Beyondsmellandtaste:Psychology,flavour,andour

responsetothemulti­sensoryaspectsoffood

GNeilMartin

InstituteforCulturalResearchMonographSeries

2

Beyondsmellandtaste:Psychology,flavour,andourresponsetothemulti­

sensoryaspectsoffood

GNeilMartin,MA,PhD,FRSA,CSci,MBPsS

HumanOlfactionLaboratory

DepartmentofPsychology

SchoolofHealthandSocialSciences

MiddlesexUniversity

TheBurroughs

Hendon

London

NW44BT

Tel: +4402084116292

Email: n.martin@mdx.ac.uk

3

‘Isupposeyouthinkasmellisasimplething?’,theSergeantsaid

smiling.

‘Asmell?’

‘Asmellisthemostcomplicatedphenomenonintheworld,’hesaid,

‘anditcannotbeunraveledbythehumansnoutorunderstood

properlyalthoughdogshaveabetterwaywithsmellsthanwehave.’

‘Butdogsareverypoorridersonbicycles,’MacCruiskeensaid,

presentingtheothersideofthecomparison.

FlannO’Brien,TheThirdPoliceman

Smellandtaste:anatomy,psychologyandfunction

O’Brien’scopperwasperspicacious,inmanyways,andhewasnotalone.

AlexanderGrahamBell,commentingontheunfathomablesenseofsmell,wrote:

“Haveyouanambitiontofoundanewscience?Whynotmeasureasmell?Can

youmeasureasmell?Canyoumeasurethedifferencebetweenonesmelland

another?...Odoursarebecomingmoreandmoreimportantintheworldof

scienceandmedicine‐andtheneedofmoreknowledge,assurelyasthesun

shines.”

4

Thesenseofsmellisoneoftheoldest,under‐appreciatedand,atleastonone

importantlevel,theleastwell‐understoodofthefivesenses.Echoingthewell‐

informedassessmentsfromquartersoflawenforcementandtelephony,Coco

Chanelagreed(“Themostmysterious,themosthumanthing,issmell”).

Surprisingly,however,thebasicneurophysiology–themechanics‐ofscent

perceptionisreasonablywell‐understood:itistheequivalenttoour

understandingofthesameprocessesinvision.This,initself,isquitean

achievementgiventheamountofworkandeffortthathasbeeninvestedin

studyingvision.Visionisourdominantsense:Sincewebecamebipedaland

raisedoutnosesfromtheground,visionusurpedolfactionwhichbecame,ina

clichéworntoitsepidermis,theCinderellaofthesenses,rarelyblandishedand

normallyrelegatedtothesensorycloakroom.Mostindividualswhenasked

whichsensetheycoulddowithout,wouldinvariablyelecttojettisonthesenseof

smell(MartinApena,Chaudry,Mulligan,&Nixon,2001).But,atthelevelof

neurophysiologyandanatomy,wenowunderstandmuch,suchaswhatoccursat

theolfactoryreceptorswhentheyarestimulatedandhowsignalsaretransduced

bytheolfactoryapparatustobecomeactionpotentialswhichtraveltothe

primaryolfactorycortexandbeyond:inshort,theneurophysiologywhichallows

ustomakepsychologyfromthechemistrythatentersournostrils.Wealso

knowthat18differentmembersofamultigenefamilyencodetheseven

transmembraneproteinsintheepithelium:or,putsimply,thatstructurally

similarodoursmayactivatethesamereceptorsandthatsubfamiliesofreceptor

mayrecognisevariationsinaparticulargroupofodorants.

5

Butwhathappensbeyondneurophysiologyiscomplex.Comparedtotaste,the

wayinwhichscentisprocessedandrepresentedinthebrainisamessyaffair

moreakintoatrainofdivergentcarriagesthanthestatelyLandauoftaste.The

anatomyoftastefollowsafairlywellestablishedcorticalpathway:Threecranial

nervesprojectfromdifferentpartsofthetonguetotwostructuresdeepinthe

brain(thelateralsolitarytractandthalamus)andthenontotheprimarytaste

cortex(theinsulaandvariousfrontalopercula)andsecondarytastecortex(the

orbitofrontalcortex)furtherupthebrain.Themechanicsofthesenseofsmell,

conversely,aremuchmorecomplex.

First,andatasuperficiallevel,itistheonlysensewithreceptorsdirectly

exposedtotheenvironment.Thesereceptorsarelocatedinameshofprocesses

calledtheolfactoryepithelium(afewcmsquaredinhumans;ahundredtimes

thatnumberinothermammalssuchasdogs)locatedinsideandatthetopofthe

nose.Odourmoleculesareinhaledanddeliveredtotheepitheliumwherethey

bindtoolfactoryreceptorswhichdeconstructorinterpretthechemicalsignals

conveyedbytheodour.Second,signalsaresentfromheretotwoverysmall,

balloon‐likestructuresbeneaththefrontofthebrain,theolfactorybulbs,where

thefirststageofanalysisofolfactoryinformationoccurs.Projectionsare

ipsilateral‐informationissentfromtheleftnaristotheleftolfactorybulb.The

signalsspreadoutinthebulbspatially,aprocessthatisdeterminedbythe

strengthofthesignalandintensityoftheodour‐thestrongerandmoreintense

thesignal,thegreaterthespatialdistributionofthesignal.Third,projectionsare

sentfromheretocorticalandsubcorticalareasofthebrain,specificallythe

anteriorolfactorynucleus,thepiriformcortex,theentorhinalcortex,the

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hippocampusandtheamygdala(collectively,calledtheprimaryolfactory

