Basque language 1

Basque language

Basque Euskara

Spoken in  Spain  France

Region  Basque Country  Navarre

French Basque Country

Ethnicity Basque

Native speakers 665,800[1]  (2006)

Language family Basque (Isolate)

Official status

Official language in  Basque Country  Navarre

Regulated by Euskaltzaindia

Language codes

ISO 639-1 eu

ISO 639-2 baq (B)

eus (T)

ISO 639-3 eus

Linguasphere 40-AAA-a

Family transmission of Basque language (Basque as initiallanguage)

Basque (Basque: Euskara, pronounced [eus̺kaɾa]) is theancestral language of the Basque people, who inhabit theBasque Country, a region spanning an area innortheastern Spain and southwestern France. It is spokenby 25.7% of Basques in all territories (665,800 out of2,589,600).[1] Of these, 614,000 live in the Spanish partof the Basque country and the remaining 51,800 live inthe French part.[1]

In academic discussions of the distribution of Basque inSpain and France, it is customary to refer to three ancientprovinces in France and four Spanish provinces. Nativespeakers are concentrated in a contiguous area includingparts of the Spanish Autonomous Communities of theBasque Autonomous Community (Spanish: País Vasco;Euskara: Euskadi) and Navarre

Basque language 2

Location of the Basque-language provinces within Spain and France

and in the western half of the FrenchDépartement of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. TheAutonomous Community of PaísVasco/Euskadi is an administrative entitywithin the binational ethnographic BasqueCountry incorporating the traditionalSpanish provinces of Biscay, Gipuzkoa, andÁlava, which retain their existence aspolitico-administrative divisions.

These provinces and many areas of Navarreare heavily populated by ethnic Basques, butthe Euskara language had, at least until the 1990s, all but disappeared from most of Álava, western parts of Biscayand central and southern areas of Navarre. In southwestern France, the ancient Basque-populated provinces wereLabourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule. They and other regions were consolidated into a single département in 1790under the name Basses-Pyrénées, a name which persisted until 1970.

A standardized form of the Basque language, called Euskara Batua, was developed by the Basque LanguageAcademy in the late 1960s. Euskara Batua was created so that Basque language could be used—and easilyunderstood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations (education, mass media, literature), and this is its main usenowadays. This standard Basque is taught and used as a teaching language (as an option, together with standardSpanish) at most educational levels in the Spanish part of the Basque Country, while the intensity, status and fundingby state bodies to Basque language instruction varies depending on the area. In France, the Basque language schoolSeaska and the association for a bilingual (Basque and French) schooling Ikasbi meet a wide range of Basquelanguage educational needs up to the Sixth Form, while often struggling to surmount financial and administrativeconstraints.Apart from this standardized version, there are five main Basque dialects: Bizkaian, Gipuzkoan, and UpperNavarrese in Spain, and Navarrese-Lapurdian and Zuberoan (in France). Although they take their names from thementioned historic provinces, the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries.

Names of the languageIn Basque, the name of the language is officially Euskara (alongside various dialect forms). There are currently threeetymological theories of the name Euskara that are taken seriously by linguists and Vasconists which are discussedin detail on the Basque people page.In French the language is normally called basque or, in recent times, euskara. There is a greater variety of Spanishnames for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as el vasco, la lengua vasca or el euskera. Bothterms, vasco and basque, are inherited from Latin ethnonym Vascones which in turn goes back to the Greek termουασκωνους (ouaskōnous), an ethnonym used by Strabo in his Geographica (23 CE, Book III).[2]

The term Vascuence, derived from Latin vasconĭce,[3] has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and isnot well liked amongst Basque speakers generally. Its use is documented at least as far back as the 14th centurywhen a law passed in Huesca in 1349 stated that Item nuyl corridor nonsia usado que faga mercadería ninguna quecompre nin venda entre ningunas personas, faulando en algaravia nin en abraych nin en basquenç: et qui lo farapague por coto XXX sol—essentially penalizing the use of Arabic, Hebrew or Vascuence (Basque) with a fine of 30sols.

Basque language 3

History and classificationThough geographically surrounded by Indo-European Romance languages, Basque is classified as a language isolate.It is the last remaining descendant of the pre-Indo-European languages of Western Europe.[2] Consequently, itsprehistory may not be reconstructible by means of the comparative method except by applying it to differencesbetween dialects within the language. Little is known of its origins but it is likely that an early form of the Basquelanguage was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages to the area.Latin inscriptions in Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in reconstructed proto-Basque, for instancethe personal names Nescato and Cison (neskato and gizon mean "young girl" and "man" respectively in modernBasque). This language is generally referred to as Aquitanian and is assumed to have been spoken in the area beforethe Roman conquests in the western Pyrenees. Some authors even argue that the language moved westward duringthe Late Antiquity, after the fall of Rome, into the north part of Hispania in which Basque is spoken today.[2]

Roman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while the Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct.Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque adopted a sizable number of Romance words. Initiallythe source was Latin, later Gascon (a branch of Occitan) in the northeast, Navarro-Aragonese in the southeast andSpanish in the southwest.

Hypotheses on connections with other languagesThe impossibility of linking Basque with its Indo-European neighbors in Europe has inspired many scholars tosearch for its possible relatives elsewhere. Besides many pseudoscientific comparisons, the appearance of long-rangelinguistics gave rise to several attempts to connect Basque with geographically very distant language families. Allhypotheses on the origin of Basque are controversial, and the suggested evidence is not generally accepted by mostlinguists. Some of these hypothetical connections are as follows:• Iberian: another ancient language once spoken in the peninsula, shows several similarities with Aquitanian and

Basque. However, there is not enough evidence to distinguish areal contacts from genetic relationship. Iberianitself remains unclassified. Eduardo Orduña Aznar claims to have established correspondences between Basqueand Iberian numerals[4] and noun case markers.

• the Ligurian substrate hypothesis proposed in the 19th century by d'Arbois de Joubainville, J. Pokorny, P.Kretschmer and several other linguists encompasses the Basco-Iberian hypothesis.

• Georgian: Linking Basque to Kartvelian languages is now widely discredited. The hypothesis was inspired by theexistence of the ancient Kingdom of Iberia farther east in the Mediterranean and further by some typologicalsimilarities between the two languages.[5] According to J.P. Mallory, in his 1989 book In Search of theIndo-Europeans, the hypothesis was also inspired by a Basque place-name ending in -adze.

• Northeast Caucasian languages, such as Chechen, are seen by the French linguist Michel Morvan as more likelycandidates for a very distant connection.[6]

• Dené–Caucasian superfamily: Based on the possible Caucasian link, some linguists, for example John Bengtsonand Merritt Ruhlen, have proposed including Basque in the Dené–Caucasian superfamily of languages, but thisproposed superfamily includes languages from North America and Eurasia, and its existence is highlycontroversial.[2]

• Vasconic substratum hypothesis: This proposal, by the German linguist Theo Vennemann, claims that there isenough toponymical evidence to conclude that Basque is the only survivor of a larger family that once extendedthroughout most of Europe, and has also left its mark in modern Indo-European languages spoken in Europe.[7]

Basque language 4

Geographic distribution

Percentage of fluent speakers of Basque (areaswhere Basque is not spoken are included within

the 0-4% interval).

Percentage of people fluent in Basque languagein Navarre (2001).

