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Benefits of Improving Trace Mineral Status of Dairy Replacement Heifers are Examined

system, is evident as parakeratotic lesions of skin, rumen papillae and esophageal mucosa are common manifestations of a zinc deficiency (Miller et al., 1988). Thus it is not surprising that coccidia-challenged broilers fed 40 ppm of zinc from the more bioavailable zinc source, Availa®Zn, had lower intestinal lesion scores than those fed 40 ppm of zinc from ordinary zinc sulfate (Rapp et al., 2001; Figure 2, page 2). Zinc affects cell-mediated immune response as evidenced by calves fed a zinc deficient diet for 22 days eliciting only minimal swelling in response to an intradermal injection of phytohemagglutinin (Figure 3, page 2, Engle et al., 1997). Zinc status has also been shown to affect humoral immune response of calves. Replacing standard zinc oxide with ZINPRO® zinc methionine increased antibody titers following vaccination against bovine herpes virus I [infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBRV); Figure 4, page 3, Spears et al., 1991].

are born dead. For calves born alive, preweaning is the time period of greatest risk for diseases as 10.5% of preweaned calves die compared to 2.8% of weaned calves. Scours and respiratory problems are the two greatest disease challenges in the preweaning period with 62.1% of calf mortalities being attributed to scours and 21.3% of calf mortalities attributed to respiratory diseases (Figure 1).

Effect of improving trace mineral status on incidence of immune function:Research examining the effect of trace mineral status on disease incidence in dairy replacement animals is limited. However, there is a considerable amount of data examining the effect of improving trace mineral status of livestock and poultry on disease incidence and severity.

Zinc is a trace mineral that has a crucial role in maintaining the functionality of the immune system. The role of zinc in maintaining epithelial tissue integrity, a key component of the innate immune

Improving trace mineral status of heifers through feeding the combination of trace minerals found in Availa®4 can help dairy producers grow replacements that:Are less prone to health problems;Are more efficient at converting feed to gain, andHave fewer claw lesions.

Key Findings Figure 1. Causes of death in preweaned calves (NAHMS, 2002)

IntroductionBecause dairy replacement heifers generally do not generate revenue until after first parturition, the management and nutritional needs of heifers receive lower priority than those of the lactating cows. However, minimizing health disorders of replacement heifers decreases mortality before first parturition and increases the likelihood that they will enter the milking herd (Warnick et al., 1995). Furthermore, lessening the incidence of calfhood respiratory diseases has been correlated with decreased age at first calving (Warnick et al., 1994). In addition, minimizing incidence of claw lesions in heifers has been associated with increased milk production during first lactation (Drendel et al., 2005). Clearly, improving health, as well as performance of dairy replacement heifers has a positive impact on dairy profitability. This paper will focus on one factor affecting health and performance of dairy replacement heifers: trace mineral status.

Incidence of health problems in heifers in the United States:Results of the National Animal Health Monitoring Systems (NAHMS) 2002 dairy survey indicate that 11.2% of dairy calves

Respiratory, 21.3%

Scours, 62.1%

Unknown, 6.9%

Dystocia, 4.1%

Other, 5.6%

P O S I T I O N S TAT E M E N T

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Thus, improved zinc status may explain why calves fed additional zinc in the form of ZINPRO performed better than Control calves when disease challenged. In a study conducted in Texas, dry matter intakes dropped less and returned faster to pre-challenge intakes when IBRV-challenged calves were supplemented with ZINPRO as compared to no zinc supplementation (Figure 5, page 3; Chirase et al., 1991). Furthermore, rectal temperatures were higher in unsupplemented calves than in ZINPRO supplemented calves, suggesting greater immune incompetence.

