beyond adversity, vulnerability and resilience: individual differences in developmental plasticity...
TRANSCRIPT
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Beyond Adversity, Vulnerability and Resilience:
Individual Differences in Developmental Plasticity
Jay Belsky
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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HOW DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILTY DIFFERS FROM
DIATHESIS STRESS
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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Diathesis-Stress vs. Differential Susceptibility
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negative positive environmentenvironment
Positive Positive child outcomechild outcome
no risk/low susceptibilityno risk/low susceptibility
riskrisk
Negative Negative child outcomechild outcome
Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn, 2006Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn, 2006
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Diathesis-Stress vs. Differential Susceptibility
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negative positive environmentenvironment
Positive Positive child outcomechild outcome
no risk/low susceptibilityno risk/low susceptibility
riskrisk
Negative Negative child outcomechild outcome
high susceptibilityhigh susceptibility
Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn, 2006Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn, 2006
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INFANT TEMPERAMENT AS A
SUSCEPTIBILITY MARKER
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Observed Parenting and Teacher-Rated Behavior Problems in Kindergarten
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2008). Infant temperament, parenting, and externalizing behavior in first grade: a test of the differential susceptibility hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 49(2), 124-131.
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Observed Paternal Power Assertion (15 months) and Child Rule-Compatible Conduct (38 months)
Kochanska, G., Aksan, N., & Joy, M. E. (2007). Children's fearfulness as a moderator of parenting in early socialization: Two longitudinal studies. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 222-237.
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
CAN WE MOVEBEYOND
CORRELATIONAL EVIDENCE TO
EXPERIMENTAL DATA?
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ATTACHMENT SECURITY AS FUNCTION OF EXPERIMENTAL-CONTROL
TREATMENT
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
(van den Boom, 1990, 1994)
66 %
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Experimental Control
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Experimental Enhancement of Maternal Sensitivity via Circle of Security:
Effects on Attachment Security
NOTE: Only highly irritable newborns included in study; those labelled “highly irritable” met van den Boom (2004) criteria; but “less irritable” group still more irritable than many other newborns included in sample.Cassidy, J., et al. (submitted). Enhancing infant attachment security: An examination of treatment efficacy and differential susceptibility.
Treatment by Irritability
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BEYOND TEMPERAMENT: Endophenotypes as Moderators
of Environmental Effects(Boyce & Ellis, 2005)
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Family Adversity, Socio-emotional Behavior and School Readiness
(Cortisol and Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Reactivity)
Obradovic, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (in press). Biological Sensitivity to Context: The Interactive Effects of Stress Reactivity and Family Adversity on Socio-emotional Behavior and School Readiness. Child Development.
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
CAN WE MOVEBEYOND
CORRELATIONAL EVIDENCE TO
EXPERIMENTAL DATA?
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EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCEOF MODERATING ROLE OF CORTISOL
REACTIVITY(VAN DE WIEL ET AL., 2004)
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Sample: 8-13 year olds with disruptive behavior disorder (n = 22).
Design: cortisol reactivity following stressor measured prior to treatment which took the form of either (1) a combined form of group-wise, manual-based behavior therapy (i.e., parent management training and cognitive behavior therapy) or (2) care as usual at the clinic consisting of individual behavior therapy combined with parental guidance (n=5) or family therapy (n=6). No differential effects of treatment emerged so combined treatment groups.Results: Intervention benefits accrued only to those high in physiological reactivity.
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Intervention for Children with Disruptive Behavior Disorder
(Cortisol Stress Reactivity: HS=Highly Reactive)
Van de Wiel et al. (2004). Cortisol and treatment effect in children with disruptive behavior disorder: A preliminary study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1011-1018.
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BEYOND TEMPERAMENT AND PHYSIOLOGY: Genes as Moderators of Environmental Effects
(GXE)
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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The 5-HTTPLPR Gene
The serotonin-transporter gene (5-HTTP) is a good gene to consider because there is some evidence that infants carrying the short (vs. long) allele are more negatively emotional as newborns (Auerbach et al., 2005). Short alleles have also been linked to depression in females and vulnerability to the depression fostering effects of negative life events in adulthood (Caspi et al., 2003).
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Stressful Life Events and Depression in Young Adulthood
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T.E., Taylor, A., Craig, I.W., Harrington, H., McClay, J., Mil,l J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A. & Poulton, R (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5 HTT gene. Science, 301, 386-389.
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Risky Family History and Depression in Young Adulthood
Taylor, S. E., Way, B. M., Welch, W. T., Hilmert, C. J., Lehman, B. J., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2006). Early family environment, current adversity, the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism, and depressive symptomatology. Biological Psychiatry, 60(7), 671-676.