cortex).Unlikeeveryothersense,olfactiondoesnotprojecttothethalamus

beforethecortex(thethalamusisthebrain’ssensoryrelaystation)andithas

beensuggestedthattheolfactorybulbsundertakethisrelayroleintheolfactory

system.Theprimaryolfactoryareaincludesstructuresinvolvedinbasic

behavioursuchasmotivation,thirst,hunger,sexandaggression.These

structureswereoncecollectivelytermed(byPaulBroca)rhinencephalonor

“smellbrain”,astheywerethoughttobedisproportionallyinvolvedinthesense

ofsmell.

Whatoccursatthecortexofthebrainiswhatallowsustorespondatthe

behavourallevel.Theeffectofscentonbehaviour‐cognition,mood,person

perception,altruism,decision‐making,memory,vigilance,painperception,and

soon‐canbedramatic.Thereisanincreasingbodyofresearchdemonstrating

thatexposuretoambientodourcanhavenegativeandpositiveeffectson

cognitiveperformanceandmood(someofthesestudiesarereviewedinGould&

Martin(2001)andMartin(2006a)).

Butperhapsscent’smostimportantcontributiontohumanbehaviour–more

thanequaltoitsessentialfunctionasawarningdevicenotifyingusofharmand

danger‐isitsroleinflavour.Withtaste,temperature,texture,mouthfeeland

colour,odouristheprincipalcontributortotheperceptionandidentificationof

foodandthepleasurewederivefromit.Itisprobablyanunderestimatetosay

that80%offoodflavourisolfactory.AsAnthemeBrillat‐Savarinwrote,not

whollycorrectly,inThePhysiologyofTaste:“Iamnotonlyconvincedthat

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withouttheco‐operationofsmelltherecanbenocompletedegustation,butIam

alsotemptedtobelievethatsmellandtasteareinfactasinglesense,whose

laboratoryisthemouthandwhosechimneyisthenose…Whensmellis

intercepted,tasteisparalysed.”Substitute‘flavour’for‘taste’andthisis

accurate.Thereasonfortheunderestimationisthegeneralconfusioncausedby

tasteandsmellandtheirroleinchemoreception.Therearefivebasictastes–

sweet,salty,bitter,sourandumami‐‐withpossiblyoneortwootherminor

tastes(suchasmetallicandastringent).Thenumberofodourswecandetect,

however,runsintothousandsandwewouldbeabletodiscriminatebetweenthe

majorityofthem.Theodourmoleculesinfoodallowustoidentifyfoodandits

flavourandthisfunctionismediatedbytwotypesofbreathing‐‐throughthe

nose(orthonasalbreathing)andviathebackofthethroat(retronasalbreathing,

whichstimulatesnasopharyngealreceptors).AccordingtoRozin(1982),thetwo

typesofbreathingallowtwotypesofidentification‐‐onedistal,oneproximal.

Whentheolfactoryreceptorsareimpaired‐‐astheyarewhenindividualshavea

coldorinfluenza‐‐peoplereport(incorrectly)beingunableto‘taste’food

althoughtasteisrelativelywell‐preserved.Peopleareabletodeterminewhether

whattheyingestissweet,saltyandsoon,butareunabletodetectthearomaof

food,thatwhichgivesthefooditsidentity.Anon‐viraldemonstrationcanbe

achievedifapersonpinchestheirnoseshutwhileasmallamountoftwofruit

juicesisplacedonthetongue(withoutthemseeingthecolour,obviously).The

individualshouldbeabletodetectthetaste‐whetheritissourorsweet‐butnot

beabletonamethefruit.Whenthenaresarereleasedandtheolfactory

receptorsarestimulatedbytheingressofairflowcarryingtheodourmolecules,

thefoodwillbeidentified.

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Ourabilitytodetectodourisgood–betterthanasmokedetector(cf.Cain,

1977).AccordingtoEngen(1982),wecanrecogniseodourswithin0tothree

secondsofencounteringthem,andatadistanceofbetweenoneandtwometres

TheJapaneseSanitationCentrenotesthatwe(humans)candetectthe

malodorousisoamylmercaptan(avariantofwhichisaddedtoodourless

propanegastomakeitpungent)at.77partspertrillion(Nagata&Takeu,1990).

Wecanprobablydetectethylmercaptan(whichisaddedtogas)ataround1part

perbillion(Whisman,Goetzinger,Cotton&Brinkman,1978),theequivalent,as

YeshurunandSobelnote(2010),ofthreedropsinanOlympicSwimmingPool.

Porterandcolleaguesasked32participantstofollowa10mtrailofchocolate

essentialoilinopengrasswhileparticipantswerekneelingandblindfolded

(Porter,Craven,Khan,Chang,Kang,Judkewicz,Volpe,Settles,&Sobel,2007).

Twothirdsofthemwereabletodothiseffectively.Withincreasedtraining–‐

threetimesaday,threedaysaweekfortwoweeks‐theamountofdeviation

fromthescenttrailreducedandspeedalongthetrailincreased.Sniffingalso

increasedoverthreedaysandthissniffingincreasedwithincreasingspeedalong

thetrail.