In a follow-up study, standard zinc oxide and manganese oxide were compared with ZINPRO and MANPRO®

manganese methionine in mitigating the effects of a disease challenge (Chirase et al., 1994). In comparison to unsupplemented Control calves, supplementing IBRV-challenged calves with ZINPRO and MANPRO minimized the drop in dry matter intake and suppressed the increase in rectal temperatures. In comparison, changes in dry matter intake and rectal temperatures were similar between the Control calves and calves supplemented with standard zinc oxide and manganese oxide. Not surprisingly, the drop in body weight following the IBRV-challenge was lowest for calves supplemented with ZINPRO and MANPRO.

While mitigation of disease severity for calves supplemented with ZINPRO and MANPRO is due in part to improved zinc status, the role of improved manganese status in decreasing disease severity should not be ignored. Manganese affects immune function as it is involved in the removal of superoxides through the activity of the manganese containing enzyme, superoxide dismutase (Keen and Zidenberg-Cherr, 1990).

In addition to zinc and manganese, copper and cobalt have important roles in immune function. Research with rats and mice indicate that both cell-mediated and humoral immunity are greatly depressed by copper deficiency

(Spears, 2000). Research examining the effect of cobalt on immune function is limited, but it has been shown that a cobalt deficiency affects neutrophil function and resistance of animals to parasitic infections (Spears, 2000).

Feeding 4-Plex®, a combination of ZINPRO, MANPRO, CuPLEX® copper lysine and COPRO® cobalt glucoheptonate, to stressed calves in place of standard trace mineral sources,

resulted in improved antibody titer response to IBRV vaccination and cell-mediated immunity as noted by increased skin-swelling response 48 hours after intradermal injection of phytohemagglutinin (Figure 6, page 4; George et al., 1997). Calves received the IBRV vaccination upon entering the feedlot and cell-mediated immune response was measured 21 days later. Supplementing calves with three times the recommended level of ZINPRO,

Figure 2. Effect of Zinpro zinc during a coccidia challenge (Rapp et al., 2001)

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Figure 3. Effect of zinc depletion on mean skin swelling response to phytohemagglutinin (PHA; Engle et al., 1997)

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Figure 4. Effect of zinc on serum antibody titers to bovine herpes virus-1 following vaccination in stressed calves (Spears et al., 1991)

a Control = No added zinc- 26 mg/kgb Zinc oxide = Zinc from zinc oxide increased zinc concentration to 51.4 mg/kgc Zinc methionine = Zinc from ZINPRO zinc methionine increased zinc concentration to 51.4 mg/kgyz Within bars, means lacking a common superscript letter differ, P < 0.10Ref. Slide # BG - 49.1

Figure 5. Change in dry matter intake (DMI) for steers fed ZINPROa and challenged with IBRV (Chirase et al., 1991)

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MANPRO, CuPLEX and COPRO for the first 14 days in the feedlot and then the recommended level of these products for remainder of the 28-day study, did not improve antibody titer response to IBRV vaccination (Figure 6). However, calves supplemented with the higher amounts of trace minerals had improved cell-mediated immune response at Day 21 as noted by increased skin-swelling response to the intradermal phytohemagglutinin injection (Figure 7, page 4).

With increased trace mineral status resulting in improved vaccination responses, improved cell-mediated immune responses and improved gut integrity, it is not surprising that trace mineral status decreases morbidity in calves. Nebraska researchers found that increasing trace mineral status of calves by supplementing cow/calf pairs with a combination of ZINPRO (482 g zinc per day per cow/calf pair), MANPRO (266 g manganese per day per cow/calf pair), CuPLEX (166 mg copper per day per cow/calf pair) and COPRO cobalt glucoheptonate (33 mg cobalt per day per cow/calf pair) decreased morbidity of calves while in the feedlot, in comparison to calves supplemented with no trace minerals or only standard trace minerals (Figure 8, page 5; Grotelueschen et al., 2001). It should be noted that despite the fact that cow/calf pairs fed standard trace minerals received twice the amount of zinc, manganese, copper and cobalt as cow/calf pairs receiving Zinpro Performance Minerals®, zinc and copper content of liver was higher in calves receiving the Zinpro Performance Minerals (Figure 8) indicating greater mineral bioavailability.

