Bhurshut Rajya

Country India

State West Bengal

District(s) Howrah

Websitehowrah.gov.in

Bhurishrestha Kingdom or Bhurishrestha Rajya (Bengali: ভু� রি�শ্রে�ষ্ঠ ��জ্য) was an ancient and medieval Bengali kingdom spread across what are now Howrah, Hooghly and Nadia districts extending to some parts of Bardhaman and Purba Medinipur in the Indian state of West Bengal. It maintained sovereignty for a large part of its history (except nominal suzerainty to Delhi Sultans for few years during early Muslim rule of India) from almost 600 B.C to 1712 A.D when it was reduced to a Zamindari as part of Bardhaman Raj. Bardhaman was then virtually independent from 1707 or Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's death to 1765 when it became subject of British India. Bhurishrestha had a high concentration of big merchants or Bhurisresthis, and as such came to be colloquially called Bhurshut by which name a small town in Howrah district and a village called Rajbalhat nearby in Hooghly district survives even to this day with remains from these glorious past.

Location of Bhurishrestha kingdom in present day West Bengal

Contents

1 Early History 2 Later History 3 Garh Bhawanipur 4 Bhurshut Temples 5 Madangopaljiu and Amta Mandirs 6 Ramrajatala 7 Taraknath Shiva Temple of Tarakeshwar 8 Trivia

9 References

Early History

Past history of Howrah can be traced in accounts of our ancient scholars. According to them, Howrah was closely knitted with the ancient Sumha region of Rarh and the southern part of this Sumha was constituted within present region of Howrah and Midnapore. Bhurisrestha, the ancient Hindu Kingdom, which existed even before the arrival of the British East India Company comprises most of the areas of present district of Howrah.[1]

The name Howrah came from the word "Haor" - meaning in Bengali, a place for exit of water and mud. Though it may possibly be derived from a village named Harirah which was located in or about the site of modern day Howrah City.[1]

Singur or Singhapur (Lion City) of Hooghly was the original capital of Bhurishrestha. Vijaya Singha the ousted prince went with his daredevil comrades to Sri Lanka via crude wooden ships from Gadiara or Buttor Port (Venetian explorer Ceasare de Federici, who travelled India during 1565–79, mentioned a place called Buttor in his journal circa 1578 coinciding with modern neighbourhood Betor) of Howrah.[1]

As per Sri Lanka history Mahavamsa, written around 400 AD by the monk Nagasena, using the Dipavamsa and Attakatha as sources, correlates well with Indian histories of the period. Ceylon before colonization by Bengalis was earlier inhabited by ancient tribe Veddas to whom Ravana of Ramayana belonged. With the arrival of Prince Vijay and his 700 followers history of the Sinhalese started. Vijaya was eldest son of King Sinhabahu ("Man with Lion arms") and his Queen Sinhasivali of Bhurishrestha Kingdom. The Mahavamsa claims that Vijaya landed on same day as the death of the Buddha (Geiger's preface to Mahavamsa). Vijaya married Kuveni (local Vedda princess) like his army marrying off local Vedda women giving rise to modern Sinhala race who speak a language phonetically much similar to modern Bengali. Vijaya landed on Sri Lanka near Mahathitha (Manthota or Mannar), and named the island "Thambaparni" ('copper-colored palms). These are attested in Ptolemy's map of the ancient world. Mahavamsa also claims, Lord Buddha visiting Sri Lanka three times. Firstly, to stop a war between a Naga

(Vedda) king and his son-in-law who were fighting over a ruby chair. It is said that on his last visit, he left his foot mark on Sripada (Adam's Peak). Tamirabharani was the old name for second longest river in Sri Lanka (known as Malwatu Oya in Sinhala & Aruvi Aru in Tamil). This river was main supply route connecting the capital, Anuradhapura to Mahathitha (Mannar). The waterway was used by Greek and Chinese ships traveling the southern Silk Route. Mahathitha was an ancient port linking Sri Lanka to Bengal and Persian Gulf.[1]

Later History

Bhurishrestha kingdom grew up in southern parts of Rarh region and was the main centre of Rarhi Brahmins. It wass ruled by a "Sur" King during the period when the Pala Empire was a rising force. At a later time there is mention of a 'Dhibar' or fisherman dynasty, possibly in the 14th-15th century. Subsequently the area came to be ruled by a Brahmin family who defeated the Dhibars and their leader married the Princess.[2]

