Battle of Adwa 1

Battle of Adwa

Battle of AdwaPart of the First Italo-Ethiopian War

Ethiopian forces, assisted by St George (top), win the battle. Painted 1965-75.

Date 1 March 1896

Location Coordinates: 14°1′8″N 38°58′24″E [1]

Adwa, Ethiopia

Result Decisive Ethiopian victory, Italy acquires Medri Bahri and the Ottoman Habesh province leading to creation of Eritrea

Belligerents  Ethiopian Empire  Kingdom of Italy

Commanders and leaders Menelik II Alula Engida Makonnen Mengesha Yohannes Mikael of Wollo Tekle Haymanot Taytu Betul Nikolay Leontiev

Oreste Baratieri Vittorio Dabormida Giuseppe Arimondi Matteo Albertone Giuseppe Ellena

Strength

120,000 (100,000 with firearms, rest with spears) [2]</ref>,40 or so artillery guns (some antiquated)[]

17,700,56 artillery guns

Casualties and losses

4,000–5,000 killed,8,000 wounded[3]

7,000 killed,1,500 wounded,3,000 captured[3]

Battle of Adwa 2

The landscape of Adwa.

The Battle of Adwa (also known asAdowa, or sometimes by the Italian nameAdua) was fought on 1 March 1896between the Ethiopian Empire and theKingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa,Ethiopia, in Tigray. It was the climacticbattle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War,securing Ethiopian sovereignty.

As the 20th century approached, most ofAfrica had been carved up among theEuropean powers. The two independentexceptions were the young Republic of Liberia on the west coast of the continent and the Ethiopian Empire in thestrategic Horn of Africa. The newly unified Kingdom of Italy was a relative newcomer to the colonial scramble forAfrica. Italy had two recently obtained African territories: Eritrea and Somaliland. Both were near Ethiopia on theHorn of Africa and both were impoverished. Italy sought to improve its position in Africa by conquering Ethiopiaand joining it with its two territories.

BackgroundIn 1889, the Italians signed the Treaty of Wuchale with then Negus[4] Menelik of Shewa. The treaty ceded territoriespreviously part of Ethiopia, namely the provinces of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, Serae, and parts of Tigray. Inreturn, Italy promised Menelik's rule, financial assistance and military supplies. A dispute later arose over theinterpretation of the two versions of the document. The Italian-language version of the disputed article 17 of thetreaty stated that the Emperor of Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italian authorities. Thiswould in effect make Ethiopia a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. The Amharic version of the article howeverstated that the Emperor could use the good offices of the Kingdom of Italy in his relations with foreign nations if hewished. However, the Italian diplomats claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and that Menelikknowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty.[5]

The Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty.As a result, Italy and Ethiopia faced off in what was later to be known as the First Italo-Ethiopian War. In December1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akkele Guzay, in what was then Italian controlled Eritrea.Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta. TheItalian army then occupied the Tigrayan capital, Adwa. In January 1895, Baratieri's army went on to defeat RasMengesha Yohannes in the Battle of Coatit, forcing Mengesha to retreat further south.By late 1895, Italian forces had advanced deep into Ethiopian territory. On 7 December 1895, Ras[6] Makonnen, RasWelle Betul and Ras Mengesha Yohannes commanding a larger Ethiopian group of Menelik's vanguard annihilated asmall Italian unit at the Battle of Amba Alagi. The Italians were then forced to withdraw to more defensible positionsin Tigray, where the two main armies faced each other. By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were runninglow. General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off theland, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Emperor Menelik's army would begin to melt away.However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act.On the evening of 29 February, Baratieri met with his brigadiers Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Vittorio Dabormida, and Giuseppe Ellena, concerning their next steps. He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as Asmara. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale.[7] Dabormida exclaiming, "Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a

Battle of Adwa 3

dishonorable retreat." Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait forsome last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00.[8] Histroops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight.

Forces assembled

An 1890s Italian map of Adwa. A small arrowindicates that north is to the right.