Whiledetectionisgood,discriminationiscomparativelymoderate.Ourability

todiscriminatebetweentwoodoursisgoodbutdiscriminationbetweenodours

inmixturesislimitedtothree,fouratmostandnomorethanthat(Berglund,

1974).Therightnostrilhasanadvantageintermsof‘spatialreach’(the

maximumspatialdistanceatwhichanodourcanbedetected).Porteretal

(2007)foundthatthiswas1.5to2cmintherightand1to1.5cmontheleft.

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Porteretalalsocomparedpeople’sabilitytotrackodourmonorhinally(one

nostril)andbirhinally(bothnostrils).Participantswere30%lessaccuratewhen

sniffingwithonenostrilcomparedwithboth(66%)andwere20%slower.The

studyofbothtypesofsniffingisimportantbecausebothnostrilsdonotoperate

equivalentlyacrosstheday.Thereisevidenceofasymmetricalairflowacrossthe

daywhereonenostrilismorereceptivetoairflowandisbetteratdetectionthan

istheother.

Someodourswecannotdetectandthisfailurehasageneticbasis.Specific

anosmia‐‐afailuretobeabletodetectaspecificodour‐‐ismorecommonthan

istheequivalentphenomenoninothersensorymodalitiesapartfrom,possibly,

achromatopsia(colourblindness).Forexample,thearomaticsteroid

androstenoneisundetectabletoaround50%ofthepopulation(although

individualscanbetrained,veryslowly,todoso).Ofthehalfabletodetectthe

chemical,halffinditunpleasant(musky,urinous).Thesignificanceofthis

steroidliesinitsputativeroleasapheromoneinnon‐humanmammals.It

producesstereotypicalbehaviourprincipallyinvolvingmarkingterritoryor

sexualarousal/mateattraction.Thesow,forexample,isextremelysensitiveto

androstenoneandadoptsthepositionoflardosis,readyingherselfformating,

whenexposedtoit.Trufflesalsocontainandrostenone,whichiswhysowsare

usedashuntersofthedelicacy(Casanovawasthoughttosustainhisprodigious

sexualperformancebyconsumingtruffles).Casanovaaside,our(human)failure

todetectthechemicalconsciouslyeitherreflectsafunctionalfailure,orafailure

todevelop(ortheevolvingoutof)theorgannecessaryforthechemicaltoexert

itseffect(thevomeronasalorgan),ortheirrelevanceofsuchsteroidstosexual

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behaviourinourvision‐dominatedlives.Thereislittleevidencetoindicatethat

exposuretoandrostenonecanenhanceorprovokesexualdesireorarousalin

humans.

Beyondcongenitalspecificanosmia,andincontrasttoourgooddetectionability,

theabilitytolabel,nameoridentifyodourscorrectlyispoor.SherlockHolmes

contendedthatanygooddetectiveneededaknowledgeofatleast75perfumes.

Mostindividualswouldbedefeatedbythisambition.Normally,wedescribea

scentbyreferencetoanobjectand,eventhen,ouridentificationofthisobject

maynotbeaccurate.Webelieveastimulus‘smellslike’somethingorother.We

areextremelysusceptibletosuggestionwhenperceivingscent,aphenomenon

thatmightbeattributabletoitsinvisible,non‐linguisticnature.Slosson(1899)

describedanexperimentinwhichalecturerplacedtwobottlesofodourless

wateroneithersideofthelecturetheatre.Heinformedonesideoftheaudience

thatthebottlecontainedapleasantodour;theother,thatitcontainedan

unpleasantone.Attheendofthelecture,themajorityoftheaudience,when

asked,claimedtobeabletodetectascentandtheirhedonicresponsematched

thequalityoftheodourinthebottle.Experimentssincethenhavereplicatedthis

generaleffect:Peoplereportmoresymptomsofgood‐healthwhentheysniff

odourlesswaterwhichtheybelieveisapleasantscent,andjudgeanidentical

odourdifferentlydependingonwhetheritislabeled‘cheese’or‘bodyodour’(De

Araujo,Rolls,Velazco,Margot&Cayeux,2005).Thelatterstudyfoundthatthe

odourofcheesewasjudgedasmorepleasantandbrainactivationchanged

dependingonwhetherindividualsbelievedtheysmelledcheeseorbodyodour.

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Thisdemonstratestheimportanceofcognitivemediationintheperceptionof

odour(apointhighlightedbelow).

These,then,aretheconventionalcontributionsthesensesmaketoour

perceptionoffoodatthemostbasiclevelandarewell‐documented(e.g.,Martin,

2006b;2013).Smellandtasteinteractwithvision,auditionandsomatosensation

(andthelastthreeinteractwitheachother)tochangebehaviourinawaythat

canappearcounterintuitive(asmanyfindingsinpsychologyare),andcertainly

outsideconsciouscontrol(itappears).Asweetodourcanenhancetheintensity

ofasweettaste(Frank&Byram,1988)andimaginingasweetodourcan

enhanceaperson’sabilitytodetectsucrose(Djordjevic,Zatorre&Jones‐Gotman,

2004).Someodourssmell‘sweet’(vanillin,amylacetate),andsomesuchas

hexanoicacidareperceivedas‘sour’,leadingsomeresearcherstodescribethis

asatruetaste‐smellsynaesthesiainwhichonesensorymodalityinvariably

evokesasensationinanother(Stevenson&Boakes,2004).Thereisevidence

thatinformationinonesensorymodalitycansignificantlyanddramatically

affectourperceptionofother,seeminglyunrelatedqualitiesoffoodandthisis

takenupinthenextsection.