Shanibhangar, the last Dhibar King of Bhurshut Raj, was defeated by Chaturanan Neogi. Chaturanan’s grandson (by his daughter) Krishna Roy then took over the reigns of Bhurshut. Krishna Roy’s great grandson Pratap Narayan Roy (1652-1684) was the greatest of Bhurshut royals.[2]

Ain-i-Akbari mentions that amongst the 31 Mahals under Sirkar Suleimanabad, the highest revenue was earned by Basandhari Pargana, followed by Bhurshut. No other Pargana under Sirkar Satgaon or Sirkar Mandaran earned so much. Bhurshut kingdom had three main forts at Garh Bhabanipur, Pandua (Pendo or Pedo Basantapur) and Rajbalhat. Ruins of these forts and also a place called Dihi Bhurshut in Howrah district, can still be found across Damodar from Rajbalhat.[2]

In 1713, Bengal Council of British East India Company, on the accession of the Emperor Farrukhsiyar, grand son of Aurangzeb, to Delhi throne, sent a deputation with a petition for a settlement of five villages on west bank of Hooghly river along with 33 villages on the east bank. The list of villages appears in the Consultation Book of the Council dated 4 May 1714. The five villages on the west bank on Hooghly river were: 'Salica' (Salkia), 'Harirah' (Howrah), 'Cassundeah' (Kasundia), 'Ramkrishnopoor' (Ramkrishnapur), and 'Battar' (Bator): all identifiable with localities of modern Howrah city. The deputation was successful except for the five villages. By 1728, most of the present day Howrah District was part of Burdwan. After Battle of Plassey, as per the treaty signed with the Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim on 11 October 1760, Howrah district (then in Burdwan) came under British East India Company. In 1787, Hooghly district was formed, and by 1819, whole of the present day Howrah district was added to it. Then Howrah was separated from the Hooghly district in 1843.[1]

Garh Bhawanipur

Raybaghini Bhabashankari eliminating invading Muslims

Garh Bhawanipur was the capital of Bhurisrestha Rajya (kingdom) at the ruling time of Mughal emperor Akbar. It was then called Bhursut Pargana. Bhawanipur now situated at Chitrasenpur under Udaynarayanpur Block in Howrah District. Nearest Railway Station is Amta 13 km away from Bussto Bhawanipur on the Betai Dihi-Bhursut Road.[3]

Maharani Bhavashankari, wife of Maharaja Rudranarayan, was the most popular and strongest queen of Bhurisresthya Rajya. She miserably defeated Osman Khan Lohani, chief commander of Kotlu Khan, the then Pathan Sultan of Kalinga (presently Orissa) at Bashuri in the battle, herself leading in the field along with her female regiment braving heavy downpour on the rainyday of 12th September, 1603 A.D. The Muslim army of Pathans wanted to wrest Bhurshut rich in resources so that they could fight off the new Mughals emperors. To the Bengali people however both Mughals and Pathans were Muslim colonialists and equal, hence Bhurshut maintained strict neutrality. Raja Bhupati Krishna Ray, the commander of the Pendo fort, made Sarbadhinayak, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces by her. Apart from that she took immediate steps to strengthen the army in terms of numbers as well as infrastructure. She herself took the responsibility of their training. At that time Bhavashankari frequently visited the Chhaunapur fort named after Chhauni or Cantonment. During her visits she used to visit the Bhavani temple at the nearby Bashuri village at least once. Her official coronation was also to be held at the temple according to Tantric rites as her husband died. Golok Chattopadhayay, an eminent practitioner of Tantra was to preside over the coronation ceremony. Meanwhile, the Pathans bought Chaturbhuj the Premier. The latter declined to directly join the Pathan forces against the Queen, but assured of sabotage. Osman Khan and Chaturbhuj conspired to capture Bhavashankari on the night of her coronation, when she would be guarded only by a few of her female bodyguards. Accordingly, Osman led a