The region in which Basque is spoken today has contracted overcenturies and is thus smaller than what is known as the BasqueCountry, or Euskal Herria in Basque. Toponyms show that the Basquelanguage used to be spoken further eastward in the Pyrenees thantoday. An example is the Aran Valley (now a Gascon-speaking part ofCatalonia), for (h)aran is the Basque word for "valley". However, thegrowing influence of Latin began to drive Basque out from the lessmountainous portions of the region.

The Reconquista temporarily counteracted this tendency when theChristian lords called on northern Iberian peoples – Basques,Asturians, and "Franks" – to colonize the new conquests. The Basquelanguage became the main everyday language, while other languageslike Spanish, Gascon, French, or Latin were preferred for theadministration and high education.

Basque experienced a rapid decline in Alava and Navarre during the19th century. However, the rise of Basque nationalism spurredincreased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and withthe establishment of autonomous governments, it has recently made amodest comeback. Basque-language schools have brought thelanguage to areas such as Encartaciones and the Navarrese Ribera,where it may have disappeared as a native language in the MiddleAges.

Official status

Official status of the Basque language in Navarre

Historically, Latin or Romance languages have been the officiallanguages in this region. However, Basque was explicitly recognized insome areas. For instance, the local charter of the Basque-colonizedOjacastro valley (now in La Rioja) allowed the inhabitants to useBasque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Today Basque holds co-official language status in the Basque regionsof Spain: the full autonomous community of the Basque Country andsome parts of Navarre. Basque has no official standing in the NorthernBasque Country of France and French citizens are barred fromofficially using Basque in a French court of law. However, the use ofBasque by Spanish nationals in French courts is allowed (withtranslation), as Basque is officially recognized on the other side of theborder.

Basque language 5

The positions of the various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas whereBasque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the BasqueAutonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. Here the "Ley delVascuence" ("Law of Basque"), seen as contentious by many Basques, divides Navarre into three language areas:Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. The support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizensvary depending on which of the three areas you are in.

Demographics

Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Basque within thecontext of its linguistic neighbors between the year 1000 and 2000

The 2006 sociolinguistic survey of all Basqueprovinces showed that in 2006 of all people aged 16and above:[1]

• in the Basque Autonomous Community, 30.1%were fluent Basque speakers, 18.3% passivespeakers and 51.5% did not speak Basque. Thepercentage was highest in Gipuzkoa (49.1%speakers) and lowest in Álava (14.2%). Theseresults represent an increase on previous years(29.5% in 2001, 27.7% in 1996 and 24.1% in1991). The highest percentage of speakers cannow be found in the 16-24 age range (57.5%) vs25.0% in the 65+ age range. The percentage offluent speakers turns out to be even higher if thoseunder 16 are also taken into account, given thatthe proportion of bilinguals is particularly high in this age group (76.7% of those aged between 10 and 14 and72.4% of those aged 5-9): 37.5% of the population aged 6 and above in the whole Basque AutonomousCommunity, 25.0% in Álava, 31.3% in Biscay and 53.3% in Gipuzkoa.[8]

• in Iparralde, 22.5% were fluent Basque speakers, 8.6% passive speakers and 68.9% did not speak Basque. Thepercentage was highest in Labourd and Soule (55.5% speakers) and lowest in the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritzconurbation (8.8%). These results represent another decrease on previous years (24.8% in 2001 and 26.4 in 1996).The highest percentage of speakers is in the 65+ age range (32.4%). The lowest percentage is found in the 25-34age range (11.6%) but there is a slight increase in the 16-24 age range (16.1%)

• in Navarre 11.1% were fluent Basque speakers, 7.6% passive speakers and 81.3% did not speak Basque. Thepercentage was highest in the so-called Basque Zone in the North (60.1% speakers) and lowest in the non-BasqueZone in the South (1.9%). These results represent a slight increase on previous years (10.3% in 2001, 9.6% in1996 and 9.5% in 1991). The highest percentage of speakers can now be found in the 16-24 age range (19.1%) vs9.1% in the 65+ age range.

Taken together, in 2006 out of a total population of 2,589,600 (1,850,500 in the Autonomous Community, 230,200in the Northern Provinces and 508,900 in Navarre), there were 665,800 who spoke Basque (aged 16 and above). Thisamounts to 25.7% Basque bilinguals overall, 15.4% passive speakers and 58.9% non-speakers. Compared to the1991 figures this represents an overall increase from 528,500 (out of a population of 2,371,100 in 1991) to 665,800(in 2006).[1]

Basque language 6

Dialects

The modern dialects of Basque according to 21st-centurydialectology.   Western (Biscayan)  Central (Gipuzkoan)  Upper

Navarrese  Lower Navarrese-Lapurdian  Souletin(Zuberoan)  other Basque areas ca 1850 (Bonaparte)

The modern Basque dialects show a high degree ofdialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialectcommunication difficult. This is especially true in thecase of Bizkaian and Zuberoan, which are regarded as themost divergent Basque dialects.

Modern Basque dialectology distinguishes five dialects:[9]

• The Western dialect• The Central dialect• Upper Navarrese• Lower Navarrese-Lapurdian• Souletin (Zuberoan)These dialects are divided in 11 sub-dialects, their minorvarieties being 24.

Influence on other languages

Although the influence of the neighboring Romance languages on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, butalso to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, there has been some feedbackfrom Basque into these languages as well. In particular Gascon and Aragonese, and to a lesser degree Spanish havebeen influenced. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this has been through substrate interference followinglanguage shift from Aquitanian or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, includingplace names around the Pyrenees.[10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (e.g. anchoa 'anchovis',bizarro 'dashing, galant, spirited', cachorro 'puppy', etc.), most of these have more easily explicable Romanceetymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque.[2] Ignoring cultural terms, there is one strongloanword candidate, ezker, long held to be the source of the Pyrennean and Iberian Romance words for "left (side)"(izquierdo, esquerdo, esquerre, quer, esquer).[2] [15] The lack of initial /r/ in Gascon could arguably be due to aBasque influence but this issue is under-researched.[2]

The other most commonly claimed substrate influences:• the Old Spanish merger of /v/ and /b/.• the simple five vowel system.• change of initial /f/ into /h/ (e.g. fablar → hablar, with Old Basque lacking /f/).The first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance (and non-Romance) languages,[2]

and as a result few linguists put much credence in the substrate proposal. The change of /f/ to /h/, however, occurredhistorically only in a limited area (Gascony and Old Castile) that corresponds almost exactly to areas where heavyBasque bilingualism is assumed, and as a result has been widely postulated (and equally strongly disputed).Substrate theories are often difficult to prove (especially in the case of phonetically plausible changes like /f/ to /h/).As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides, the debate largely comes down to the a prioritendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments.Examples of arguments against the substrate theory,[2] and possible responses:1. Spanish did not fully shift /f/ to /h/, instead, it has preserved /f/ before consonants such as /w/ and /ɾ/ (cf fuerte,

frente). (On the other hand, the occurrence of [f] in these words might be a secondary development from anearlier sound such as [h] or [ɸ]. Gascon does have /h/ in these words, which might reflect the original situation.)

Basque language 7

2. Evidence of Arabic loanwords in Castilian points to /f/ continuing to exist long after a Basque substrate mighthave had any effect on Castilian. (On the other hand, the occurrence of /f/ in these words might be a latedevelopment. Many languages have come to accept new phonemes from other languages after a period ofsignificant influence. For example, French lost /h/ but later regained it as a result of Germanic influence, and hasrecently gained /ŋ/ as a result of English influence.)