Effect of improving trace mineral status on feed efficiency:Feed costs are by far the largest expense in rearing dairy replacement heifers, comprising approximately 60% of expenses (Moore et al., 2005). Decreasing feed shrink and improving conversion of feed to gain are important means by which dairy producers can help decrease the cost of raising heifers from birth to first parturition.

Research has not examined the effect of improving trace mineral status on feed efficiency of dairy replacement heifers. However, a sizeable database exists demonstrating that improved trace mineral status enhances conversion of feed to gain in growing beef cattle. Engle et al. (1995) found that feed efficiency of growing calves was decreased by more than 40%, 18 days after cattle began receiving a zinc deficient diet (Figure 9, page 5). A 22-trial feedlot summary found that supplementing growing beef cattle with 360 mg of zinc from ZINPRO improved feed conversion by 4.05% (Figure 10, page 6).

Because most heifer diets are comprised primarily of forages, improving fiber digestion should improve feed efficiency. Allen (1986) observed, in vitro, that replacing standard cobalt sulfate with COPRO numerically increased acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber digestion (Table 1). Similarly, Kincaid et al. (2003) observed that increasing cobalt supplementation of lactating dairy cows from 0 to 25 mg/hd/d numerically increased the conversion of feed to milk (Figure 11, page 6).

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Development of claw lesions in heifers is a risk factor for development of claw lesions in lactation.According to the NAHMS (2002) survey, 16.3% of dairy cows are culled due to lameness. However, this survey may underestimate dairy cows culled due to lameness because cows culled for low production (19.3%) or reproductive failure (26.5%) may have been lame, resulting in general production or reproductive failure. Lameness has been shown to decrease milk production (Hernandez et al., 2002b; Juarez et al., 2003) and reproductive performance (Sprecher et al., 1997; Hernandez et al., 2002a; Melendez et al., 2002). In addition, dairy producers tend to underestimate extent and severity of lameness within their herds (Whay et al., 2002).

Research indicates that mature cows that develop claw disorders are more prone to future reoccurrences of these claw disorders (Peterse, 1986; Raven, 1989; Enevoldsen et al., 1991). Recently, Drendel et al. (2005) found that heifers, 12 months of age, that developed claw lesions were 27.7 times more likely to develop claw lesions in early lactation than heifers that did not develop claw lesions. At one month prepartum, heifers that had claw lesions were 15.1 times more likely to have a claw lesion at two months postpartum. It should be noted that the claw lesions in heifers at 12 months of age and at one month prepartum were of minor severity and the vast majority of heifers were not lame. Thus, preventing growing animals from developing even minor claw lesion must be a key management objective.

Incidence of claw lesions in dairy replacement heifers:In a recent study, Drendel et al. (2005) found that at 12 months of age, 74.5% of heifers had a claw lesion (Table 2, page 7). The predominant claw lesions at 12 months of age were white line separation (42.5% incidence); sole hemorrhage (35.9% incidence), and heel erosion (23.4% incidence; Table 2). At one month prepartum, 85.7% of heifers had a claw lesion, with heel erosion (60.6% incidence); sole hemorrhages

(40.3% incidence), and white line separation (22.8% incidence) being the predominant lesions.

Ohio State researchers found that 84% of 12 to 13 month old Holstein heifers had white line separation and 79% had sole hemorrhages, respectively (Hoblet et al., 2000). Vermunt and Greenough (1996) observed that 77% of 13 month old Holstein heifers had sole hemorrhages (Figure 12, page 7). Similarly, in a survey of 1141 dairy animals on 128 dairies in the Netherlands, researchers found that 70% of Friesian/Holstein heifers had sole hemorrhages at 40 weeks of age

(Frankena et al., 1992). It should be noted that in this study, researchers observed sole hemorrhages in heifers as young as 11 weeks of age and that as age of heifers increased from 10 to 52 weeks, sole hemorrhages became increasingly more prevalent (Figure 13, page 7). Clearly, claw lesions are prevalent in dairy replacement heifers.

