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LANGUAGE AND SOCIETYBilinguals and Bilingualism

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BILINGUALISM Why do we study bilingualism?

A large proportion of the world’s population knows and uses more than one language on a regular basis. Multilingualism is the norm. More than 140 languages are spoken in Manchester. Language planning (social and educational policy) is a political issue often based on academic research.

The following slides show the increase in population of hispanics/latinos/as in the US since 1970. The increase has had a marked effect on discussions of bilingualism in the US.

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14.622.4

35.347.8

59.773.0

87.6

102.6

9.6

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010* 2020* 2030* 2040* 2050*

Population in millions

Hispanic Population in the United States: 1970 to 2050

*Projected Population as of July 1

ProjectionsCensus

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000 Decennial Censuses; Population Projections, July 1, 2010 to July 1, 2050

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6.49.0

12.515.5

17.820.1

22.324.4

4.7

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010* 2020* 2030* 2040* 2050*

Percent Hispanic of the Total Population in the United States: 1970 to 2050

*Projected Population as of July 1

ProjectionsCensus

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000 Decennial Censuses; Population Projections, July 1, 2010 to July 1, 2050

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BILINGUALISM Topics in bilingualism

Who is bilingual? What is a native language? How does a child acquire two languages? How does bilingualism influence a human being’s intellectual and

mental growth? When and how should we learn a second language? Does a bilingual’s brain function differently from a monolingual’s brain? How and when do bilinguals switch from one language to the other?

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BILINGUALISM

True or False? Learning more than one language confuses a child and

lowers his/her IQ? A child should learn one language properly before

learning a second one. A person cannot be a real bilingual if he learns a second

language late. Bilinguals have to translate from their weaker to their

stronger language. Learning two languages may cause cultural identity

problems for a child.

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BILINGUALISM

Approaches Linguistics – studies the structure and development of

the two languages Psycholinguistics – studies the psychological basis of

bilingual’s language competence and performance Sociolinguistics – looks at how cultures/social groups

affect language performance and language choice Neurolinguistics – studies the relationship between

language and the brain

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DEFINITIONS

Individual bilingualism vs Societal bilingualism Bilingualism as an individual attribute: a psychological

state of an individual who has access to two language codes to serve communication purposes.

Bilingualism as a societal attribute: two languages are used in a community and that a number of individuals can use two languages.

Should bilingualism be defined at an individual or a societal level?

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DEFINITIONS

5 dimensions Cognitive organisation of

two languages Age of acquisition Language proficiency Sequence of acquisition

of two languages

Societal factors

Individual characteristics

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COMPOUND VS. COORDINATE BILINGUALS

Compound bilingual: Has one semantic system but two linguistic codes.

Usually refers to someone whose two languages are learnt at the same time, often in the same context.

Coordinate bilingual: Has two semantic systems and two linguistic codes.

Usually refers to someone whose two languages are learnt in distinctively separate contexts

Subordinate bilingual: The weaker language is interpreted through the stronger

language

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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF MONOLINGUALS

Semantic system

Has wingsHas feathersCan fly

Language code

Orange Apple Apple Bird

naranja mansana mansana pajaro

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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS

Semantic system Semantic System 1

Semantic System 2

English Spanish English Spanish

Compound bilingual Coordinate bilingual

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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS

Semantic system

English Spanish

Subordinate bilingual

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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS

Semantic System 1

English Spanish

Semantic System 2

English Spanish

Semantic System 2

Semantic System 1

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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS

Whether there are two or more systems depends on: Age of acquisition Learning/teaching method Similarities and differences between the

two languages

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EARLY VS. LATE BILINGUALS

Early bilingual: someone who has acquired two languages

early in childhood (usually received systematic training/learning of a second language before age 6).

Late bilingual: someone who has become a bilingual later

than childhood (after age 12). Discussion: Is there a “critical period”

for second language learning?

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EARLY VS. LATE BILINGUALS

How do we determine the age of acquisition?

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BALANCED VS. DOMINANT BILINGUALS

Balanced bilingual: someone whose mastery of two languages

is roughly equivalent. Dominant bilingual:

someone with greater proficiency in one of his or her languages and uses it significantly more than the other language.

Semilingual: someone with insufficient knowledge of

either language.

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SUCCESSIVE VS. SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALS

Successive bilingualism: Learning one language after already knowing another. This is the

situation for all those who become bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual earlier in life. Sometimes also called consecutive bilingualism.

Simultaneous bilingualism: Learning two languages as "first languages". That is, a person who is a

simultaneous bilingual goes from speaking no languages at all directly to speaking two languages. Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will become simultaneous bilinguals.

Receptive bilingualism: Being able to understand two languages but express oneself in only

one. This is generally not considered "true" bilingualism but is a fairly common situation.

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ADDITIVE VS. SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALS

Additive bilingual: The learning of a second language does not interfere with

the learning of a first language. Both languages are well developed.

Subtractive bilingual: The learning a second language interferes with the

learning of a first language. The second language replaces the first language.

Additive or subtractive bilingualism is related to the different status associated with the two languages in a society.

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ELITE VS. FOLK BILINGUALS

Elite bilingual: Individuals who choose to have a bilingual

home, often in order to enhance social status.

Folk bilingual: Individuals who develop second language

capacity under circumstances that are not often of their own choosing, and in conditions where the society does not value their native language.

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SUMMARY: DEFINITIONS

Coordinate vs. Compound bilingualism Early vs. Late bilingualism Balanced vs. Dominant bilingualism Simultaneous vs. Successive

bilingualism Additive vs. Subtractive bilingualism Elite vs. Folk bilingualism