3. Basque regularly developed Latin /f/ into /b/.4. The same change also occurs in parts of Sardinia, Italy and the Romance languages of the Balkans where no

Basque substrate can be reasonably argued for. (On the other hand, the fact that the same change might haveoccurred elsewhere independently does not disprove substrate influence. Furthermore, parts of Sardinia also haveprothetic /a/ or /e/ before initial /r/, just as in Basque and Gascon, which may actually argue for some type ofinfluence between both areas.)

Beyond these arguments, a number of nomadic groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words intheir jargon, such as the gacería in Segovia, the mingaña, the Galician fala dos arxinas[16] and the Asturian Xíriga.[17]

Part of the Romani community in the Basque Country speaks Erromintxela, which is a rare mixed language, with aKalderash Romani vocabulary and Basque grammar.[18]

Basque pidgins

A number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced pidgins have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used aBasque-Icelandic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland.[19] Another Basque pidgin arose from contact betweenBasque whalers and the indigenous inhabitants in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Strait of Belle Isle.[20]

GrammarBasque is an ergative–absolutive language. The subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case (which isunmarked), and the same case is used for the direct object of a transitive verb. The subject of the transitive verb ismarked differently, with the ergative case (shown by the suffix -k). This also triggers main and auxiliary verbalagreement.The auxiliary verb, which accompanies most main verbs, agrees not only with the subject, but with any direct objectand the indirect object present. Among European languages, this polypersonal agreement is only found in Basque,some languages of the Caucasus, and Hungarian (all non-Indo-European). The ergative–absolutive alignment is alsounique among European languages, but not rare worldwide.Consider the phrase:

Martinek egunkariak erosten dizkit.

Martin-ek egunkari-ak erosten di-zki-t

Martin-ERG newspaper-PL buy-GER AUX.(s)he/it/they.OBJ-PL.OBJ-me.IO [(s)he/it_SBJ]

"Martin buys the newspapers for me."Martin-ek is the agent (transitive subject), so it is marked with the ergative case ending -k (with an epenthetic -e-).Egunkariak has an -ak ending which marks plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb is erostendizkit, in which erosten is a kind of gerund ("buying") and the auxiliary dizkit means "he/she (does) them for me".This dizkit can be split like this:• di- is used in the present tense when the verb has a subject (ergative), a direct object (absolutive), and an indirect

object, and the object is him/her/it/them.• -zki- means the absolutive (in this case the newspapers) is plural, if it were singular there would be no infix; and• -t or '-da-' means "to me/for me" (indirect object).

Basque language 8

• in this instance there is no suffix after -t. A zero suffix in this position indicates that the ergative (the subject) isthird person singular (he/she/it).

The phrase "you buy the newspapers for me" would translate as:Zuek egunkariak erosten dizkidazue

Zu-ek egunkari-ak erosten di-zki-da-zue

you-ERG newspaper-PL buy-GER AUX.(s)he/it/they.OBJ-PL.OBJ-me.IO-you(pl.).SBJ

The auxiliary verb is composed as di-zki-da-zue and means 'you pl. (do) them for me'• di- indicates that the main verb is transitive and in the present tense• -zki- indicates that the direct object is plural• -da- indicates that the indirect object is me (to me/for me) {-t becomes -da- when not final.}• -zue indicates that the subject is you (plural)In spoken Basque, the auxiliary verb is never dropped even if it is redundant: "Zuek niri egunkariak erostendizkidazue", you pl. buying the newspapers for me. However, the pronouns are almost always dropped: "egunkariakerosten dizkidazue", the newspapers buying be-them-for-me-you(plural). The pronouns are used only to showemphasis: "egunkariak zuek erosten dizkidazue", it is you (pl.) who buy the newspapers for me; or "egunkariak nirierosten dizkidazue", it is me for whom you buy the newspapers.Modern Basque dialects allow for the conjugation of about fifteen verbs, called synthetic verbs, some only in literarycontexts. These can be put in the present and past tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, in three tenses inthe conditional and potential moods, and in one tense in the imperative. Colloquial Basque, however, only usesindicative present, indicative past, and imperative. Each verb that can be taken intransitively has a nor (absolutive)paradigm and possibly a nor-nori (absolutive–dative) paradigm, as in the sentence Aititeri txapela erori zaio ("Thehat fell from grandfather['s head]").[21] Each verb that can be taken transitively uses those two paradigms forpassive-voice contexts in which no agent is mentioned, and also has a nor-nork (absolutive–ergative) paradigm andpossibly a nor-nori-nork (absolutive–dative–ergative) paradigm. The last would entail the dizkidazue exampleabove. In each paradigm, each constituent noun can take on any of eight persons, five singular and three plural, withthe exception of nor-nori-nork in which the absolutive can only be third person singular or plural. (This draws on alanguage universal: *"Yesterday the boss presented the committee me" sounds at least odd, if not incorrect.) Themost ubiquitous auxiliary, izan, can be used in any of these paradigms, depending on the nature of the main verb.There are more persons in the singular (5) than in the plural (3) for synthetic (or filamentous) verbs because of thetwo familiar persons—informal masculine and feminine second person singular. The pronoun hi is used for both ofthem, but where the masculine form of the verb uses a -k, the feminine uses an -n. This is a property not found inIndo-European languages. The entire paradigm of the verb is further augmented by inflecting for "listener" (theallocutive) even if the verb contains no second person constituent. If the situation is one in which the familiarmasculine may be used, the form is augmented and modified accordingly; likewise for the familiar feminine. (Gizonbat etorri da, "a man has come"; gizon bat etorri duk, "a man has come [you are a male close friend]", gizon batetorri dun, "a man has come [you are a female close friend]", gizon bat etorri duzu, "a man has come [I talk toyou]")[22] Notice that this nearly multiplies the number of possible forms by three. Still, the restriction on contexts inwhich these forms may be used is strong since all participants in the conversation must be friends of the same sex,and not too far apart in age. Some dialects dispense with the familiar forms entirely. Note, however, that the formalsecond person singular conjugates in parallel to the other plural forms, perhaps indicating that it used to be thesecond person plural, started being used as a singular formal, and then the modern second person plural wasformulated as an innovation.All the other verbs in Basque are called periphrastic, behaving much like a participle would in English. These have only three forms total, called aspects: perfect (various suffixes), habitual[23] (suffix -t[z]en), and future/potential

Basque language 9

(suffix. -ko/-go). Verbs of Latinate origin in Basque, as well as many other verbs, have a suffix -tu in the perfect,adapted from the Latin -tus suffix. The synthetic verbs also have periphrastic forms, for use in perfects and in simpletenses in which they are deponent.Within a verb phrase, the periphrastic comes first, followed by the auxiliary.A Basque noun-phrase is inflected in 17 different ways for case, multiplied by 4 ways for its definiteness andnumber. These first 68 forms are further modified based on other parts of the sentence, which in turn are inflected forthe noun again. It has been estimated that, with two levels of recursion, a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflectedforms.[24]

Basic syntactic construction is subject–object–verb (unlike Spanish, French or English where a subject–verb–objectconstruction is more common). The order of the phrases within a sentence can be changed with thematic purposes,whereas the order of the words within a phrase is usually rigid. As a matter of fact, Basque phrase order istopic–focus, meaning that in neutral sentences (such as sentences to inform someone of a fact or event) the topic isstated first, then the focus. In such sentences, the verb phrase comes at the end. In brief, the focus directly precedesthe verb phrase. This rule is also applied in questions, for instance, What is this? can be translated as Zer da hau? orHau zer da?, but in both cases the question tag zer immediately precedes the verb da. This rule is so important inBasque that, even in grammatical descriptions of Basque in other languages, the Basque word galdegai (focus) isused.In negative sentences, the order changes. Since the negative particle ez must always directly precede the auxiliary,the topic most often comes beforehand, and the rest of the sentence follows. This includes the periphrastic, if there isone: Aitak frantsesa ikasten du, "Father is learning French," in the negative becomes Aitak ez du frantsesa ikasten, inwhich ikasten ("learning") is separated from its auxiliary and placed at the end.