contingent of five hundred Pathan soldiers and infiltrated into Bhurishrestha territory. After travelling throughout the night, they camped in a jungle near Khanakul on the morning of the D-Day. The Pathan army was spotted in the jungle by Kalu Chandal, a hunter, who reported it to police at Khanakul. The Officer-in-Charge immediately dispatched a Dandanayak or inspector with the news to Garh Bhawanipur. Bhupati Krishna Ray was away at Pendo fort, and the acting commander Chaturbhuj dismissed the incident as a false alarm. The Dandanayak not impressed with Chaturbhuj's complacency and dispatched the news to Pendo. In the afternoon, Chaturbhuj advanced with his forces towards Khanakul. In the evening he sent a message to Osman Khan, suggesting him to launch the attack towards the end of the night. The Pathans emboldened by Chaturbhuj's support started moving towards Bashuri, crossing the Damodar near Pursurah. After the coronation ceremony was over, she received a message from Raja Bhupati Krishna Ray, updating her on the recent developments. She immediately deployed the troops from Chhaunapur, Basdingagarh, Lashkardanga and the female battalion. An elephant brigade of 100, a cavalry of 500 and an infantry of 500 readied for the battle beside the 2,000 strong female regiment. The royal secretary, Haridev Bhattacharya arranged irregulars from the local Bagdi and Chandal population. On the other hand Bhupati Krishna led the troops from Pendo and Dogachhia to confront the renegade battalion of Chaturbhuj Chakravarti. As the Pathan inavders approached they were cornered into a battle ground surrounded with trenches on the three sides. Bhavashankari herself led the battle atop an elephant, and armed with her hand cannon Rudragnishakti she accounted for a sizeable Pathan casualty. The superior warfare skills of Bhurishrestha soldiers coupled with the bravery of the Queen who later charged the Pathan army on a horse with swords in both hands, led them to victory. Osman Khan, wounded and defeated, fled the battle ground. After a lot of hardship he reached Orissa in the guise of a fakir. Upon attack by the Orissa Pathans, the regular army was tricked away to fight at the borders. Queen Bhabashankari thus valiantly commanded the mostly women army at battlefield and like Devi Durga slayed all of the 20,000 strong Afghan Regiment which was numerically many times more than her forces of just 3,100. For this great victory even Mughal emperor Akbar was deeply moved and sent Ambar-raj Mansingh at Garh Bhawanipur to honour Rani Bhabashankari the brave queen with title of Ray Baghini (Queen Tigress). Also, Mughal Empire accepted Bhurshut as an independent Hindu Kingdom outside its domain.[3] Thus, semi-independent Bhurshut Pargana (during early Muslim dominance in medieval India) became sovereign again like ancient times. Now there are destroyed temples of Gopinath Jew of Raj Palace and Moninath Jew Temple at Bhursut. In April, 2010 West Bengal State Directorate of Archeology started excavation where they found artifacts of late medieval times. Among other things, temple built in 1705 has been excavated. Ray Dynasty ruled here and it was ended at 1712 when Maharaja Kirtichand annexed Garh Bhawanipur. Since first half of 16th century, it was site of a Dasnami Shaivite Math (residence of ascetic order) belonging to Nathyogis subordinate to Dasnami Math of Tarakeshwar. The Bhawanipur Math was endowed free lands by Bhursut royals in 1685. With eclecticism running high among the Bengali nobles of the period they built an unusual two storied Mandir inside royal fort to house the images of more than 20 Vaishnava and Shaivite deities. After Bhursut Pargana became part of Burdwan Zamindari in 1712 the royal family of 'Bhursut Raj' settled in 7 km east of Bhawanipur at Pedo Basantapur or Pendo (or may be Pandua,

Hooghly) having large fortress surrounded by moat. Another branch entered into matrimonial alliance with Kiritchandra, the Maharaja of Burdwan. At Pedo Basantapur the reduced circumstances of this ancient royal family aroused sympathy of the Rajas of Burdwan, now their relatives who gave rent free estates to them at Bansberia (near Kolkata) and several places in Burdwan and Nadia districts. However, after Kiritchandra’s death in 1740 the Burdwan Zamindari confiscated parts of these lands to west of River Ganga mainly that of Narendra Narayan Ray of Basantapur the father of Bharatchandra Ray, ‘Raygunakar’, 18th century Bengali poet, who fled to his estate in Nadia under Raja Krishnachandra of Krishnanagar.[3]

