-mediated toxicity
and acute toxicity were reported in mice.
❖ Mechanism-base inactivation of
CYP3A4 and CYP1A2.
Jeon TW, et al, Toxicol Lett 164:155-166 (2016)
CYP-dependent bioactivation of rutaecarpine
• A cell counting kit-8 cytotoxicity assay indicated that rutaecarpine (Rut) can decrease the primary rat hepatocyte viability,
increase lactate dehydrogenase and reactive oxygen species, reduce JC-1 (an indicator of mitochondrial membrane
potential, an early sign of apoptosis), and cause cell stress and membrane damage
Zhang FL, et al, Xenobiotica 45(11):978-89, 2015
Bioactivation of 3-alkylindole-containing evodiamine
Wen B, et al, Drug Metab. Dispos. 42:1044-1054, 2014.
Bioactivation of 3-alkylindole-containing evodiamine
Wen B, et al, Drug Metab. Dispos. 42:1044-1054, 2014.
❖ The 3-alkylindole moiety in evodiamine and rutaecarpine undergoes CYP–catalyzed dehydrogenation to form an
electrophile 3-methyleneindolenine.
❖ Evodiamine was a mechanism-based inactivator of CYP3A4, with KI = 29 μM and kinact = 0.029 min-1, respectively.
Pharmaceutical drugs containing 3-alkylindoles
Outline
• Introduction
• Herb-based substructures associated with
bioactivation
- aristolochic acids
- alkenylbenzenes
- indoloquinazoline alkaloids
- furano diterpenoids
• Summary
30
Germander-induced human liver injury
• Germander (Teucrium chamaedrys L.), a furano diterpenoid-containing herbal plant, has been used
as a folk medicine as a diuretic and antiseptic agent.
• In the early 1990s, promotion of slimming capsules/tablets containing germander powder led to an
epidemic of liver injury with over 30 cases of cytolytic hepatitis in France, including several fatalities
due to fulminant hepatic necrosis.
• Signs of immunoallergic type of hepatitis since a rechallenge caused early recurrence of the toxicity.
Castot and Larrey D, Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 16:916-22, 1992
Lancet, 1992, 340:674
Germander (Teucrium chamaedrys)
Reproducing hepatotoxicity of Germander and its major
furano diterpenoid teucrin A in mouse
Kouzi SA, et al, Chem Res Toxicol. 7:850-856, 1994
(Top) Hepatic midzonal necrosis in mice @ 24 h after the oral administration of teucrin A alone; (middle) almost no necrosis
after teucrin A and pretreatment with the P450 inhibitor PBO (piperonyl butoxide); (bottom) modestly enhanced hepatic
necrosis after pretreatment of PB (sodium phenobarbital).
Bioactivation of the furano diterpenoid teucrin A
NAC: N-acetyl cysteine; NAL: N-acetyl lysine
Non-toxic metabolites
Elimination/Excretion
Therapeuticallyactive metabolite
Drug
detoxification
detoxification
Elimination/Excretion
Excreted/repaireddetoxification
Signaling proteins,enzymes and transporters
Reactive metabolites
MacromolecularAdducts
bioactivation
Phase I
P450, PO (MPO, HRP), FMO, MAO, AO
Phase II
UGT, SULT, NAT, GST
GSH depletion
ROS
DNA, nucleic acid Autologous proteins
Teratogenicity Carcinogenicity Necrosis Apoptosis Hypersensitivity
Oxidative Stress
covalent binding
What about the signs of immunological type of hepatitis?
Laliberté L and Villeneuve JP. CMAJ. 1996, 154:1689-1692
Autoimmune hepatitis by pharmaceutical drugs
Cho and Uetrecht, Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2017, 30, 295−314
• Drug-induced autoimmune hepatitis: 1) formation of reactive metabolites by CYP enzyme; 2) covalent binding of reactive
metabolites on the CYP enzyme leading to formation of a neoantigen, a metabolite-modified self-protein; 3)
immunological response including production of antiCYP autoantibodies; 4) specific recognition of the CYP enzyme by
autoantibodies leading to immune destruction of hepatocytes and subsequent autoimmune hepatitis.
Teucrin A-induced autoimmune hepatitis in patients
• Microsomal samples were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting for expression of neoantigen (the teucrin A-
adducted hmEH) specifically recognized by the anti-hmEH autoantibodies in patient’s sera.
• Among the broad range of targets affected most by teucrin A treatment in rat liver were mitochondrial and endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) proteins which included several cytochrome P450 enzymes, UGTs and notably epoxide hydrolase which
converts the putative epoxide to non-toxic dihydrodiols.
Druckova A et al, Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2007, 20, 1393–1408.
De Berardinis V et al, Mol Pharmacol 2000, 58:542–551.
Teucrin A-induced autoimmune hepatitis in patients
• hmEH is the target of germander- or teucrin A-induced autoantibodies on the surface of human hepatocytes,
leading to immune destruction of hepatocytes and subsequent autoimmune hepatitis.
• No anti-CYP3A4 autoantibodies identified in patients although CYP-teucrin A adducts were formed in vitro
(challenge in immune-mediated IDR prediction?)
TA RM
De Berardinis V et al, Mol Pharmacol 2000, 58:542–551.
Summary
• The globally widespread use of herbal medicines comes with a substantial
increase in case reports of herbal-induced toxicity nowadays -- “Natural does not
mean Safe”.
• Like synthetic drugs, bioactivation of herbal constituents often represents a
molecular initiating event for herb-induced toxicity, including immune-mediated
toxicity.
• It is important to understand complexity of herbal constituents, daily exposure,
disposition, therapeutic regimen (acute vs chronic) and intended target
population. i.e. the methyleugenol/nevadensin case.
• It is imperative to use comprehensive in vitro and in vivo systems in the hazard
identification and risk assessment of herbal constituents. i.e. microphysiological
systems, untargeted metabolite profiling, and systems pharmacology.