The Italian army comprised four brigades totaling 17,978 troops, withfifty-six artillery pieces.[9] However, it is likely that fewer fought in theactual battle on the Italian side: Harold Marcus notes that "severalthousand" soldiers were needed in support roles and to guard the linesof communication to the rear. He accordingly estimates that the Italianforce at Adwa consisted of 14,923 effectives.[10] One brigade underGeneral Albertone was made up of Eritrean askari led by Italianofficers.[11] The remaining three brigades were Italian units underBrigadiers Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi. While these includedelite Bersaglieri, Alpini and Cacciatori units, a large proportion of thetroops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted frommetropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed "di formazione"battalions for service in Africa.[12][13]

As Chris Prouty describes:They [the Italians] had inadequate maps, old model guns, poorcommunication equipment and inferior footgear for the rockyground. (The newer Carcano Model 91 rifles were not issuedbecause Baratieri, under constraints to be economical, wanted to

use up the old cartridges.) Morale was low as the veterans were homesick and the newcomers were tooinexperienced to have any esprit de corps. There was a shortage of mules and saddles.[14]

Italian illustration of Alpini soldiersat Adwa

Estimates for the Ethiopian forces under Menelik range from a low of 73,000 to ahigh of over 120,000, outnumbering the Italians by an estimated five or sixtimes.[15] The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress TaytuBetul, Ras Wale Betul, Ras Mengesha Atikem, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, RasAlula Engida, Ras Mikael of Wollo, Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael, Fitawrari[16]

Gebeyyehu, and Negus[17] Tekle Haymanot Tessemma.[18] In addition, thearmies were followed by a similar number of traditional peasant followers whosupplied the army, as had been done for centuries.[3] Most of the army wascomposed of riflemen, a significant percentage of which were in Menelik'sreserve; however, there were also a significant number of cavalry and infantryonly armed with lances.[3] The Ethiopian Army had a small team of Russianadvisers and volunteers commanded by the Kuban Cossack army officer N.S.Leontiev.[19][20][21][22][23]

Battle of Adwa 4

BattleOn the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March three Italian brigades advanced separately towardsAdwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped.[24] David Levering Lewis states that the Italianbattle plan

called for three columns to march in parallel formation to the crests of three mountains — Dabormidacommanding on the right, Albertone on the left, and Arimondi in the center — with a reserve under Ellenafollowing behind Arimondi. The supporting crossfire each column could give the others made the 'soldiers asdeadly as razored shears'. Albertone's brigade was to set the pace for the others. He was to position himself onthe summit known as Kidane Mehret, which would give the Italians the high ground from which to meet theEthiopians.[25]

However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn werespread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Their sketchy maps caused Albertone to mistake one mountainfor Kidane Meret, and when a scout pointed out his mistake, Albertone advanced directly into Ras Alula's position.

Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam.

Unbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops hadexhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned tobreak camp the next day (2 March). The Emperor had risen early to beginprayers for divine guidance when spies from Ras Alula, his chief militaryadvisor, brought him news that the Italians were advancing. The Emperorsummoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress Taytu besidehim, ordered his forces forward. Negus Tekle Haymanot commanded the rightwing, Ras Alula the left, and Rasses Makonnen and Mengesha the center, withRas Mikael at the head of the Oromo cavalry; the Emperor and his consortremained with the reserve.[25] The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on thehills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, whowere exposed and vulnerable to crossfire.[3]

Ethiopian painting depicting the battle of Adwa.

Albertone's askari brigade was the first to encounter the onrush ofEthiopians at 6:00, near Kidane Meret,[26] where the Ethiopians hadmanaged to set up their mountain artillery. Accounts of the Ethiopianartillery deployed at Adwa differ; Russian advisor Leonid Artamonovwrote that it comprised 42 Russian mountain guns supported by a teamof fifteen advisers,[23] but British historians suggest that the Ethiopianguns were Hotchiss and Maxim pieces captured from the Egyptians orpurchased from French and other European suppliers.[27] Albertone'sheavily outnumbered askaris held their position for two hours untilAlbertone's capture, and under Ethiopian pressure the survivors soughtrefuge with Arimondi's brigade. Arimondi's brigade beat back theEthiopians who repeatedly charged the Italian position for three hours with gradually fading strength until Menelikreleased his reserve of 25,000 Shewans and swamped the Italian defenders. Two companies of Bersaglieri whoarrived at the same moment could not help and were cut down.