Bhurshut Temples

Some Nath Yogis of Hooghly district were forcibly converted to Islam but many reconverted back or stuck to many of their original practices. Mahanad hamlet even now hosts a number of broken images of Batuk Bhairab, Kala Bhairab, Haraparwati etc. Jateshwarnath temple at Mahanad are famous for Shiva and Shakti worship. In olden times there were very large fair at Mahanad during Shivaratri festival. The Mela (fair) has declined now partially due to the Mela at Tarakeswar and partially because communications to Mahanad has detoriated. At the temple of Jateshwarnath an iron post fixed on a high platform is worshipped as Mahakal or Kala Bhairab Shivalinga. [4]

The images of Batuk Bhairab and Ekapad Bhairab are also worshipped. Hindus and the Buddhists both worship Mahakal whose image may be different types. Mahakal may have from one to eight faces and have from two to sixteen arms. The Tantriks worship him for crushing the enemies. Dr Benoytosh Bhattacharya observes: "Mahakal is a ferocious God who is generally worshipped in the tantric rite of Marana for the destruction of enemies. Mahakal was also regarded as terrible spirit and was calculated to have inspired awe in the minds of those Buddhists who were not reverential to their Gurus, and did not care much for three Jewels; Mahakal is supposed to eat those culprits raw."[4]

The small village of Rajbalhat in the district of Hooghly was once very prosperous and for sometime the capital of Bhursut Kingdom now within the district of Hooghly. Fort of Bhursut Raj at Rajbalhat covered about 7 bighas of land and 500 bighas of land been made a “Debottar” property for the maintenance of the temple of Rajballavi Thakurani at Rajbalhat. There are no signs of the king's palace now. There are various legends about ‘Rajballavi Devi’ a variation of Devi Chandi. Legend is that Rajballavi Devi in the garb of a poor Brahmin girl used to work as a maidservant in a local family. A merchant was passing by the river with seven boats laden with merchandise.[4]

The merchant was attracted by the beauty of the young Brahmin girl and asked her to come to his boat which was kept seventh from the bank. The girl proceeded and one by one the boats started sinking with the merchandise as soon as she touched it with her feet. After sinking of the sixth boat the merchant came to understand that she was a Goddess and fell at her feet seeking pardon. Then he built the temple of Rajballavi Devi at Rajbalhat. In the book 'Pitha Nirnai' Rajabalhat has been described as a Shaktapith, a

place for the worship of Shakti and has mentioned the deity there as Chandi. Even today the legend persists and seven small boats are made just before the Astami during Durga Puja and six of them are sunk in the tank adjoining the temple. Then only the Astami Puja worship commences.[4]

Apart Rajballavi temple there are a number of other Mandirs at this village. The temple of Radha Kanta Jiu was built much later in 1744. It is a typical fine specimen of Bengali Temple architecture which unfortunately lost much of its original artistry. There are also other temples of Sridhar and Damodar at the village built near about the same time.[4]

Brindavanjiu Temple

The Brindavan Jiu Temple in Balagarh, actually a cluster of four 17th century terracotta temples was visited by Lord Clive before the Battle of Plassey and presented one of his swords to the Pundit asking blessing for victory and Hindu support against the torturous Muslim Nawab Siraj Ud Daulah. So, Raja Nabakrishna Deb did espionage against the Murshidabad Nawab and Siraj's Hindu Generals like Mohan Lal, Rai Durlabh, etc defected with merchants like Jagat Seth and Omichund financing British in the hope of a new regime beneficial for Hindus.[5] Guptipara near Balagarh is also site of a well-known Ratha Yatra. There is another cluster of three temples – Anandamoyee, Horosundari & Nistarini – at Somraa. Temple of Dakshineswar is said to be modeled on these. The Ras Mancha at Sripur Bazaar, influenced by Vaishnava culture, has unique wood carvings.

Hangseshari Temple

Bansberia was the main village of ancient Saptagram, once the main port and commercial complex in the area. The Ananta Vasudeva and Hangseshwari Mandirs are quite famous. The Vasudeva temple is constructed in traditional Eka-ratna style with curved cornices and an octagonal tower decorated with very rich terracotta pointed plates. Hangseshwari Temple has a unique architectural style. There are thirteen minars, each shaped like a lotus bud, and the inner layout is said to follow human anatomy. Hangseshwari is one of the very important temples in Hooghly District & seven in entire West Bengal. The structures represent 'Tantrik Satchakrabhed'. This 5 storied 'Thirteen Ratna' temple is situated near the Bansberia and Tribeni railway stations both of which is on the Howrah-Katwa main line. Nearby is the Swanbhaba Kali Temple built by Nrisinhadeb in 1788.