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GXE:The MAOA Gene
The MAOA gene is located on the X chromosome and encodes the MAOA enzyme, which metabolizes neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine, rendering them inactive. Deficiencies in MAOA activity have been linked with aggression in mice and humans (i.e., low MAOA activity)—but like other studies looking at direct or main effects of genes on behavior, only
inconsistently, perhaps due to GXE
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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Child maltreatment and Antisocial Behavior
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Caspi, A. et al. (2002). The role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851-854.
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High MAO Aactivity,
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Childhood maltreatment
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Child Maltreatment and Antisocial Behavior
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VASB Scores by MAOA Activity - Whites
Abuse/Neglect Control
Figure 1. Scores on a composite representing the mean of standardized scores of juvenile and lifetime (age 41) of violent and antisocial behavior (VASB) as a function of MAOA activity and a history of child abuse and neglect in whites.
Widom, C. & Brzustowisz, L. (2006). The cycle of violence: Childhood abuse and neglect, MAOA genotype and risk for violent and antisocial behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 684-689.
Juvenile Lifetime
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GXE: The DRD4 Gene
The DRD4 gene codes for a type of dopamine receptor, with the dopaminergic system involved in attentional, motivational, and reward mechanisms in the brain. One variant of this gene, the 7-repeat DRD4 allele, has been linked to lower dopamine reception efficiency, and thus to ADHD and externalizing problems in children, as well as behavioral difficulties, including substance abuse and aggression, in adulthood, .
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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INSERT FIGURE with 2 lines HERE
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
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EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
OF GXEIN THE CASE OF
PARENTING INTERVENTION
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screening pretest posttest follow-up
7- control7+ control7- intervention7+ intervention
CBCL externalizing
Source: Bakermans-Kranenburg et al. (2008). Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers' externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 44, 293-300.
Development of Externalizing Behavior Over Time for Intervention and Control Groups by DRD47-Repeat Allele
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screening pretest posttest follow-up
7- intervention positive disc +7+ intervention positive disc +
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CBCL externalizing
Source: Bakermans-Kranenburg et al. (2008). Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers' externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 44, 293-300.
Development of Externalizing Behavior Over Time for Intervention and Control Groups By DRD47-Repeat Allele
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BEYOND SINGLE GENES:CUMUALTIVE GENETIC
PLASTICITY?
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Plasticity Genes
(DAT1, DRD2, DRD4, 5HTTLPR, and MAOA),Negative-Positive Mothering
and Lack of Self Control
in Adolescence
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Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
Parenting and Adolescent Boys’ Self-Control Regulation
Belsky, J., & Beaver, M. (under review). Cumulative-Genetic Plasticity, Parenting and Adolescent Self-Control/Regulation
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2 plasticity alleles
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CONCLUSION
Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues
--Same susceptible individuals; different markers across studies?--Measurement limitations: often limited if any measure of positive environment or even positive functioning.--Language for “upside plasticity”?--Domain specific or domain general?--Mechanisms?--Susceptibility: born or made or “born to be made”?--GXE interaction or epigenetic mediation: EGBehavior--Implications for Intervention
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EVOLUTIONARY FOUNDATIONS
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DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS OF DIVERGENT REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
TYPE I TYPE II
Marital discord High stress Inadequate $ resources
Spousal harmony Adequate $ resources
Harsh, rejecting insensitive Inconsistent
Sensitive, supportive, responsive Positively affectionate
Insecure attachment Mistrustful internal working model Opportunistic interpersonal orientation
Aggressive Anxious Noncompliant Depressed
Secure attachment Trusting internal working model Reciprocally-rewarding interpersonal orientation
Early maturation / puberty Later maturation / puberty
Earlier sexual activity Short-term, unstable pair bonds Limited parental investment
Later sexual activity Long-term, enduring pair bonds Greater parental investment
A. FAMILY CONTEXT
B. CHILDREARING Infancy / Early Childhood
C. PSYCHOLOGICAL / BEHAVIORAL
DEVELOPMENT
D. SOMATIC DEVELOPMENT
E. REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY
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BEHAVIOR-GENETIC CHALLENGE:
GENETIC MEDIATION “MASQUERADING” AS
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
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WHY—not how--WOULD NATURAL SELECTION CRAFT AN
ORGANISM WHOSE FUTURE FUNCTIONING IS INFLUENCED
BY ITS EARLIER EXPERIENCES?
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POSSIBLE SOLUTION:CONDITIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
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AN EVOLUTIONARY ARGUMENT
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Because the future is inherently uncertain, parents cannot know for certain—either consciously or unconsciously—what rearing strategies and practices will prove most beneficial to their offspring’s long-term well being, including their own and their children’s reproductive fitness, the ultimate “target” of natural selection. This is just as true today as it was in the ancestral environmentSS in which humans evolved (i.e., EEAs, not EEA).
Because it was possible, then, for parents to inadvertently lead their children down figurative if not literal dead ends—because the future turned out different from what was (consciously or unconsciously) anticipated--it would have benefited parents to “hedge their bets” by bearing children whose development was more and less likely to be influenced by the rearing environment.