Phonology

Table of consonant phonemes of Standard Basque

Labial Lamino-dental

Apico-alveolar

Palatal orpostalveolar

Velar Glottal

Nasal m/m/

n/n/

ñ, -in-/ɲ/

Plosive Voiceless p/p/

t/t/

tt, -it-/c/

k/k/

Voiced b/b/

d/d/

dd, -id-/ɟ/

g/ɡ/

Affricate Voiceless tz/ts̻/

ts/ts̺/

tx/tʃ/

Fricative Voiceless f/f/

z/s̻/

s/s̺/

x/ʃ/

h∅, /h/

(Mostly)1 Voiced j/ʝ~x/

Lateral l/l/

ll, -il-/ʎ/

Rhotic Trill r-, -rr-,-r/r/

Tap -r-/ɾ/

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Basque has a distinction between laminal and apical articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. With thelaminal alveolar fricative Basque pronunciation: [s̻], the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, the tongue tippointing toward the lower teeth. This is the usual /s/ in most European languages. It is written with an orthographic z.By contrast, the voiceless apicoalveolar fricative Basque pronunciation: [s̺] is written s; the tip of the tongue pointstoward the upper teeth and friction occurs at the tip (apex). For example, zu "you" is distinguished from su "fire".The affricate counterparts are written with orthographic tz and ts. So, etzi "the day after tomorrow" is distinguishedfrom etsi "to give up"; atzo "yesterday" is distinguished from atso "old woman".In the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical s and the alveolar affricate tz are used.Basque also features postalveolar sibilants (/ʃ/, written x, and /tʃ/, written tx), sounding like English sh and ch.There are two palatal stops, voiced and unvoiced, as well as a palatal nasal and a palatal lateral (the palatal stops arenot present in all dialects). These and the postalveolar sounds are typical of diminutives, which are used frequently inchild language and motherese (mainly to show affection rather than size). For example, tanta "drop" vs. ttantta/canca/ "droplet". A few common words, such as txakur /tʃakur/ "dog", use palatal sounds even though in currentusage they have lost the diminutive sense; the corresponding non-palatal forms now acquiring an augmentative orpejorative sense: zakur "big dog". Many dialects of Basque exhibit a derived palatalization effect in which coronalonset consonants are changed into the palatal counterpart after the high front vowel /i/. For example, the /n/ in egin"to act" becomes palatal in southern and western dialects when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added: /eɡina/ =[eɡiɲa] "the action", /eɡines/ = [eɡiɲes] "doing".The letter j has a variety of realizations according to the regional dialect: [j, dʒ, x, ʃ, ɟ, ʝ], as pronounced from west toeast in south Bizkaia and coastal Lapurdi, central Bizkaia, east Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, south Navarre, inland Lapurdiand Low Navarre, and Zuberoa, respectively.[25]

The letter h is silent in the Spanish Basque provinces, but pronounced in the French ones. Unified Basque spells itexcept when it is predictible, in a position following a consonant.[26]

The vowel system is the same as Spanish for most speakers. It consists of five pure vowels, /i e a o u/. Speakers ofthe Zuberoan dialect also have a sixth, front rounded vowel (represented in writing by ü and pronounced as /y/), aswell as a set of contrasting nasalized vowels, indicating a strong influence from Gascon.Unless they are recent loanwords (e.g., Ruanda (Rwanda), radar...), words cannot begin with the letter r, and whenthey are borrowed from elsewhere, the initial r- is changed to err-, more rarely to irr- (irratia [the radio], irrisa [therice]. This is similar to how in Spanish, words with s+ consonant (such as "state") get an initial e (estado).

Stress and pitchBasque features great dialectal variation in stress, from a weak pitch accent in the central dialects to a marked stressin some outer dialects, with varying patterns of stress placement. Stress is in general not distinctive (and forhistorical comparisons not very useful); there are, however, a few instances where stress is phonemic, serving todistinguish between a few pairs of stress-marked words and between some grammatical forms (mainly plurals fromother forms). E.g., basóà ("the forest", absolutive case) vs. básoà ("the glass", absolutive case; an adoption fromSpanish vaso); basóàk ("the forest", ergative case) vs. básoàk ("the glass", ergative case) vs. básoak ("the forests" or"the glasses", absolutive case).Given its great deal of variation among dialects, stress is not marked in the standard orthography and Euskaltzaindia(the Academy of the Basque Language) only provides general recommendations for a standard placement of stress,basically to place a high-pitched weak stress (weaker than that of Spanish, let alone that of English) on the secondsyllable of a syntagma, and a low-pitched even-weaker stress on its last syllable, except in plural forms where stressis moved to the first syllable.This scheme provides Basque with a distinct musicality which sets its sound apart from the prosodical patterns of Spanish (which tends to stress the second-to-last syllable). Some Euskaldun berriak ("new Basque-speakers", i.e.,

Basque language 11

second-language Basque-speakers) with Spanish as their first language tend to carry the prosodical patterns ofSpanish into their pronunciation of Basque, giving rise to a pronunciation that is considered substandard; e.g.,pronouncing nire ama ("my mum") as nire áma (– – ´ –), instead of as niré amà (– ´ – `).

VocabularyBy contact with neighbouring peoples, Basque has adopted many words from Latin, Spanish, Gascon, among others.There is a considerable number of Latin loans (sometimes obscured by being subject to Basque phonology andgrammar for centuries), for example: lore ("flower", from florem), errota ("mill", from rotam, "[mill] wheel"), gela("room", from cellam).

Writing system

An example of Basque lettering in a funerarystela.

Basque is written using the Latin script including ñ and sometimes çand ü. Basque does not use Cc, Qq, Vv, Ww, Yy for words that havesome tradition in this language; nevertheless, the Basque alphabet(established by Euskaltzaindia) does include them for loanwords:[27]

Aa Bb Cc (and, as a variant, Çç) Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll MmNn Ññ Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz

The phonetically meaningful digraphs dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz are treatedas double letters.

All letters and digraphs represent unique phonemes. The mainexception is when l or n are preceded by i, that in most dialectspalatalizes their sound into /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, even if these are not written.Hence, Ikurriña can also be written Ikurrina without changing thesound, while the proper name Ainhoa requires the mute h to break thepalatalization of the n.

H is mute in most regions, but in the Northeast is pronounced in manyplaces, the main reason for its existence in the Basque alphabet. Itsacceptance was a matter of contention during the standardization sincethe speakers of the most extended dialects had to learn where to placethese h's, silent for them.

The letters of the alphabet in a Basque style font.

In Sabino Arana's (1865–1903) alphabet, ll and rr were replaced with ĺand ŕ, respectively.