Dabormida's Italian brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida began a fighting retreat towards friendly positions. However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael slaughtered his brigade, while shouting Ebalgume! Ebalgume! ("Reap! Reap!"). Dabormida's remains were never found, although

Battle of Adwa 5

his brother learned from an old woman living in the area that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italianofficer, "a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars".[28]

The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes ofMount Belah. Menelik watched as Gojjam forces under the command of Tekle Haymonot made quick work of thelast intact Italian brigade. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over.

Immediate aftermathThe Italians suffered about 7,000 killed and 1,500 wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea,with 3,000 taken prisoner; Ethiopian losses have been estimated around 4,000–5,000 killed and 8,000wounded.[24][29] In their flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well asmost of their transport.[29] As Paul B. Henze notes, "Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated whileMenelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeingItalians."[30] The 3,000 Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well ascould be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity.[31] However,800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. AugustusWylde records when he visited the battlefield months after the battle, the pile of severed hands and feet was stillvisible, "a rotting heap of ghastly remnants."[32] Further, many had not survived their punishment, Wylde writinghow the neighborhood of Adwa "was full of their freshly dead bodies; they had generally crawled to the banks of thestreams to quench their thirst, where many of them lingered unattended and exposed to the elements until death putan end to their sufferings."[33] There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians werecastrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatment of the askari prisoners.[34]

General Oreste Baratieri

Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an"inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. Hewas acquitted on these charges but was described by the court martial judgesas being "entirely unfitted" for his command. Chris Prouty offers a panoramicoverview of the response in Italy to the news:

When news of the calamity reached Italy there were streetdemonstrations in most major cities. In Rome, to prevent these violentprotests, the universities and theatres were closed. Police were calledout to disperse rock-throwers in front of Prime Minister Crispi'sresidence. Crispi resigned on 9 March. Troops were called out to quelldemonstrations in Naples. In Pavia, crowds built barricades on therailroad tracks to prevent a troop train from leaving the station. TheAssociation of Women of Rome, Turin, Milan and Pavia called for thereturn of all military forces in Africa. Funeral masses were intoned forthe known and unknown dead. Families began sending to thenewspapers letters they had received before Adwa in which theirmenfolk described their poor living conditions and their fears at the size

of the army they were going to face. King Umberto declared his birthday (14 March) a day of mourning.Italian communities in St. Petersburg, London, New York, Chicago, Buenos Aires and Jerusalem collectedmoney for the families of the dead and for the Italian Red Cross.[35]

The Russian support for Ethiopia led to the advent of a Russian Red Cross mission. The Russian mission was amilitary mission conceived as a medical support for the Ethiopian troops. It arrived in Addis Ababa some threemonths after Menelik's Adwa victory.[36]

Battle of Adwa 6

Follow-up to Ethiopian victory

Emperor Menelik II

Emperor Menelik decided not to follow up on his victory by attempting todrive the routed Italians out of their colony. The victorious Emperor limitedhis demands to little more than the abrogation of the Treaty ofWuchale.[citation needed] In the context of the prevailing balance of power, theemperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence.[citation needed]

In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine;Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service inthe field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to acrawl would soon start to fall.[37] At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage ofcavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers. Chris Prouty observesthat "a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italianand Ethiopian sources."[38] Lewis believes that it "was his farsighted certaintythat total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force theItalian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade"[39] thatstayed his hand.

As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state.Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations's weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis, theItalians launched a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Thistime the Italians employed vastly superior military technology such as tanks and aircraft, as well as chemicalwarfare, the Ethiopian forces were soundly defeated by May 1936. Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia forfive years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire and Ethiopianpatriot forces.

Significance"The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writesHenze. "Though apparent to very few historians at the time, these defeats were the beginning of the decline ofEurope as the center of world politics."[40] On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde observed that"few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa".[41]

The Russian Empire paid enthusiastic compliments to the Ethiopian army's success. One of the documents of thattime states, "The Victory immediately gained the general sympathy of Russian society and it continued to grow."The unique outlook which polyethnic Russia exhibited to its ally Ethiopia disturbed many supporters of Europeannationalism during the twentieth century.[19][20] The Russian Cossack captain Nikolay Leontiev with team ofvolunteers participated in the battle as an advisor to Menelik.[21][42]

This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for laterAfrican nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-Africanmovement.[43] As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains,

After the victory over Italy in 1896, Ethiopia acquired a special importance in the eyes of Africans as the onlysurviving African State. After Adowa, Ethiopia became emblematic of African valour and resistance, thebastion of prestige and hope to thousands of Africans who were experiencing the full shock of Europeanconquest and were beginning to search for an answer to the myth of African inferiority.[44]