Antpur also fell in the domain of Bhurshut kingdom. In 1786, Krishnaram Mitra, dewan of the Bardhaman Raj, first took the initiative to build a Krishna temple here. It was tumultuous time in the history of Bengal. The power of the Muslim rulers was at an ebb, and overseas invaders like the British, Dutch, French and Portuguese were becoming dominant. Aim of building the temple was to motivate the Hindus, who bore the brunt of the tyranny of the invaders, since long.

Terracotta craft was no longer a preserve of the artisans of Bankura and Bishnupur. The magic of clay was being used in architecture in all corners of Bengal. Antpur, with its rich cultural heritage, was no exception. Terracotta art naturally became automatic choice for the temple. Clay from the Ganga was burnt to build the 100-ft high and 47-ft wide structure, adorned with peerless depictions of episodes from Hindu mythology and Bengali social life.

The Radhagobinda Mandir of Antpur, is close to Jangipara. Radhagobinda temple in the village bears characteristics of the Bengal school of architecture. The Aatchala or Bengali style, typical of the school, is much different from the designs of north or south Indian temples. Rectangular and covered by two sloping roofs, one over the other its real beauty is on the facade, replete with carvings from Hindu mythology, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Episodes from the life of Krishna (Krishnaleela) are also depicted. In fact

figures of the Radha- Krishna are most conspicuous. Mahishasurmardini Durga with her family can also be seen. At the time of the construction of the temple, Durga puja was reintroduced among Bengalis in a big way by Raja Nabakrishna Deb of Shobhabazar Rajbari in 1757.[6]

Madangopaljiu and Amta Mandirs

Collage

Madangopaljiu Temple is situated at Mellak village, near Bagnan town in the district of Howrah. Built in 1651 it contains some early specimens of terracotta art. At-chala with triple entrance and very large in size, the temple is an interesting spot for pilgrims, as well as tourists interested in archeology.

Amta a very peaceful green village on the bank of Damodar River is famous for the ‘Ma Melai Chandi Mandir’ near Amta Bazaar (Market).[7] Among Bengali Hindus the place is best known for these temples mentioned in 'Jhandi', a poem written years ago by "Kavikankan" Mukundaram Chakravarti (1540-1600 A.D) medieval poet of Chandimangal and son of Hridoy Mishra of Damunya village in Burdwan district. Earlier her shrine was originally at Jayanti, on the outer side of the river, about, a mile from its present site.[8]

The current temple was built by Maharani Raybaghini Bhavashankari of Bhurishrestha (Bhurshut), titled Ray Baghini after destroying Muslim forces of the Afghan Pathans by Akbar. Wife of Maharaja Rudranarayan, most popular and strongest ruler of Bhurisresthya Rajya she also remodeled 'Ma Betai Chandi Mandir' in nearby village called Betai. Devi Chandi in various forms was patron Goddess of Bhurshut and now of the entire Howrah district in which Amta is situated. Goddess Chandi was "Kuldevi" (Family Deity) of Raybaghini Rani Bhabashankari. Syama Sundara Mandir of Mallik family in Jhikira village built in 1691 was an At-chala with triple entrance of 18th century Hugli-Barddhaman type. One can see the terracotta scrollwork above arches, battle scenes, lotuses, etc around facade figures on base in these. And at Mahishamuri village the Bhursut rulers established Bhubanesvari Mandir in 1679. In Sultanpur village near Shyampur the royals founded a famous Char-Chala terracotta temple on small square base dedicated to ‘Khatiyal Siva’ around 1666.[9]