A typically Basque style of lettering is sometimes used for inscriptions.It derives from the work of stone and wood carvers and is characterizedby thick serifs. (See Basque fonts available for download in theExternal Links section.)

Basque language 12

Number system used by millers

An example of the number system employed bymillers.

Basque millers traditionally employed a separate number system ofunknown origin.[28] In this system the symbols are either arrangedalong a vertical line or horizontally. On the vertical line the singledigits and fractions are usually off to one side, usually at the top. Whenused horizontally, the smallest units are usually on the right and thelargest on the left.

The system is, as is the Basque system of counting in general,vigesimal. Although the system is in theory capable of indicatingnumbers above 100, most recorded examples do not go above 100 ingeneral. Interestingly, fractions are relatively common, especially 1/2.

The exact systems used vary from area to area but generally follow thesame principle with 5 usually being a diagonal line or a curve off thevertical line (a V shape is used when writing a 5 horizontally). Units often are usually a horizontal line through the vertical. The twenties are based on a circle with intersecting lines.

This system is not in general use anymore but is occasionally employed for decorative purposes.

Examples

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Gizon-emakume guztiak aske jaiotzen dira, duintasun eta eskubideberberak dituztela; eta ezaguera eta kontzientzia dutenez gero, elkarrenartean senide legez jokatu beharra dute.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Theyare endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards oneanother in a spirit of brotherhood.

Esklabu erremintaria

Esklabu erremintariaSartaldeko oihanetan gatibaturikErromara ekarri zinduten, esklabua,erremintari ofizioa eman zizuteneta kateak egiten dituzu.Labetik ateratzen duzun burdin gorianahieran molda zenezake,ezpatak egin ditzakezuzure herritarrek kateak hautsditzaten,baina zuk, esklabu horrek,kateak egiten dituzu, kate gehiago.

The blacksmith slaveCaptive in the rainforests of the Westthey brought you to Rome, slave,they gave you the blacksmith workand you make chains.The incandescent iron you take out of the ovencan be adapted as you want,you can make swordsin order that your people could break thechains,but you, o, slave,you make chains, more chains.

Joseba Sarrionandia Joseba Sarrionandia

Basque language 13

Notes[1] IV. Inkesta Soziolinguistikoa Gobierno Vasco, Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco 2008, ISBN 978-84-457-2775-1[2] Trask, R.L. The History of Basque Routledge: 1997 ISBN 0-415-13116-2[3] "Diccionario de la lengua española" (http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ draeI/ SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3& LEMA=vascuence). Real Academia

Española. . Retrieved 22 November 2008.[4] Orduña 2005[5] José Ignacio Hualde, Joseba Lakarra, Robert Lawrence Trask (1995), Towards a history of the Basque language, p. 81. John Benjamins

Publishing Company, ISBN 9027236348.[6] A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 (http:/ / www. people. fas. harvard. edu/ ~witzel/ mt26s. html) (John D.

Bengston)[7] Theo Vennemann homepage (http:/ / www. germanistik. uni-muenchen. de/ germanistische_linguistik/ TV/ Vennemann. htm)[8] "IV Mapa Sociolingüístico: 2006" (http:/ / www. euskara. euskadi. net/ r59-738/ es/ contenidos/ informacion/ argitalpenak/ es_6092/

adjuntos/ MAPAcast. pdf) (PDF). Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco, Vitoria-Gasteiz. 2008. ISBN 978-84-457-2942-7. .Retrieved 19 November 2011.

[9] Zuazo, Koldo (2010). El euskera y sus dialectos. Alberdania. ISBN 978-84-9868-202-1.[10] Coromines, Joan (1960). "La toponymie hispanique prérromane et la survivance du basque jusqu'au bas moyen age". IV Congrès

International de Sciences Onomastiques.[11] Coromines, Joan (1965). Estudis de toponímia catalana, I. Barcino. pp. 153–217. ISBN 978-84-7226-080-1.[12] Coromines, Joan (1972). "De toponimia vasca y vasco-románica en los Bajos Pirineos". Fontes linguae vasconum: Studia et documenta

(12): 299–320. ISSN 0046-435X.[13] Rohlfs, Gerhard (1980), Le Gascon: études de philologie pyrénéenne. Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 85[14] Irigoyen, Alfonso (1986). En torno a la toponimia vasca y circumpirenaica. Universidad de Deusto..[15] izquierdo in the Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, volume III, Joan Corominas, José A. Pascual, Editorial Gredos,

1989, Madrid, ISBN 84-249-1365-5.[16] Varela Pose, F.J. (2004) latín dos canteiros en Cabana de Bergantiños (http:/ / revistas. ucm. es/ fll/ 11389664/ articulos/

MADR0404110113A. PDF''O). (pdf)Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Retrieved 11 June 2010.[17] Olaetxe, J. Mallea. "The Basques in the Mexican Regions: 16th–20th Centuries." (http:/ / basque. unr. edu/ 09/ 9. 3/ 9. 3. 51t/ 9. 3. 51. 03.

mexico. htm) Basque Studies Program Newsletter No. 51 (1995).[18] Agirrezabal 2003[19] Deen 1937.[20] Bakker 1987[21] (Basque) INFLECTION §1.4.2.2. Potential paradigms: absolutive and dative. (http:/ / www. ehu. es/ grammar/ gram42. htm#1. 4. 2. 2.

Potential paradigms: absolut)[22] Aspecto, tiempo y modo (http:/ / www. hiru. com/ es/ euskara/ euskara_01550. html) in Spanish, Aditzen aspektua, tempusa eta modua

(http:/ / www. hiru. com/ eu/ euskara/ euskara_01550. html) in Basque.[23] King, Alan R. (1994). The Basque Language: A Practical Introduction. University of Nevada Press. pp. 393. ISBN 0-874-17155-5.[24] Agirre et al., 1992][25] Trask, R. L. (1997). The History of Basque, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 155-157, ISBN 0415131162.[26] Trask, The History of Basque, pp. 157-163.[27] Basque alphabet (http:/ / www. euskaltzaindia. net/ arauak/ dok/ Araua_0017. pdf)[28] Aguirre Sorondo Tratado de Molinología – Los Molinos de Guipúzcoa Eusko Ikaskuntza 1988 ISBN 8486240662

Further reading

General and descriptive grammars• Allières, Jacques (1979): Manuel pratique de basque, "Connaissance des langues" v. 13, A. & J. Picard (Paris),

ISBN 270840038X.• de Azkue Aberasturi, Resurrección María (1969): Morfología vasca. La Gran enciclopedia vasca, Bilbao 1969.• Campion, Arturo (1884): Gramática de los cuatro dialectos literarios de la lengua euskara (http:/ / www.

archive. org/ details/ gramticadeloscu02campgoog), Tolosa.• Hualde, José Ignacio & Ortiz de Urbina, Jon (eds.): A Grammar of Basque. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003.

ISBN 3-11-017683-1.• King, Alan R. (1994): The Basque Language. A Practical Introduction. University of Nevada Press, Reno. ISBN

0-87417-155-5. (A course.)

Basque language 14

• Lafitte, Pierre (1962): Grammaire basque – navarro-labourdin littéraire. Elkarlanean, Donostia/Bayonne, ISBN2-913156-10-X. (Dialectal.)

• Lafon, R. (1972): "Basque" In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.) Current Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 9. Linguistics inWestern Europe, Mouton, The Hague, Mouton, pp. 1744–1792.