On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military. One student of Ethiopia, Donald N. Levine, points out that for the Italians Adwa "became a national trauma which demagogic leaders strove to avenge. It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935". Levine also noted that the victory "gave encouragement to isolationist and conservative strains that were deeply

Battle of Adwa 7

rooted in Ethiopian culture, strengthening the hand of those who would strive to keep Ethiopia from adoptingtechniques imported from the modern West – resistances with which both Menelik and Ras Teferi/Haile Selassiewould have to contend".[45]

Film• Adwa (film) (1999). Documentary directed by Haile Gerima.

NotesFootnotes[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Battle_of_Adwa& params=14_1_8_N_38_58_24_E_& title=Battle+ of+

Adwa[2] According to Pankhurst, the Ethiopians were armed with approximately 100,000 rifles of which about half were "fast firing.".<ref

name=p190>Pankhurst, The Ethiopians, p. 190[3] von Uhlig, Siegbert, Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), p. 108.[4] Roughly equivalent to King.[6] Roughly equivalent to Duke.[7] Harold G. Marcus, The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913, 1975 (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1995), p. 170[8] David Levering Lewis, The Race for Fashoda (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987), p. 116. ISBN 1-55584-058-2[9] Lewis, Fashoda, pp. 116f. He breaks down their numbers into 10,596 Italian officers and soldiers and 7,104 Eritrean askaris.[10] Marcus, Menelik II, p. 173[11][11] Thomas Pakenham, page 481 "The Scramble for Africa", ISBN 0-349-10449-2[12] George Fitz-Hardinge Berkley The Campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik, London: Constable 1901.[13] Raffaele Ruggeri, page 82 Le Guerre Coloniali Italiane 1885/1900, Editrice Militare Italiana 1988[14] Prouty, Empress Taytu and Menilek II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), p. 155. ISBN 0-932415-11-3.[15] Pankhurst has published one collection of these estimates, Economic History of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie University, 1968),

pp. 555–57. See also Herausgegeben von Uhlig, Siegbert, Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003, p. 108.[16] Roughly equivalent to Commander of the Vanguard.[17] Roughly equivalent to King.[18] Pétridès (as well as Pankhurst, with slight variations) break the troop numbers down (over 100,000 by their estimates) as follows: 35,000

infantry (25,000 riflemen and 10,000 spearmen) and 8,000 cavalry under Emperor Menelik; 5,000 infantry under Empress Taytu; 8,000infantry (6,000 riflemen and 2,000 spearmen) under Ras Wale; 8,000 infantry (5,000 riflemen and 3,000 spearmen) under Ras MengeshaAtikem, 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engida; 6,000 riflemen, 5,000spearmen, and 5,000 Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael of Wollo; 25,000 riflemen under Ras Makonnen; 8,000 infantry under FitawrariGebeyyehu; 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia, p. 109.

[19] RUSSIAN MISSION TO ABYSSINIA (http:/ / hansard. millbanksystems. com/ commons/ 1895/ feb/ 28/ russian-mission-to-abyssinia).[20] Who Was Count Abai? (http:/ / www. 300. years. spb. ru/ eng/ 3_spb_3. html?id=64).[21] The activities of the officer the Kuban Cossack army N.S. Leontjev in the Italian-Ethiopic war in 1895–1896 (http:/ / www. sworld. com. ua/

index. php/ ru/ history/ world-history-and-the-history-of-ukraine/ 768-vinogradova-kv)[22] – WITH THE ARMIES OF MENELIK II by Alexander K. Bulatovich (http:/ / www. samizdat. com/ armies. html)[23] Leonid Artamonov, a Russian general, geographer and traveler, military adviser of Menelik II, as one of Russian officers of volunteers

attached to the forces of Ras Tessema (wrote: Through Ethiopia to the White Nile). (http:/ / www. vostlit. info/ Texts/ Dokumenty/Aethiopien/ Artamonov/ framepred. htm)