Risk factors for development of claw lesions in heifers: In the survey of 128 dairies, Frankena et al. (1992) found that incidence of sole hemorrhages in heifers between 10 and 52 weeks of age varied substantially

Figure 6. Primary IBRV antibody titer response to vaccination with modified live vaccine (George et al., 1997)

a Inorganic trace mineral sources: ZnO, MnO, CuSO4 and CoCO3b 4-Plex®: ZINPRO zinc methionine, MANPRO® manganese methionine, CuPLEX® copper lysine and COPRO® cobalt glucoheptonatec 4-Plex 3X ration fed to 3X/1X treatment for initial 14 d, then 4-Plex 1X fed for remainder of experimentyz Means lacking a common superscript letter differ, P < 0.01Ref. Slide # BR - 55

Figure 7. Effect of 4-Plex and feeding level on immune function for incoming cattle on Day 21 (George et al., 1997)

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across herds. In approximately 17% of herds, less than 10% of heifers had a sole hemorrhage (Figure 14, page 8). In comparison, 14.1% of herds had a sole hemorrhage incidence rate in heifers of more than 70%. The variation in prevalence of sole hemorrhages across herds indicates that opportunities exist to decrease occurrence.

Factors observed to be associated with increased incidence of claw lesions include purchasing heifers, raising heifers in freestalls or on slatted floors, feeding only forage, not feeding any dry hay and not using parasite control on heifers (Frankena et al., 1992). Other researchers have associated claw lesions with rearing heifers indoors on concrete (Vermunt and Greenough, 1996) and feeding a diet composed only of wet silage (Offer et al., 2001, 2003).

Due to the dynamics of horn generation in the bovine claw, the effect of environmental and nutritional insults may not be evident immediately. Horn on the dorsal surface of the claw grows at an average rate of 0.10 inch (2.5 mm) per month in beef cattle and 0.20 inch (5 mm) to 0.24 inch (6 mm) per month in more intensively fed cattle, like lactating dairy cattle (Greenough, 1997). The length of the dorsal wall of the medial claw is approximately 3 inches (7.5 cm) when measured from the apex to the coronary band (Greenough, 1997). Based upon these measurements, the horn capsule of the claw is a composite of horn produced over the past 12 to 15 months. So it is plausible that interactions of environmental and nutritional conditions during rearing would require a considerable length of time to be fully expressed as claw lesions. This hypothesis is supported by Webster (2002), who observed that heifers housed in straw yards for the last four weeks of gestation and the first eight weeks of lactation had fewer sole hemorrhages and white line lesions than heifers housed in freestalls during this same period. Critically, he observed that heifers housed in straw yards for the last four weeks of gestation and

Figure 8. Effect of trace mineral supplementation on feedlot morbidity (Grotelueschen et al., 2001)

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a 2X sulfate provided 947 mg Zn, 535 mg Mn, 265 mg Cu and 76 mg Cob 4-Plex: ZINPRO zinc methionine, MANPRO manganese methionine, CuPLEX copper lysine and COPRO cobalt glucoheptonate provided 482 mg Zn, 266 mg Mn, 166 mg Cu and 33 mg Co on cow/calf pair/d basis xyz Bars lacking a common superscript letter differ, P < 0.05Ref. Slide # BG - 46

Figure 9. Influence of zinc depletion on feed efficiency (Engle et al., 1997)

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first eight weeks of lactation had fewer sole hemorrhages, even 16 weeks after being moved into freestalls, than heifers housed in freestalls for the last four weeks of gestation and the first eight weeks of lactation.