• Tovar, Antonio, (1957): The Basque Language, U. of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.• Uhlenbeck, C. (1947): "La langue basque et la linguistique générale" in Lingua I, pp. 59–76• Urquizu Sarasúa, Patricio (2007): Gramática de la lengua vasca. UNED, Madrid, ISBN 9788436234428.• van Eys, Willem J. (1879): Grammaire comparée des dialectes basques (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/

grammairecompar00eyswuoft), Paris.

Linguistic studies• Agirre, Eneko, et al. (1992): XUXEN: A spelling checker/corrector for Basque based on two-level morphology

(http:/ / acl. ldc. upenn. edu/ A/ A92/ A92-1016. pdf).• Gavel, Henri (1921): Eléments de phonetique basque (http:/ / hedatuz. euskomedia. org/ 4896/ 1/ 12001536. pdf)

(= Revista Internacional de los Estudios Vascos = Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques 12, París. (Study ofthe dialects.)

• Hualde, José Ignacio (1991): Basque phonology, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 9780415056557.• Lakarra Andrinua, Joseba A.; Hualde, José Ignacio (eds.) (2006): Studies in Basque and historical linguistics in

memory of R. L. Trask – R. L. Trasken oroitzapenetan ikerketak euskalaritzaz eta hizkuntzalaritza historikoaz, (=Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca Julio de Urquijo: International journal of basque linguistics andphilology Vol. 40, No. 1–2), San Sebastián.

• Lakarra, J. & Ortiz de Urbina, J.(eds.) (1992): Syntactic Theory and Basque Syntax, Gipuzkoako Foru Aldundia,Donostia-San Sebastian, ISBN 978-8479070946.

• Orduña Aznar, Eduardo. 2005. Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibéricos. (http:/ / ifc. dpz. es/publicaciones/ ver/ id/ 2622) Palaeohispanica 5:491–506. This fifth volume of the journal Palaeohispanicaconsists of Acta Palaeohispanica IX, the proceedings of the ninth conference on Paleohispanic studies.

• de Rijk, R. (1972): Studies in Basque Syntax: Relative clauses (http:/ / dspace. mit. edu/ handle/ 1721. 1/ 12980)PhD Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.

• Uhlenbeck, C.C. (1909–1910): "Contribution à une phonétique comparative des dialectes basques", RevistaInternacional de los Estudios Vascos = Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques 3 (http:/ / hedatuz. euskomedia.org/ 4581/ 1/ 03465503. pdf) pp. 465–503 4 (http:/ / hedatuz. euskomedia. org/ 5044/ 1/ 04065120. pdf)pp. 65–120.

• Zuazo, Koldo (2008): Euskalkiak: euskararen dialektoak. Elkar. ISBN 978-84-9783-626-5.

Lexicons• Aulestia, Gorka (1989): Basque–English dictionary University of Nevada Press, Reno, ISBN 0-87417-126-1.• Aulestia, Gorka & White, Linda (1990): English–Basque dictionary, University of Nevada Press, Reno, ISBN

0-87417-156-3.• Azkue Aberasturi, Resurrección María de (1905): Diccionario vasco–español–francés, Geuthner, Bilbao/Paris

(reprinted many times).• Luis Mitxelena: Diccionario General Vasco/ Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia. 16 vols. Real academia de la lengua

vasca, Bilbao 1987ff. ISBN 84-271-1493-1.• Morris, Mikel (1998): "Morris Student Euskara–Ingelesa Basque–English Dictionary", Klaudio Harluxet

Fundazioa, Donostia• Sota, M. de la, et alii, 1976: Diccionario Retana de autoridades de la lengua vasca: con cientos de miles de

nuevas voces y acepciones, Antiguas y modernas, Bilbao: La Gran Enciclopedia Vasca. ISBN 8424802489.

Basque language 15

• Van Eys, W. J. 1873. Dictionnaire basque–français (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k414812q. r=+basque. langEN#). Paris/London: Maisonneuve/Williams & Norgate.

Other• Agirre Sorondo, Antxon. 1988. Tratado de Molinología: Los molinos en Guipúzcoa. San Sebastián: Eusko

Ikaskunza-Sociedad de Estudios Vascos. Fundación Miguel de Barandiarán.• Bakker, Peter. 1987. A Basque Nautical Pidgin: A Missing Link in the History of Fu. Journal of Pidgin and

Creole Languages 2(1):1–30.• Bakker, Peter, et al. 1991. Basque pidgins in Iceland and Canada. Anejos del Anuario del Seminario de Filología

Vasca "Julio de Urquijo", XXIII.• Deen, Nicolaas Gerard Hendrik. 1937. Glossaria duo vasco-islandica. Amsterdam. Reprinted 1991 in Anuario del

Seminario de Filología Vasca Julio de Urquijo, 25(2):321–426.• Hualde, José Ignacio. 1984. Icelandic Basque pidgin. Journal of Basque Studies in America 5:41–59.• Morvan, Michel. 2004. Noms de lieux du Pays basque. Paris.

History of the language and etymologies• Agirrezabal, Lore. 2003. Erromintxela, euskal ijitoen hizkera. San Sebastián: Argia.• Hualde, José Ignacio; Lakarra, Joseba A. & R.L. Trask (eds) (1996): Towards a History of the Basque Language,

"Current Issues in Linguistic Theory" 131, John Benjamin Publishing Company, Amsterdam, ISBN978-1556195853.

• Michelena, L., 1990. Fonética histórica vasca. Bilbao. ISBN 84-7907-016-1• Lafon, René (1944): Le système du verbe basque au XVIe siècle, Delmas, Bordeaux.• Löpelmann, Martin (1968): Etymologisches Wörterbuch der baskischen Sprache. Dialekte von Labourd,

Nieder-Navarra und La Soule. 2 Bde. de Gruyter, Berlin (non-standard etymologies; idiosyncratic).• Orpustan, J. B. (1999): La langue basque au Moyen-Age. Baïgorri, ISBN 2-909262-22-7.• Pagola, Rosa Miren. 1984. Euskalkiz Euskalki. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Eusko Jaurlaritzaren Argitalpe.• Rohlfs, Gerhard. 1980. Le Gascon: études de philologie pyrénéenne. Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 85.• Trask, R.L.: History of Basque. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13116-2.• Trask, R.L. † (edited by Max W. Wheeler) (2008): Etymological Dictionary of Basque (http:/ / www. sussex. ac.

uk/ linguistics/ documents/ lxwp23-08_edb. pdf), University of Sussex (unfinished).• Zuazo, Koldo (2010). El euskera y sus dialectos. Alberdania. ISBN 978-84-9868-202-1.

Relation with other languages

General reviews of the theories

• Jacobsen, William H. Jr. (1999): " Basque Language Origin Theories (https:/ / dwgateway. library. unr. edu/reserves/ jacobsenbasquebasque. pdf)" In Basque Cultural Studies, edited by William A. Douglass, CarmeloUrza, Linda White, and Joseba Zulaika, 27–43. Basque Studies Program Occasional Papers Series, No. 5. Reno:Basque Studies Program, University of Nevada, Reno.

• Lakarra Andrinua, Joseba (1998): " Hizkuntzalaritza konparatua eta aitzineuskararen erroa (http:/ / www. uztaro.com/ uztaro_fitxategiak/ 511_uztaro25_3. pdf)" (in Basque), Uztaro 25, pp. 47–110, (includes review of oldertheories).