[24] von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia, p. 109.[25] Lewis, Fashoda, p. 117.[26][26] In the attached map, this is labelled "Chidane Meret", which is immediately above (west) of the hill "Rajò".[27][27] Sean McLachlan, page 37 "Armies of the Adowa Campaign 1896", ISBN 978-1-84908-457-4[28] George Fitz-Hardinge Berkeley, Campaign of Adowa (1902), quoted in Lewis, Fashoda, p. 118.[29] Pankhurst. The Ethiopians, pp. 191–2.[30] Henze, Layers of Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p. 170.[31] Chris Prouty notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent

to himself, a horse and servants". Empress Taytu, pp. 169f.[32] Augustus B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia (London: Methuen, 1901), p. 213[33] Wylde, Modern Abyssinia, p. 214[34] Prouty has collected the few documented experiences of these POWs, none of whom claim to have been treated inhumanely (Empress

Taytu, pp. 170–83). She repeats the opinion of the Italian historian Angelo del Boca, that "the paucity of the record is attributable to the glacial

Battle of Adwa 8

welcome received in Italy by the returning prisoners for having lost a war, and the fact that they were subjected to long interrogations whenthey debarked, were defrauded of their back pay, had their mementoes confiscated and were ordered not to talk to journalists" (p. 170).

[35] Prouty, Empress Taytu, pp. 159f.[36] The Russian Red Cross Mission (http:/ / www. linkethiopia. org/ guide/ pankhurst/ medicine/ medicine_6. html)[37] Marcus, Menelik II, p. 176.[38] Prouty, Empress Taytu, p. 161.[39] Lewis, Fashoda, p. 120.[40] Henze, Layers of Layers of Time, p.180.[41] Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia (London: James Currey, 1991), p. 81.[42] Cossacks of the emperor Мenelik II (http:/ / www. tvoros. ru/ proza/ kazaki-u-imperatora-menelika-vtorogo. html)[43] Professor Kinfe Abraham, "The Impact of the Adowa Victory on The Pan-African and Pan-Black Anti-Colonial Struggle," Address

delivered to The Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 8 February 2006[44] Molefe Asante, quoted in Rodney Worrell, Pan-africanism in Barbados, (New Academia Publishing: 2005) p. 16[45] "The Battle of Adwa as a 'Historic' Event" (http:/ / www. ethiopianreview. com/ content/ 2009/ 03/ the-battle-of-adwa-as-a-historic-event/ ),

Ethiopian Review, 3 March 2009 (Retrieved 9 March 2009)

Citations

References• Berkeley, G.F.-H. (1902) The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik, Westminister: A. Constable, 403 pp.,

OCLC  11834888 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 11834888)• Brown, P.S. and Yirgu, F. (1996) The Battle of Adwa 1896, Chicago: Nyala Publishing, 160 pp., ISBN

978-0-9642068-1-6• Bulatovich, A.K. (nd) With the Armies of Menelik II: Journal of an Expedition from Ethiopia to Lake Rudolf,

translated by Richard Seltzer, OCLC  454102384 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 454102384)• Bulatovich, A.K. (2000) Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by

Richard Seltzer, Lawrenceville, N.J. : Red Sea Press, ISBN 978-1-5690211-7-0• Henze, P.B. (2004) Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, London: Hurst & Co., ISBN 1-85065-522-7• Jonas, R.A. (2011) The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire, Bellknap Press of Harvard

University Press, ISBN 978-0-6740-5274-1• Lewis, D.L. (1988) The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for

Africa, 1st ed., London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-0113-0• Marcus, H.G. (1995) The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913, Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press,

ISBN 1-56902-010-8• Pankhurst, K.P. (1968) Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935, Addis Ababa: Haile Sellassie I University

Press, 772 pp., OCLC  65618 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 65618)• Pankhurst, K.P. (1998) The Ethiopians: A History, The Peoples of Africa Series, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers,

ISBN 0-631-22493-9• Rosenfeld, C.P. (1986) Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910, London: Ravens Educational &

Development Services, ISBN 0-947895-01-9• Uhlig, S. (ed.) (2003) Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, 1 (A-C), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, ISBN 3-447-04746-1• Worrell, R. (2005) Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-Century

Pan-African Formations in Barbados, Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing, ISBN 0-9744934-6-5• Zewde, Bahru (1991) A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1974, Eastern African Studies series, London: Currey,

ISBN 0-85255-066-9•• With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com