Whatyouseeisnotwhatyouget:Theeffectofcolourandlabelingonfood

perception

Itisoftenremarkedthatweeatwithoureyes:inthewordsofApicius,“Thefirst

tasteisalwayswiththeeyes”.Visualstimulationincreasesappetiteandthis

increasecorrelatespositivelywithchangesinbrainactivationwhenpeoplelook

athighlydesirable,calorific(i.e.,fatty,sweet,carbohydrate‐laden)foods(Smeets,

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Weijzen,deGraaf,&Viergever,2010).Thegreatertheappetite,thestrongerthe

brain’sresponse.Visualcuesareimportantbecausethey(i)triggeraseriesof

associationswhich,inturn,triggersthehunger/increasedappetiteand(ii)they

confirmtheaccumulationandaccommodationofpreviousexperienceand

knowledge.Weexpectcertainfoodsanditemstobeaspecificcolourandany

deviationfromthatcolourleadstoconfusion(andrejection).Weexpect

chocolate‐flavoureddesserttobebrown,aBordeauxtobered,alemonmousse

tobeyellow(‐ish)andsoonandwedonotexpectorangejuicetobegreenor

freshmilktobepurple.Colourlessfoodaffectsit’sperception:itsodour,flavour

andacceptanceislowerthaniscolouredfood(DuBose,Cardello&Maller,1980;

Zellner,Bartoli,&Eckard,1991)andweratefoodsasbeingmorelikewhatthey

are(morechocolatey,lemony,red‐winey)whenourexpectationofwhattheyare

matchestheircolour.

Whatoccurswhenamismatcharisesisnoteworthy.DuBoseetal(1980)

examinedtheeffectofcolouringvariouscarbonatedfruit‐flavoureddrinks(and

colouringcakes)onpeople’sacceptanceofthefoodandtheirassessmentofit.

Whenthecolourwasmasked,people’sabilitytoidentifythefoodwasimpaired.

Whenthedrinkwasatypicallycoloured,responsesassociatedwiththeflavourof

thecolour(ratherthantheactualdrink)wereelicited.Drinkswereconsidered

moreacceptablewhenthecolourmatchedthefruit.Evenwhenindividualsare

askedtoignorethecolourofadrinkandareaskedtodiscriminatebetween

differentflavours,thecolourinterfereswiththisabilitytodiscriminate(Zampini,

Sanabria,Phillips&Spence,2007).Peoplewhobelievethatredandgreen

Smartiestastethesame(theydointheUK)judgethesesweetstotastesimilarly

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comparedtopeoplewhobelievetheyhavedifferentflavours.Whenpeople

believethatanorangeSmartiehasadifferentflavourtoaredandgreenone

(whichtheydointheUK,butnotGermany),thisbeliefwillleadthemtobelieve

thatagenericorange‐coloured(ratherthanflavoured)Smartietastesdifferent

toaredorgreenone(Levitan,Zampini,Li&Spence,2008).Increasingthe

yellowcolourinlemoncakeincreasestheperceivedintensityoflemonflavour

DuBoseetal,1980)andredcolouraddedtofoodenhancestheperceptionofthe

sweetnessinstrawberry,cherryandfruitpunchdrinks(Johnson,Dzendolet&

Clydesdale,1983;Johnson,Dzendolet,Damon,Sawyer&Clydesdale,1982).

WhenparticipantsweretoldthatanewlineofM&Mswerebeingmarket‐

researched,brownconfectionswereratedasmorechocolateythangreen‐

shelledones.Whenthesweetwaslabeled‘darkchocolate’(allsweetswerethe

samechocolate),theywerejudgedtobemorechocolatey(althoughnomore

likeable)thanthoselabeled‘milkchocolate’(Shankar,Levitan,Prescott&

Spence,2009).

Wineisafoodparticularlysusceptibletovisualbias.Whenthecolourofred

wineismaskedandwhitewineiscolouredred(withflavourlesscolouring)

peoplecontinuetodescribetherespectivewinesusingtermsnormally

associatedwiththecolourratherthantheactualwine(Morrot,Brochet&

Dubourdier,2001).Thus,‘red’wineisassociatedwithdarkobjects/termsand

‘white’winewithclear/yellowterms.Evenexpertscanbeconfusedbycolour,

describingthescentofadifferentlycolouredwinebyitscolour(Parr,White&

Heatherbell,2003).Similarly,coconut‐scenteddetergentisjudgedasless

effectivethanacitrus‐scentedoneand,conversely,acitrus‐scentedsuntanlotion

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isratedasbeinglesseffectivethanacoconut‐scentedone(Bone&Jantrania,

1992).Wehavelearnedtoassociatetheseproductswithparticularscentsandif

thisscentdeviatesfromexpectationsandisincongruentwiththem,this

influencesourjudgementoftheproduct.