Details are available in old maps of Qastaldi and De Barros. A Bengali poem of Bipradas Pipilai, dated 1495 A.D,, describes the voyage of a merchant called Chand Sadagar from Burdwan to the Bay of Bengal. Chand went by Ariadaha on the east and Ghusuri on the west, and then rowing along the eastern bank passed by Kolkata and at Betor or Betai village worshipped its presiding goddess Betai Chandi. Ghusuri is now the northernmost

portion of Howrah city, and Bator is a part of the city south of Shibpur. In the old maps we find two more places called Fisacoly (De Barros) and Picalda (Gastaldi) or Pisolta (De Barros), Pisacoly (Bengali "Pichhakuli") is shown as a place between the mouths of the Damodar and Rupnarayan rivers. Pisolta has been identified with the modern village of Pichhaldaha, 2 miles north-west of Fort Mornington Point in the extreme south of Uluberia. Here ships crossed the Rupnarayan and was formerly a trade centre of some importance; now haat (local market) is held there.[10]

Ramrajatala

The city of Lord Rama. Ram is worshipped in Ram Mandir for 5 months, starting from Ram Nabami to the last Sunday of the month of Shravana. A big fare is held every year at last day of Ram's presence in this city. It is a well connected town, atmost 20 min away from the city of Kolkata. This city is well enriched by its culture and historical importance. Ramrajatala is one of the oldest parts of the city of Howrah. It is famous for the ancient Rama Mandir, originally built by the Bhursut rulers where Sri Ram is worshiped. The ceremonies last for nearly five months starting on Rama Navami in the Hindu month of Chaitra, lasting until to the end of Shravana. The area is a densely populated place within the city of Howrah. It has a small but very important railway Station. A fair is held during the months long puja. This is popular, particularly during the Visarjan (immersion ceremony), the last journey on the last Sunday in Shravana.

Taraknath Shiva Temple of Tarakeshwar

Mandir

Taraknath Temple of Tarakeshwar is one of the prominent pilgrimage centers in Bengal. Tarakeshwar is located near Serampore near Calcutta in Bengal. The modern temple dates back to early 18th century when Auranzeb was Mughal emperor at Delhi. Legend has it that a devotee by name Vishnu Das emigrated with his clan from Oudh (Ayodhya) and was viewed with suspicion by the locals. It is believed that he proved his innocence by holding in his hand a red hot iron bar. Later, his brother discovered an site in the nearby jungle, where cattle discharged the contents of their udders (milk) at a particular spot each day. Upon investigation, they discovered ruins of an ancient Mandir with a large Shivalingam. A dream is said to have revealed to them that this Shivalingam was a manifestation of Tarakeshwar - Lord Shiva ... the Param Bramh... the primordial and ultimate force of the universe...the source of everything. The 18th century temple was built by the then Bhurshut King and was renovated in subsequent years.[11]

Trivia

Boralpara, a suburb, is associated with Gauri Sen who is a legend for Charity. Bengal has a proverb "Lage Taka, Debe Gauri Sen," i.e., "if you want money, Gauri Sen will give it". Gauri Sen is supposed to have dreamt that Lord Mahadev wanted him to build a temple. Tradition has a fascinating story about the dream.

It is said that Gauri Sen as a small trader had sent to a customer his seven boats of zinc. On one of the boats was an old sadhu proceeding on pilgrimage. It is said that when the boats reached the destination, the customer found that the cargo was not zinc but was pure silver. Being honest he sent back the boats with their cargo intact to Gauri Sen. Just before the boats arrived Gauri Sen had the dream. Next morning the boats arrived laden with silver and Gauri Sen over night became very rich. He built a temple of Siva and spent his wealth in charity.

The temple is still there.

References

1. ^ a b c d e O'Malley, L. S. S.; Chakravarti, Monmohan (1909). Bengal District Gazetteers: Howrah. Bengal Secretariat Book Depot

2. ^ a b c Ghosh, Binoy, Paschim Banger Sanskriti, (in Bengali), part II, 1976 edition, pp. 218-234, Prakash Bhaban

3. ^ a b c Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal By John R. McLane

4. ^ a b c d e The Indian Buddhist Iconography by Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharya, p. 1225. ̂ http://hooghly.nic.in/visit.htm

 

6. ̂ http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050724/asp/calcutta/story_5026403.asp

 

7. ̂ http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/l-s-s-lewis-sydney-steward-omalley/howrah-volume-1-lam/page-16-howrah-volume-1-lam.shtml

 

8. ̂ http://www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/HT/C_0094.HTM

 

9. ̂ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland10. ̂

http://www.archive.org/stream/howrahomalley01omal/howrahomalley01omal_djvu.txt

 

11. ̂ http://www.jstor.org/pss/1178309