Battle of Adwa 9

External links• Historynet: Ethiopia's Decisive Victory at Adowa (http:/ / www. historynet. com/

first-italo-abyssinian-war-battle-of-adowa. htm)• Who Was Count Abai? (http:/ / www. 300. years. spb. ru/ eng/ 3_spb_3. html?id=64)• "The Colony of Eritrea from its Origins until March 1, 1899" (http:/ / www. wdl. org/ en/ item/ 2549) from 1899

which details the Battle of Adwa from the World Digital Library• Painting depicting the Battle of Adwa (http:/ / collections. nmnh. si. edu/ search/ anth/ ?irn=8378154), Catalogue

No. E261845, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsBattle of Adwa  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=555640839  Contributors: 1exec1, 96T, A Nobody, Adashiel, Ahseaton, AlfredoM, Altenmann, Altzinn, Andrwsc, Anger22,Anotherclown, Ardfern, AssegaiAli, Attilios, Aude, AustralianRupert, Awb49, BD2412, Badagnani, Baronnet, Ben Ben, Brian-King-of-Missouri, Brigade Piron, Bryan Derksen, Buistr,Callmarcus, Choy4311, ChrisGualtieri, Ciphers, Cluckbang, Codex Sinaiticus, Consuelo D'Guiche, Conversion script, Crystallina, Danny, De Administrando Imperio, Debivort, Dvyost,Edged33333, Elfalem, Enriquecardova, Esterhase, FF2010, Falcon8765, Ferox Seneca, GCarty, Gabbe, Gdr, Gemini1980, Georgequizbowl08, Ghepeu, Gianfranco, Gioto, Giraffedata,Glacierfairy, Graham87, GrahamHardy, Greyhood, HDCase, Hemlock Martinis, Hibernian, Historymatters, Hmains, Hohum, Hudk4199, Hugo999, Inayity, Ineuw, Interlinking, Ixfd64, J dnoonan, JHunterJ, JNW, Janweh64, Jaraalbe, JialiangGao, JoDonHo, Johann Wolfgang, John of Reading, Johnbod, Kassjab, Kirill Lokshin, Klondike5, Ksyrie, Kurt Leyman, LA2, Leandrod,Lilac Soul, Llywrch, LtNOWIS, M0tty, MER-C, Magnus Manske, Manxruler, Mboverload, Meiskam, Mikedash, Mimihitam, Mkpumphrey, Modify, Msammon, Mschiffler, Mukogodo,NawlinWiki, Nimetapoeg, Nr10232, Oberiko, Orangemarlin, Oxonhutch, PAcmanJones123, Paladinwannabe2, Panairjdde, Patriottardo, Paul Drye, Pavel Vozenilek, Percy17, Pethan,PhnomPencil, Pmsyyz, Polylerus, Poppy, Publicus, Quindie, R-41, RSEagle, Revth, Rjwilmsi, RodC, Roundhouse0, Runehelmet, Ryoung122, Sannse, SarahStierch, Schekinov AlexeyVictorovich, Schmiteye, Sergeispb-10, Sf, Sherurcij, SoLando, Sobaka, Sun Creator, Sus scrofa, Szopen, Taborgate, The Jackal God, Tibetan Prayer, Tim!, Tttom, Varlaam, VirafPatel,WJBscribe, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, YellowMonkey, Yhever, Yom, 223 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De slag bij Adua TMnr 5956-2.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ji-Elle, Johnbod, M.casanova,RobertLechnerFile:Ethiopian Pennants.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethiopian_Pennants.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Orange Tuesday (talk) Original uploaderwas Orange Tuesday at en.wikipediaFile:Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861-1946)_crowned.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike2.5  Contributors: F l a n k e rFile:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, Zscout370File:Adwa Tigray Ethiopia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adwa_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Jialiang Gao www.peace-on-earth.orgFile:Adwa map.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adwa_map.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Da O. Baratieri, Memorie d’Africa (1892-1896), Torino,Fratelli Bocca, 1898 (l’orientamento della mappa ha l’Ovest in alto)File:Avanti i mei alpini Adua.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Avanti_i_mei_alpini_Adua.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: R. MisenoFile:Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tekle_Haymanot_of_Gojjam.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Janweh64File:ItaloAbyssinianWarpainting.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ItaloAbyssinianWarpainting.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: UnknownFile:Baratieri.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baratieri.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown, but died more than 70 years agoFile:Minilk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minilk.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zheim

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