Thesechoicesanddecisionsaredrivenbyassociationsandtheseassociations,

strengthenedbyexperience,aredifficulttodislodge(forgoodreason‐‐ifwehad

tounlearnalloftheseassociationsrepeatedly,thiswouldbeavastsquandering

ofcognitiveresourcesthatwouldbenecessaryfornewlearning).Someofthese

associationsareclearlyexpectedandpredictable:tomatosoupcolouredgreen,

oranorangefilletofbeefwouldraiseeyebrows(theintentionbehindHeston

Blumenthal’sbespectacledoneswhenheandhisbrigadecreatedthehistorical

foisgrastangerineathisrestaurant,Dinner).Otherassociationsaresubtler.For

example,wearewell‐acquaintedwithproductseulogizingtheirmeadow‐

freshnessorsun‐drynessandwe,perhaps,believeourselvesimmunetothe

linguisticfloridityofsomeofthesedescriptions.Theevidence,however,

suggeststhecontrary.Descriptivemenunameshavebeenfoundtoincrease

salesbyaround27%(Wansink,Painter&vanIttersum2001)andpeopleeat

moreofanitemlabeled‘creamyandsatisfying’than‘caloricandfilling’

(Wansink,VanIttersum,&Painter,2004).Inasix‐weekexperimentina

cafeteria,Wansink,vanIttersum&Painter(2005)foundthatpeopleexpressed

morepositiveattitudesaboutfoodlabeled“succulentItalianseafoodfillet”than

“seafoodfillet”,judgingit(thesameitem)tobemoreappealing,tastyand

calorific.

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Thelabelsweattachtofoodandtheimpressionsthatweformbasedonour

visual,auditoryandgustatoryprocessingcanleadustocommiterrors,butones

thatarelogicalandreasonable.Ourresponsetofoodisinfluencedbyphysiology

andphysiologicalstateandthemostobviousofthesestatesarehungerand

satiety.Whatismoreunusual,andlessself‐evident,isthatsatietycanbespecific

tocertaintastes,smellsandfoodsandthatthisspecificityextendstothefood’s

shapeandcolour,aswellasitstasteandsmell.

Sensory­specificsatiety

Sensory‐specificsatiety(SSS)describesthephenomenonwherebythe

pleasantnessandconsumptionofspecificfooddecreasesafterbeingeatento

satiety.Thesatietyissensory‐specificbecauseindividualsmaybecomesated

eatingfoodswithspecifictastes,shapes,sizesandtexturesbutnotfoodsof

differenttaste,shape,sizeandtexture(Rolls,1986).Satietyisenhancedby

increasedoro‐sensorystimulation:thegreaterthestimulation,therefore,the

lesstheintakewhichiswhyfoodsarealwaysmoresatiatingthandrinks

(Weijzen,Smeets&deGraaf,2009).ThephenomenonofSSSexplainswhy,ifwe

eatamealcomposedofavarietyofspecificfoods,ourtotalconsumption

increasesbecausethereislesssensory‐specificexhaustionfromeatingavaried

mealofabowlofsoup,sausages,eggandbacon,andchocolatemousse,thana

bigplateofsausagesonly.

Ifafoodiseatentosatiety,asecondcourseofthesamefoodwillresultina

reductioninintakeofaround50percent(seeRolls,1986fordetailsofthisand

otherstudies).InRolls’searlyexperiment,allfoods,withtheexceptionofroast

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beef,producedsensory‐specificsatiety.Inonestudy,participantsateeithera

four‐coursemealofsausages,breadandbutter,chocolatedessertandbananas

orateonlyoneofthesefoodstosatiety.Consumptionwas60percenthigher

whenfoodswerepresentedtogetherthanwhenpresentedseparately.Atapost‐

satietytastingsession,thosefoodspresentedalonewerealsoratedasless

pleasantthanthoseeatenaspartofafour‐coursemeal.Whenavarietyofpasta

shapeswaspresentedforconsumption,morewaseatenthanwhenonlyone

pastashapewaspresented;peoplealsoatemorefoodifitwasmadeupof

differentcoloursthanonecolour.Thepleasantnessofchickenandbanana

odours(butnotthoseofotherfoods)alsodeclinedsignificantlyafterthesefoods

wereeatentosatiety(RollsandRolls,1997).OneexplanationforSSSisthatit

allowsustoenjoyandconsumeagreatervarietyoffoodand,therefore,consume

avarietyofnutrients.

ThechangesinbehaviouralSSSappeartobematchedbycerebralchanges.Small

etal.(2001)foundthattheorbitofrontalcortex,atthetipofthefrontallobe,is

importanttosatiety.Activationheredecreasedwhenpeopleatechocolateor

tomatojuicetosatietyandthisdecreaseinactivationcorrelatedwithreduced

pleasantnessratings(Kringelbach,O’Doherty,Rolls&Andrews,2003).

ActivationintheOFCalsodecreaseswhenpeopleareexposedtotheodourof

bananaaftereatingbananatosatiety(O’Dohertyetal.,2000).Nosuchdecreaseis

observedwhenpeoplesniffedtheodourofvanilla.

Whenparticipantseatchocolatetosatietyandhavetheireatinginterruptedfora

gameinwhichtheycouldwinmorechocolateorcrisps,theyshowadeclinein

17

theirpleasantnessratingofthesmellandtasteofchocolateandshowlessdesire

towantmorechocolate(Havermans,Janssen,Giesen,Roefs&Jansen,2008).