• Lakarra Andrinua, Joseba (1999): " Ná-De-Ná (http:/ / www. uztaro. com/ uztaro_fitxategiak/ 595_uztaro31_2.pdf)" (in Basque), Uztaro 31, pp. 15–84.

• Morvan, Michel, 1996. The linguistic origins of basque (in French). Bordeaux: Presses universitaires. pp. 25–95.• Trask, R.L. (1995): "Origin and Relatives of the Basque Language : Review of the Evidence" in Towards a

History of the Basque Language, ed. J. Hualde, J. Lakarra, R.L. Trask, John Benjamins, Amsterdam /

Basque language 16

Philadelphia.• Trask, R.L.: History of Basque. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13116-2; pp. 358–414.

Afroasiatic hypothesis

• Schuchardt, Hugo (1913): " Baskisch-Hamitische wortvergleichungen (http:/ / hedatuz. euskomedia. org/ 4881/ 1/07289340. pdf)" Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos = "Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques"7:289-340.

• Mukarovsky, Hans Guenter (1964/66): "Les rapports du basque et du berbère", Comptes rendus du GLECS(Groupe Linguistique d’Etudes Chamito-Sémitiques) 10:177–184.

• Mukarovsky, Hans Guenter (1972): "El vascuense y el bereber" Euskera 17:5–48.• Trombetti, Alfredo (1925): Le origini della lingua basca, Bologna, (new edit ISBN 9788827100622).

Dené–Caucasian hypothesis

• Bengtson, John D. (1999): The Comparison of Basque and North Caucasian. in: Mother Tongue. Journal of theAssociation for the Study of Language in Prehistory. Gloucester, Mass.

• Bengtson, John D. (2003): " Notes on Basque Comparative Phonology (http:/ / jdbengt. net/ articles/MotherTongueVIII. pdf)", Mother Tongue VIII 23–39.

• Bengtson, John D. (2004): " Some features of Dene–Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque)(http:/ / jdbengt. net/ articles/ CILL30a. pdf)." Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL) 30.4,pp. 33–54.

• Bengtson, John D.. (2006): "Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene–Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian)Languages." (there is also a preliminary draft (http:/ / www. nostratic. ru/ books/ (221)bengtson - comparativegrammar. pdf))

• Bengtson, John D. (1997): Review of "The History of Basque". London: Routledge, 1997. Pp.xxii,458" by R.L.Trask.

• Bengtson, John D., (1996): "A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1."• Trask, R.L. (1995): Basque and Dene–Caucasian: A Critique from the Basque Side in: Mother Tongue 1,

pp. 3–82.

Caucasian hypothesis

• Bouda, Karl (1950): " L'Euskaro-Caucasique (http:/ / www. euskomedia. org/ PDFAnlt/ congresos/ 07663672.pdf)" Boletín de la Real Sociedad Vasca de Amigos del País. Homenaje a D. julio de Urquijo e Ybarra vol. III,San Sebastián, pp. 207–232.

• Klimov, Georgij A. (1994): Einführung in die kaukasische Sprachwissenschaft (http:/ / titus. uni-frankfurt. de/personal/ jg/ pdf/ jg1992d1. pdf), Buske, Hamburg, ISBN 3-87548-060-0; pp. 208–215.

• Lafon, René (1951): "Concordances morphologiques entre le basque et les langues caucasiques" Word 7,pp. 227–224.

• Lafon, René (1952): "Études basques et caucasiques" Word 8, pp. 80–94.• Trombetti, Alfredo (1925): Le origini della lingua basca, Bologna, (new edit ISBN 9788827100622).• Míchelena, Luis (1968): "L'euskaro-caucasien" in Martinet, A. (ed.) Le langage, Paris, pp. 1414–1437 (criticism).• Uhlenbeck, Christian Cornelius (1924): " De la possibilité d' une parenté entre le basque et les langues

caucasiques (http:/ / hedatuz. euskomedia. org/ 333/ 1/ 15565588. pdf)", Revista Internacional de los EstudiosVascos = Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques 15, pp. 565–588.

• Zelikov, Mixail (2005): " L’hypothèse basco-caucasienne dans les travaux de N. Marr (http:/ / www2. unil. ch/slav/ ling/ recherche/ biblio/ 05MarrCB/ Zelikov. pdf)" Cahiers de l’ILSL, N° 20, pp. 363–381.

Basque language 17

Iberian hypothesis

• Bähr, Gerhard (1948): "Baskisch und Iberisch" Eusko Jakintza II, pp. 3–20, 167–194, 381–455.• Gorrochategui, Joaquín (1993): La onomástica aquitana y su relación con la ibérica, Lengua y cultura en Hispania

prerromana : actas del V Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas de la Península Ibérica : (Colonia 25-28 deNoviembre de 1989) (Francisco Villar and Jürgen Untermann, eds.), ISBN 84-7481-736-6, pp. 609–634.

• Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús (2002): La hipótesis del vascoiberismo desde el punto de vista de la epigrafía íbera(http:/ / dialnet. unirioja. es/ servlet/ fichero_articulo?codigo=263566& orden=65367), Fontes linguae vasconum:Studia et documenta, 90, pp. 197–218, ISSN 0046-435X.

• Schuchardt, Hugo Ernst Mario (1907): Die Iberische Deklination, Wien.

Uralic and/or Altaic hypothesis

• Bonaparte, Louis Lucien (1862): Langue basque et langues finnoises (http:/ / books. google. es/books?id=fo8CAAAAQAAJ& printsec=titlepage-a& hl=en& source=gbs_v2_summary_r& cad=0), London.

• Morvan, Michel (1996): The linguistic origins of basque (in French). Bordeaux: Presses universitaires. ISBN2-86781-182-1.

Vasconic/Old European hypothesis

• Vennemann, Theo (2003): Europa Vasconica – Europa Semitica, Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs138, De Gruyter, Berlin, ISBN 978-3-11-017054-2.

• Vennemann, Theo (2007): "Basken wie wir: Linguistisches und Genetisches zum europäischen Stammbaum",BiologenHeute 5/6, 6–11.

Other theories

• Thornton, R.W. (2002): Basque Parallels to Greenberg’s Eurasiatic. in: Mother Tongue. Gloucester, Mass., 2002.

External links• Basque Phrasebook on Wikitravel (http:/ / wikitravel. org/ en/ Basque_phrasebook)• History of the Basque language (http:/ / www. kondaira. net/ eng/ Euskara. html)• Deustuko:Basque language course (spanish) (http:/ / servicios. elcorreodigital. com/ euskera/ )• Schools of languages of the Basque country that teach Basque (http:/ / www. eoieuskadi. net)• Euskaltzaindia (The Royal Academy of the Basque Language) official web (http:/ / www. euskaltzaindia. net/

index. asp?hizkuntza=en)• Ethnologue has reports on Basque (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=eus) (ISO 639-1:

eu), Navarro-Labourdin (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=bqe) (ISO 639-3: bqe) andSouletin Basque (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ 14/ show_language. asp?code=BSZ).

• Center for Basque Studies at University of Nevada, Reno (http:/ / basque. unr. edu/ )• Basque language at Buber.net (http:/ / www. buber. net/ Basque/ Euskara/ )• Basque Studies Program Newsletter (http:/ / basque. unr. edu/ 09/ 9. 3/ 9. 3. 18t/ 9. 3. 18. 05. misc1. htm) · Issue

18, 1978. Miguel Echegaray shares several suggestions of possible etymological connections between Basque andEnglish words.