Similarly, Offer et al. (2001) found that feeding meadow hay instead of grass silage for a period of 98 days to growing heifers, early in gestation, decreased claw lesions in the first lactation. In a follow-up study, heifers were fed a diet based upon either grass silage or straw

and concentrate (Offer et al., 2003). Heifers fed the grass silage diet had higher incidence of sole and white line lesions, not only during rearing but also during lactation. Even seven months after treatments were discontinued, heifers fed the grass silage diet during rearing had higher incidence of white line and sole lesions. Altogether, these results suggest (Offer et al., 2001, 2003; Webster, 2002) that dietary and environmental interactions related to claw lesions are complex and may extend over long time periods.

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Effect of improving trace mineral status of dairy heifers on incidence of claw lesions:Research examining the effect of improving trace mineral status on incidence of claw lesions in growing dairy replacements through the feeding of additional trace minerals in a more bioavailable form is very limited. Drendel et al. (2005) found that adding a combination of Zinpro Performance Minerals, such as the zinc, manganese, copper and cobalt in Availa-4, to a diet fortified in excess of NRC (2001) requirements for zinc, manganese, copper and cobalt did not decrease incidence and severity of claw lesions during rearing. To the contrary, heifers fed the additional trace minerals in the form of Availa-4 actually had greater overall incidence and severity of lesions at one month prepartum (Table 3, page 8). In particular, incidence and severity of heel erosion and sole hemorrhages were greater one month prepartum.

The ineffectiveness of Availa-4 in this case lacks explanation. Previous research has shown that feeding Availa-4 to lactating dairy cows decreases claw lesions (Ballantine et al., 2002; Nocek et al., 2000). One plausible explanation is that one month prepartum, heifers had not received the trace mineral supplement for a sufficient time period. As noted above, horn on the dorsal surface of the claw grows at an average rate of 0.10 inch (2.5 mm) per month in beef cattle and 0.20 inch (5 mm) to 0.24 inch (6 mm) per month in more intensively fed cattle such as lactating dairy cattle (Greenough, 1997), resulting in the horn capsule of the claw being a composite of horn produced over the past 12 to 15 months.

This may explain why, at two months postpartum, these Wisconsin researchers found that heifers fed the additional Zinpro Performance Minerals, in the form of Availa-4, actually had a decrease in overall incidence and severity of claw lesions (Table 3, page 8). In particular, incidence and severity of white line lesions and sole ulcers were decreased.

Figure 10. Effect of ZINPROa zinc methionine on beef feedlot feed conversion

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Table 1. Effect of cobalt source on diet digestibility and vitamin B12 production in continuous culture fermentors (Allen, 1986)

Figure 11. Effect of cobalt supplementation on milk production efficiency in heifersa (Kincaid et al., 2003)

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Cobalt Source, 1 ppm Co

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True organic matter 56.6 56.6 57.4

Neutral detergent fiber 32.8 27.8 29.0

Acid detergent fiber 41.0 34.7 38.5

Total nonstructural carbohydrates 89.7 91.0 89.3

Vitamin B12 µg flow/d 72.0y 71.3y 65.4z

a COPRO cobalt glucoheptonateyz Means lacking a common superscript letter differ, P < 0.05Ref. Slide # RM - 4

a ZINPRO zinc methionineRef. Slide # BF - 14

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Furthermore, heifers not fed Availa-4 during the rearing phase that developed a claw lesion in early lactation had a 5503-lb decrease in 305 Mature Equivalent milk yield (Table 4, page 9). In contrast, heifers fed Availa-4 during the rearing phase that developed a claw lesion in early lactation had only a 1901-lb decrease in 305 Mature Equivalent milk yield. Based upon the impact of claw lesions on first lactation performance of heifers, feeding Availa-4 to heifers for 12 months prior to calving at a cost per day of $0.035 per heifer yields a 24.5:1 return on investment (Figure 15, page 9). This assumes that primiparous cows have a claw lesion incidence of 75.0% at two months postpartum and milk price is $12/cwt. Even if incidence of claw lesions was only 8.8%, dairy producers would receive a 2:1 return on their investment in feeding Availa-4 to dairy replacement heifers (Figure 15).