Recentresearchsuggeststhatinterruptingtheconstancyofthesinglefoodby

introducingnewfoodtoratecaninterruptSSS.Crackereatersinterruptedwith

arequirementtoeatandratechocolateincreasedtheirintakeofcrackers.

However,chocolateeatersinterruptedwithachocolateratingtaskratedthe

pleasantnessofchocolatelesspositively(Hetherington,Foster,Newman,

Anderson&Norton,2006).

Ofcourse,crackersandchocolatehaveuniquesomatosensory‐‐aswellas

olfactoryandgustatory‐‐features.Butwhatisofparticularpsychological

interestisthattheseuniquepropertiescaninteractwithothersensoryandnon‐

sensoryfeaturestoaffectourresponsetofood.Aquestion,therefore,beforeyou

venturetothenextsection:whichice‐creamwouldyourateascreamier?One

named‘Frish’oronenamed‘Frosh’?

Collisions,andinteractions,withothersenses:taste,smellandsound

Potatopureewiththeconsistencyofporridge,custardwithbouldersandcrisps

aslimpasdishcloths‐nonewouldbelikelytoreceivepositivehedonicratings.

Theinteractionbetweenthechemicalsensesandtheothers‐‐particularlythe

auditoryandsomatosensorysenses‐‐helpstocreatetheappropriate,desired

flavourpercept.Intermsofsoundandtouch,themostcommonlyusedtermin

foodperceptionis‘crisp’.However,aswithcolour,therearesomesubtlesignals

sentbysound‐beyondthephysicalsoundofmasticatedfood‐whichinfluences

foodperception.Recently,Ngo,Misra&Spence(2011)notedsomemarketing

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researchinwhichicecreamwasjudgedascreamierwhencalled‘Frosch’than

‘Frisch’(Yorkston&Menon,2004).Ketchupwasconsideredthickerwhencalled

‘Nodax’than‘Nidax’(Klink,2000).Thisphenomenonhasabasisinresearch

demonstratingthatsomewordsareassociatedwithangularshapesandothers

withroundedshapes,basedonthewords’shapeandthelabialpositionthey

requireforpronunciation‐‐thatis,whetherthewordscontainbackorfront

vowels(e.g.,‘tiki’isperceivedasangularand‘maluma’asrounded(O’Boyle&

Tarte,1980)).Gallace,Boschin&Spence(2011)foundthatwhenindividuals

wereaskedtoassociatewordswithfoods,saltandvinegarcrispswere

associatedmorewiththewords‘kiki’and‘talete’thanwerecheddarcheese,

yoghurtandblueberryjam.Ngoetal(2011)foundasimilareffectwhen

individualswereaskedtoeateither30%or70%cocoachocolate.Themilkier

chocolatewasmoreconsistentlyassociatedwiththesoftword‘maluma’andthe

darkerchocolatewiththesharper‘takete’.Similarly,Spence&Gallace(2011)

askedindividualstoassociateshapesandwordstostillandsparklingwater,

Brie,cranberryjuiceandtwotypesofchocolate.Thejuice,sparklingwaterand

Malteserswereassociatedwithangularshapesandwordssuchaskikiand

talete.Thestillwater,Brieandcaramelnibbleswereassociatedwithrounded

shapesandwords.

Interactionwithothersandtheimportanceoftouch:tipsforwaitersand

patrons

Thenumberofpeoplethatindividualseatwith,aswellastheirsex,influences

foodconsumption,caloricintakeandthespeedofingestion.Accordingto

Herman,Roth&Polivy(2003),“socialinfluencesareprofound,arguablygreater

19

thananyotherinfluenceoneating.”Weknowthatthepresenceofanother

increasestheamountoffoodindividualsconsume(by212kcal)butthatthis

increaseisdependentonourrelationshipwithourfellowdiner.Weeatmore

withfriendsandfamilythanwithstrangersandmealsattheweekendarelarger

(byaround12%)andcontainmoremacronurientsandalcohol(deCastro,1990;

1991;Redd&deCastro,1992).Menandwomeneatlessinthecompanyofa

desirableperson(Mori,Chaiken&Pliner,1987)andwomenwhoweretoldthat

theirresponseonaquestionnairewasconsidered‘masculine’restrictedtheir

intakewheneatingincompany(Pliner&Chaiken,1990).Women’s(butnot

men’s)caloricintakealsoappearstobelowerwhentheyeatwithamale

companion;thelargerthenumberofmen,thelesstheintake(Young,Mizzau,

Mai,Sirisegaram&Wilson,2009).Womenwhoeatminimallyarealsoviewed

morepositivelybyothers(Bock&Kanarek,1995)whichdemonstrateshow

muchmencangetawaywith(orshowstheirindifference)intermsof

impressionmanagement.