Conclusions

Improving trace mineral status of heifers through feeding the combination of trace minerals found in Availa-4 can help dairy producers grow replacements that are healthier, are more efficient at converting feed to gain and have fewer claw lesions. In addition, the nutritional practice of feeding Availa-4 to dairy replacement heifers has been shown to be highly cost-effective.

References:

Allen, M. 1986. Effects of cobalt supplementation on carbohydrate and nitrogen utilization by ruminal bacteria in continuous culture. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Minnesota, St Paul.

Ballantine, H. T., M. T. Socha, D. J. Tomlinson, A. B. Johnson, A. S. Fielding, J. K. Shearer and S. R. van Amstel. 2002. Effect of feeding complexed zinc, manganese, copper and cobalt to late gestation and lactating dairy cows on claw integrity, reproduction and lactation performance. Prof. Anim. Sci. 18:211.

Chirase, N. K., D. P. Hutcheson and G. B. Thompson. 1991. Feed intake, rectal temperature and serum mineral concentrations of feedlot cattle fed zinc oxide or zinc methionine and challenged with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus. J. Anim. Sci. 69:4137.

Chirase, N. K., D. P. Hutcheson, G. B. Thompson and J. W. Spears. 1994. Recovery rate and plasma zinc and copper concentrations of steer calves fed organic and inorganic zinc and manganese sources with or without

Table 2. Incidencea of claw disorders in dairy replacement heifers at 12 months of age, one month prepartum and two months postpartumb (Drendel et al., 2005)

Claw Disorder, % 12 Months of Age 1 Month Prepartum 2 Months PostpartumDorsal wall ridges 2.8 0.2 0.4Heel erosion 23.4 60.6 48.1Abaxial wall lesions 0.2 0.2 0.6Abaxial wall fissures 8.0 3.7 21.7Double soles 1.3 0.6 1.5White line separation 42.5 22.8 43.6Abscess (pus) 0.6 0.2 0.6Sole hemorrhages 35.9 40.3 48.7Sole ulcers 0.4 0.0 0.6Digital dermatitis 0.2 13.9 13.9Interdigital dermatitis 0.0 1.7 1.3Foot rot 0.2 0.0 0.0Any claw disorder 74.5 85.7 73.8

a Incidence is the frequency of at least one lesion on one of eight clawsb Heifers received treatments from 12 months of age through one month prepartum; All heifers were returned to the source dairy at one month prepartum and received similar diets with respect to the source dairyRef. Slide # DRP - 14

Figure 12. Dairy replacement heifers having claw lesions at 12 months of agea

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a Hind claws of 1141 female dairy calves, age 2.5 to 12 months; Calves were from 128 dairies in the Netherlands; Claws were examined between January 4 and March 15 while calves were housed indoorsRef. Slide # DG - 781

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injectable copper and challenged with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus. J. Anim. Sci. 72:212.

Drendel, T. R., P. C. Hoffman, N. St. Pierre, M. T. Socha, D. J. Tomlinson and T. L. Ward. 2005. Effects of feeding zinc, manganese and copper amino acid complexes and cobalt glucoheptonate on claw disorders in growing dairy replacement heifers. Prof. Anim. Sci. 21:217.

Engle, T. E., C. F. Nockels, C. V. Kimberling, R. E. Toombs, K. L. Hossner, R. S. Yemm, D. L. Weaber and A. B. Johnson. 1995. The effects of feeding organic and inorganic zinc on biochemical parameters in zinc-deficient calves. Proc. West. Sect. Am. Soc. Anim. Sci. 46:471.

Engle, T. E., C. F. Nockels, C. V. Kimberling, D. L. Weaber and A. B. Johnson. 1997. Zinc repletion with organic or inorganic forms of zinc and protein turnover in marginally zinc-deficient calves. J. Anim. Sci. 75:3074.

Enevoldsen, C., Y. T. Grohn, and I. Thysen. 1991. Sole ulcers in dairy cattle: Association with season, cow characteristics, disease, and production. J. Dairy Sci. 74:1284.

Frankena, K., K. A. S. Van Keulen, J. P. Noordhuizen, E. N. Noordhuizen-Stassen, J. Gundelach, D. J. De Jong and I. Saedt. 1992. A cross-sectional study into prevalence and risk indicators of digital haemorrhages in female dairy calves. Pres. Vet. Med. 14:1.

George, M. H., C. F. Nockels, T. L. Stanton and B. Johnson. 1997. Effect of source and amount of zinc, copper, manganese and cobalt fed to stressed heifers on feedlot performance and immune function. Prof. Anim. Sci. 13:84.

Greenough, P. R. 1997. Basic concepts of bovine lameness in Cattle, 3rd Edition. P.R. Greenough and A. D. Weaver ed. W. B. Sanders Co., Philadelphia, PA.

Grotelueschen, D. M., A. Wohlers, C. Dewey, L. G. Rush, W. E. Braselton, D. Hamar, A. B. Johnson and J. H. Pollreisz. 2001. Effect of pasture trace mineral supplementation on liver mineral levels and feedlot morbidity and mortality. Bovine Practitioner 35:73.

Hernandez, J., J. K. Shearer, and D. Webb. 2002a. Effect of papillomatous digital dermatitis and other lameness disorders on reproductive performance in a Florida dairy herd. Page 353 in Proc. 11th Int. Symp. Lameness in Ruminants, September 3-7, Parma, Italy.

Hernandez, J., J. K. Shearer, and D. W. Webb. 2002b. Effect of lameness on milk yield in dairy cows. JAVMA 220:640.Hoblet, K. H., W. P. Weiss, D. E. Anderson and M. L. Moeschberger. 2000. Lesions of hoof horn observed in 13 month-old Holstein heifers housed on concrete floors. Page 140 in Proc. 11th Int. Symp. Lameness in Ruminants, Sept. 3-7, Parma, Italy.

Juarez, S. T., P. H. Robinson, E. J. DePeters, and E. O. Price. 2003. Impact of lameness on behavior and productivity of lactating Holstein cows. Appl. Anim. Behav. 83:1.

Keen, C. L. and S. Zidenberg. 1990. Manganese. Pages 279-286 in Present Knowledge in Nutrition. M. L. Brown, ed. International Life Sciences Institute Nutrition Foundation, Washington, D.C.

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Melendez, P., J. Bartolome, and A. Donovan. 2002. Relationship between lameness, ovarian cysts and fertility in Holstein cows. Page 339 in Proc. 12th Int. Symp. Lameness in Ruminants, January 9-13, Orlando, FL.

Figure 14. Incidence of sole hemorrhages by herd in heifers 10 to 52 weeks of agea (Frankena et al., 1992)

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Incidence of Sole Hemmorhages, %

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Table 3. Effect of Availa-4a on claw lesion incidence and severity (CLIS) indexb of heifersc

Miller, J. K., N. Ramsey, and F. C. Madsen. 1988. The trace minerals in The Ruminant Animal. D. C. Church, ed. Pp. 342-400. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

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NRC. 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 7th rev. ed. National Research Council, National Acad. Sci. Washington, D.C.

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a Hind claws of 1141 female dairy calves, age 2.5 to 12 months; Calves were from 128 dairies in the Netherlands; Claws were examined between January 4 and March 15 while calves were housed indoorsRef. Slide # DG - 796

1 Month Prepartum 2 Months Postpartum

Claw Disorder Control Availa-4 Control Availa-4Overall claw lesions 3.8w 4.8x 6.6w 5.5x

Dorsal wall ridges 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.2Heel erosion 29.4w 34.5x 36.8 31.5Abaxial wall fissures 0.7 0.8 2.6 2.6Double soles 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.0White line separationd 2.8 3.0 7.5y 4.9z