Weeatmorewhentheotherpersoneatsmore,andlesswhentheyeatless

(Conger,Conger,Constanzo,Wright&Matter,1980).Onereasonforthisisthatit

maybeanattemptatingratiation‐‐weimitateotherswewouldliketolikeus

(Sunnafrank,Ramirez&Metts,2004).Imagine,forexample,refusingabiscuit

fromapotentialclient,friendorboss:onlythosewithadamantineconfidencein

theirownbehaviourwoulddoso.Breakingbreadbreakssocialboundaries.We

eatmorewiththosepeoplewhoseemtoshareourinterests‐‐astudywhich

askedmenandwomentodiscussactivitiestheylikedtodowithfriendsand

romanticpartnersfoundthatthecoupleswithsimilarinterestsatemorebiscuits

20

together(Salvy,Jarrin,Paluch,Irfan&Pliner,2007).Individualseatlessdessert

–butnolessofanentrée‐withstrangersthanwithfriends(Clenenden,Herman

&Policy,1994).Wespendlesstimeinarestaurantorcafeteriawhenalone(36.5

minutes)thanwhenwithagroup(50.3minutes).Wealsoeatmorewhenthe

food’scontainerislarge.Inanaturalisticstudyofpopcornconsumptionby

cinema‐goersduringtheviewingofafilm(Payback),thosewhoratedthe

popcornunfavourablyate61%moreofitwhenitwasinalargecontainerthana

smallerone(Wansink&Park,2001).Ofthosewhoratedthefoodfavourably,

49%atemorefromalargercontainerandatemorewithapersonofthe

oppositesex,suggestingthatasnacksharedinasocialenvironmentmaybe

consumeddifferentlybythesexesthanwouldamoreformalmeal.

Thechangeinbehaviourprovokedbydistalproximityofanotheriscoupledwith

someverysubtlechangesinbehaviourcausedbypropinquity.Touchappearsto

resultinsomesignificantanddemonstrablechangesinbehaviourrelatedto

eating.Individualsinteractingwithotherswhileholdingahotdrink,for

example,ratetheirconfederateaswarmerandmorelikeablethanwhenthe

drinkiscold(Williams&Bargh,2008).Wealsoknowthatalighttouchona

person’sarminclinesthemtosparesmallchangetosomeonerequestingit:51%

willdosocomparedwiththe29%nottouched(Kleinke,1977).Touching

anotherpersonsignificantlyenhancestheirwillingnesstocompletesurveys,sign

petitionsorlookafteralargedogfor10minutes‐‐morepeoplearewillingtodo

sowhentouched(Guegen,2002;Hornick,1987;Gueguen&Fischer‐Lokou,

2002;Willis&Hamm,1980).Touchingalsoenhancespersonperception‐‐

librarianswhotouchedstudentslightlywereratedmorefavourablyandtutors

21

doingthesametotheirstudentswereregardedasmorepatientand

understanding(Steward&Lupfer,1987;Fisher,Rytting&Heslin,1976).

‘Touchers’,ingeneral,tendtobeevaluatedmorepositivelythannon‐touchers

(Fisheretal,1976).

Inthecontextoffood,waitersandwaitressesarejudgedmorefavourablyifthey

lightlytouchtheirpatrons(Hornick,1992).They,andbarstaff,arealsomore

likelytoreceivehighertips(Crusco&Wetzel,1984;Guegen&Jacob,2005).As,

intheUS,tippingaccountsfor$27bofstaffincome(Azar,2007),thisfinding

mightprecipitateanoutbreakofwidespreadcustomerfondling.Butthe

somatosensorypromptleadstomorethananincreaseintipping.Studieshave

shownthatpeoplearemorelikelytotrynewfoodinasupermarket,andtaste

andbuymore,whentouchedbystaff(Smith,Gier&Willis,1982;Hornick,1992).

OnestudyofUSpatronsfoundthatwhentouchedbyawaitresswhenorderinga

drink,theirconsumptionincreased(Kaufman&Mahoney,1999).Similarly,

Gueguen,Jacob&Boulbry(2007)foundthatpatronsinamedium‐sizedFrench

restaurantwhowererecommendedadish,weremorelikelytoorderthedish

whentheyweretouched.Ifthewaitercomplimentedthepatrononhis/her

choiceofmeal,thiswasassociatedwithmoregeneroustip‐giving(Seiter,2007).

Othercircumstances,beyondourcontrol

Inadditiontocompaniontypeandnumber,andtouch,exposuretoambient

odourandambientnoise(whicharenotwithinourcontrol)cansignificantly

affectconsumptionand/ortheperceptionofourexperiencewithfood.People

spendlongerinarestaurantwhentheambientmusicisslow‐tempo,andtake

22

longertogetserved.Slowtempomusicleadstoanunderestimationofthelength

oftimespenteatingwhiletheoppositeresultisfoundwithquick‐tempomusic

(Caldwell&Hibbett,2002).Thespeedofthemusicaffectsalsotheamount

consumed:fastmusicisassociatedwith4.4bitesperminuteandslowmusic

with3.83bitesaminute(Roballey,McGreevy&Rongo,1985).Exposuretono

musicresultsin3.23bites.

Milliman(1982)reportedthatwhenasupermarketplayedslowmusic,

customerswalkedaroundthestoremoreslowlythanwhenitplayedfastmusic.