Sole hemorrhages 9.7y 16.7z 29.2 24.1Sole ulcers - - 0.5w 0.1x

Digital dermatitis 1.5 0.0 1.6 0.0Interdigital dermatitis 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

a Availa-4 provided daily/heifer an additional 360 mg Zn, 200 mg Mn, 125 mg Cu and 12 mg Cob Calculated using the following formula: number of zones affected per cow X average severity score X 10; Severity score ranged from 1 (minor) to 3 (severe)c Heifers received treatments from 12 months of age through one month prepartum; All heifers were returned to the source dairy at one month prepartum and received similar diets with respect to the source dairyd Slope of CLIS index two months postpartum on CLIS index 12 months of age for Control heifers was greater than 0 (P < 0.05) indicating a positive relationship between the CLIS index at 12 months of age with the CLIS index at two months postpartumwx Within a phase, within a row, LSmeans lacking a common superscript letter differ, P < 0.15yz Within a phase, within a row, LSmeans lacking a common superscript letter differ, P < 0.05 Ref. Slide # DRP - 26

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Rapp, C., A. B. Johnson, T. M. Fakler, T. L. Ward and C.L. Quarles. 2001. Effect of zinc source on intestinal lesions and performance of broilers exposed to coccidiosis. Page 240 in Proc. 13th Eur. Symp. Poult. Nutr., Oct., Blankenberge, Belgium.

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Webster, A. J. F. 2002. Effects of housing practices on the development of foot lesions in dairy heifers in early lactation. Vet. Rec. 151:9.

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Zinpro Technical Bulletin TB-B-9202-C. Summary of 22 feedlot trials evaluating ZINPRO zinc methionine, Zinpro Corporation.

Table 4. Effect of feeding Availa-4a on the relationship between claw lesions and lactation performancebc (Drendel et al., 2005)

Regression Coefficients

305 Mature Equivalents, lb Control Availa-4

Milk yield -5503z -1901

Fat yield -20 -39

Protein yield -148 57a Availa-4 provided daily/heifer an additional 360 mg Zn, 200 mg Mn, 125 mg Cu and 12 mg Cob Heifers received treatments from 12 months of age through one month prepartum; All heifers were returned to the source dairy at one month prepartum and received similar diets with respect to the source dairyc Claw lesion present in early lactationz Differs from zero, P < 0.15 Ref. Slide # DRP - 33

Figure 15. Economics of feeding Availa-4 to dairy replacement heifers

HEIFER ECONOMICSAlfalfa Acres DairyBetter Feeds, Inc.

Economics of Feeding Availa-4 to Dairy Replacements

INPUTS: Current incidence of claw lesions in first calf heifers at two months postpartum % : 75.0 Current milk price $/cwt.: $12.00 Number of heifers calved/year #: 500 Average 305 Mature Equivalent milk yield for heifers lb: 26,000.00 Availa-4 Investment $/cow/d.: $0.035

Additional Income/First Calf-Heifer By Feeding Availa-4 to Replacements $/year: $312.49

Additional Income/Herd By Feeding Availa-4 to Replacements $/year: $156,242.50

Return on Investment for Feeding Availa-4 to Dairy Replacements : 24.5

Minimum Incidence of Claw Lesions In Herd Resulting in a 2:1 %: 8.8 Return on Availa-4 Investment

**Assumptions:1. Research indicates that heifers that develop claw lesions in early lactation that were fed Availa-4 during the last 12 months of rearing have a 7.2% reduction in their 305 ME milk yield, while heifers not fed Availa-4 during the last 12 months of rearing that develop claw lesions in early lactation have 21.1% reduction in their 305 ME milk yield2. Research indicates that greater than 73.8% of heifers have a claw lesion at 2 months postpartum3. Profitability numbers assume that Availa-4 is fed for 365 days prior to calving4. Feeding Availa-4 to heifers during the rearing phase decreased incidence and severity of claw lesions at 2 months postpartum. This decrease in incidence and severity of claw lesions in early lactation is not accounted for in this economic spreadsheet

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