Similarly,AreniandKim(1993)foundthatwhenanAmericanwinestoreplayed

eithercountrymusicorclassicalmusic,peopleboughtmoreexpensivewine

whenclassicalmusicwasplayed.Amorespecificapplicationofexposureto

musiconconsumerdecisionmakingwasdescribedbyNorth,Hargreaves&

McKendrick(1997).TheresearcherssetupanexperimentinwhichfourFrench

andfourGermanwinesweredisplayedonasupermarket’swineshelveswhile

eitherFrenchaccordionmusicorGermanBierkellermusicwasplayed.National

flagsalsoaccompaniedthedisplaysandconsumerswereaskedtocomplete

questionnairesdistributedbytheexperimentersposingascustomers.Forty‐four

individualsagreedtocompletethequestionnaire(54%ofthoseapproached).

TheresearchersfoundthatmoreFrenchthanGermanwinewasboughtwhen

FrenchmusicwasplayedwhereasmoreGermanwinewasboughtwhenGerman

musicwasplayed;noneofthecustomersexpressedanabsolutepreferencefor

eithernationality’swinesopersonalpreferenceforGermanorFrenchwine

couldnothavebeenresponsiblefortheresults.Northandcolleaguessuggest

thatthemusictriggeredthoughtsofcountry‐relevantmaterialsothattheFrench

23

musicpromptedthoughtsofFrancewhichinturnattractedindividuals’

attentiontotheFrenchwine.

NorthandHargreaves(1996)foundthatmusicofmoderatecomplexitymade

morepeopleattendastallsetuptoplayvarioustypesofmusicaspartofan

experimentinauniversitycafeteria.Individualsinthisconditionwerealsomore

willingtocompletequestionnairesandratethecafeteriamorepositively.The

influenceofirrelevantsensorystimulationondecisionsaboutfoodextendsto

odour.Theambientscentofgeraniumincreasesthepositiveevaluationof

brands,especiallyunfamiliarones,afindingwhichechoesthatofLaird(1932)

whofoundthatnarcissus‐scentedsockswerepreferredbymorepeoplethan

wereunscentedsocks(50%vs8%).Gueguen&Petr(2006)reportedthat

patronsofapizzeriainBrittanyspentlongerintherestaurantandboughtmore

foodwhenlavender(butnotlemon)waspercolatedviaadiffuser.Theolfactory

workinthefieldofeatingandcateringisthetipofwhatisnowalargeiceberg,

oneintimatedearlierwhendiscussingtheeffectofambientodouronbehaviour.

PetitsFours

WilliamJames,thegodfatherandmidwifeofmodernexperimentalpsychology,

oncedismissivelyremarkedinoneofhisintroductorytexts,thatnothingcould

bewrittenabouttaste,smellandhungeraslittleofpsychologicalinterestwas

knownconcerningthem.Thisremarkwasmadein1899.Over100yearslater,

weknowmuchmore‐thesenseofsmellhasevenbestowedNobelPrizesontwo

researchersin1992‐‐butourunderstandingisfarfromcomplete.Flavour,for

example,isoneofthemostcomplextopicstostudyinpsychologyinvolvingasits

24

doesallofthesenses,andadegreeofsubjectivitythatisconsiderable,andthis

complexityarisesevenatthemicrolevel.Whentherearejournalarticles

dedicatedtovariousfrequenciesofsoundandthenatureofcolour,themacro

levelbecomesallthemoreobviousandchallenging.Itcanoftenseemwithsmell

andtaste,asifwearestudyingreadingbymovingourfingersalongletters.But

asresearchcontinues,andasmoresophisticateddesignsareemployedin

experiments,weshouldeventuallyendupinthepositionthatneuroimaging

currentlyfindsitself.Thefirstneuroimagingstudyoflanguagewaspublishedin

1988andwasabasicstudyofreadingandspeaking.Now,studiesarepublished

inwhichactualdiscourseismeasuredusingfMRI.Brainscienceiscurrently

considered,rightly,asmoreattractiveandimportantthanthestudyofflavour,

althoughthelatercontributesmoredirectlytoourlives‐‐fromeatingto

spendingtohealth.Brainsciencealsobenefitsfromaparsimonyofdirection

andmethodology(and,still,fromsomenovelty).Unpackingflavourand

measuringeachunpackingandhoweachunpackingisrelatedtoapreviousor

forthcomingunpackingisachallenge.Atthemicrolevel,wearebeginningto

establishsomefacts‐‐understandinghowsmellsandtastesinteract,for

example.Atthemacrolevel,theworldisflavour’soyster(andthereisafood

withachallenging,complexflavourprofile).Theenvironmentwefindourselves

in,thenoisewehear,thepeoplewearewith,thesizeandcolourofthefoodwe

ingestandthephysicalcontactofthepersonwewouldliketoorderfromareall

seeminglyirrelevant,epiphenomenalfactorsinourdecisiontoeatandour

perceptionoffood.Buttheyarenot.Theinvestigationofthesefactorsandthese

interactionswillkeeppsychologists,chemistsandfoodresearchersinworkfor

decades.

25

Acknowledgements

IwouldverymuchliketothankDavidWadeforhiscommentsand

encouragementduringthewritingofthismonographandforkindlyofferingme

theopportunitytodoso.IamindebtedtotheInstituteforCulturalResearchfor

extendingmethehonourofcontributingalecturetoits‘Themeaningoffood’

symposiuminNovember2010onthemysteryofsmell,tasteandflavour,which

ledtothisdistillation.Thanks,too,toRickSteinforstartingthisalloff.Please

sendcommentsandthoughtstomeatn.martin@mdx.ac.ukor@ThatNeilMartin

26

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