• Linguistic maps of Basque Country (http:/ / www. muturzikin. com/ carte. htm)• Euskara Kultur Elkargoa-Basque Cultural Foundation (http:/ / www. euskarakultur. org/ )• Basque (http:/ / www. rosettaproject. org/ archive/ eus) in the Rosetta Project• Department of Language Policy (http:/ / www. euskara. euskadi. net/ r59-734/ en/ ) of the Basque Government• Basque Culture Institute (http:/ / www. eke. org/ euskara/ )

Basque language 18

Basque media• Berria: Newspaper in Basque (http:/ / www. berria. info)• EiTB: Tv and radio in Basque (http:/ / www. eitb. com)• Argia: Weekly magazine in Basque (http:/ / www. argia. com)

Dictionaries• Elhuyar Basque–Spanish Dictionary (http:/ / www. elhuyar. org/ hizkuntza-zerbitzuak/ EN/ Dictionary-search)• Morris Basque–English Dictionary (http:/ / www1. euskadi. net/ morris/ dictionary. htm)• Hiztegia 3000 Online bidirectional Spanish–Euskara dictionary (http:/ / www1. euskadi. net/ hizt_3000/ )

Grammar

• University of the Basque Country: A Brief Grammar of Euskara, the Basque Language (http:/ / www. ehu. es/grammar/ )

• Basque Verb Tables (http:/ / www. euskalnet. net/ chief/ aditz/ )

Classification

• A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 by John D. Bengston (scanned pages) (http:/ /www. people. fas. harvard. edu/ ~witzel/ mt26s. html)

Basque lettering

• Basque alphabet according to Euskaltzaindia (http:/ / www. euskaltzaindia. net/ arauak/ dok/ ProNor0017. htm)• Arquitectura popular y grafía vasca (http:/ / www. txikizabalo. org/ grafia/ ), by P. and J. de Zabalo, Biblioteca de

Cultura Vasca, Editorial Vasca Ekin, Buenos Aires, 1947. Designs for a national typography derived fromMedieval and Modern-Age inscriptions.

• Tipografías vascas (http:/ / www. lanbroute. com/ blog/ tipografias-vascas. htm), a blog post reviewingBasque-style computer fonts.

• Tipos de letra vasca (http:/ / www. terra. es/ personal6/ landarbaso/ tiposletravasca. htm), a list of freedownloadable Basque fonts in a personal web page by Landarbaso.

• Grafía vasca (http:/ / euskomedia. org/ aunamendi/ 75100), in Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia.

Article Sources and Contributors 19

Article Sources and ContributorsBasque language  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=467590398  Contributors: 195.186.144.xxx, 1ForTheMoney, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 4u1e, 62.174.12.xxx, A R King, A.Parrot, Acasson, Adnyre, Aelffin, Aerol, Aeusoes1, Ahateumezalea, Aidan Elliott-McCrea, Akerbeltz, Al Silonov, Alai, Alboran, Alchaemist, Alexf, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Alx123,Amire80, Amoore5000, An13sa, Andre Engels, Andrew Champs, Andyluciano, Anglo23, Ante Aikio, Aradic-es, Arael2, Arath, Ardoila, Aremisasling, ArnoLagrange, Arthur Holland, Auslli,Avicennasis, AxelBoldt, Azalea pomp, BANTASAN, BD2412, BGManofID, BRUTE, Barasoaindarra, Beetstra, Beirne, Benwing, Berdiau, Betterusername, Billfalls, Biruitorul, Bjbeamish,Blahma, Bob Burkhardt, Bogdangiusca, Bokpasa, Boombaard, BorgQueen, Brianski, Brion VIBBER, British cons, Bruinfan12, Bryan Derksen, Buzgun, Byrial, CSWarren, Calafalas,CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, CapnPrep, Captaincoffee, CarlosPatiño, Carlthiem, Casey56, Cassowary, CecilWard, Cerealkiller13, Ceyockey, Chamdarae, Cholling, ChrisCork,CieloEstrellado, Circeus, Clicketyclack, ColinFine, Colonies Chris, Commander Shepard, CommonsDelinker, Computerjoe, Contributor777, Conversion script, Crissov, Crohnie, Croquant,Crusadeonilliteracy, Cuchullain, DTOx, Dambrosio, Das Baz, Davidme, Dbachmann, Deb, Derek Ross, Dilvish 10 words, Dissident, Dmitri Lytov, DocWatson42, Don4of4, Donfbreed,Dontbeakakke, DopefishJustin, Doric Loon, Dougweller, Dpodoll68, Drpolilla, Dumu Eduba, Dwo, Dylansmrjones, Edorfbir, Eequor, Efrankenberger, Egitan, Ekkaton, ElBenevolente, Elconde,ElectricValkyrie, Elonka, Emrrans, Enbob89, Enchanter, Ergative rlt, Erianna, Eritain, Error, Esperant, Esperon-98, Euchiasmus, ExRat, Excirial, Fama Clamosa, Fantastic fred, FayssalF, FilipeS,Firespeaker, Fixer88, Flumignan, Foze, FriendOfPhilo, Furrykef, G00dfella613, GRuban, Gabri-en, Gaius Cornelius, Gandalf1491, Garydave, Garzo, Geo0910, Ghewgill, Gioto, Glisteningsquid,GoAround, Gorkaazk, Gozar, Gpeilon, Graham87, Greg L, GregorB, Gritchka, Gronky, Grover cleveland, Guaka, Haham hanuka, Hairy Dude, Hajenso, Hajhouse, Hakozen, Halcatalyst,Halibutt, Hannahkelley, Hanskarlperez, Helfmann, Heron, Herostratus, Hgriggs, Hibernian, Hippietrail, Hippophaë, Hmains, Hottentot, Hurmata, Husond, Hvn0413, Hyacinth, IMSoP,IceDragon64, Ideyal, Iketsi, Imnotminkus, Improv, Infrogmation, Invader648, Ioscius, Irbisgreif, Ish ishwar, Isilanes, Istari Imhotep, Izehar, Iñaki LL, J mallea-olaetxe, J'88, J. 'mach' wust,J.delanoy, JJL, Jacroe, Jared Preston, Java13690, Jazz19, Jeff G., Jeff3000, Jo3sampl, Joebengo, John Fader, John Vandenberg, Johnwcowan, Jon Harald Søby, Jon Larramendy, JorisvS, Jose77,JosebaAbaitua, JosephHVilas, Jounindude, Kamitxu, Karnesky, Kbdank71, Kelovy, Kemkem, Keta, Kewp, Khoikhoi, Kikos, KingTT, Kman543210, Koavf, Kober, Kompar, Krautmaster,Ksnow, Kubigula, Kungfuadam, Kwamikagami, Kwertii, LadyofShalott, LarsJanZeeuwRules, Lemuel Gulliver, Levzur, LibStar, Ling.Nut, Lmp06, Lord Hawk, Lowellian, Lundgren8, Léa357,MBisanz, MER-C, MK8, MacedonianBoy, Mack2, Maddie!, Magister Mathematicae, Malhonen, ManningBartlett, ManuelGR, Marawe, Marco Neves, Marek4, Martarius, Martin Kozák,Marx01, Masseman, Matijap, Maunus, MaxEnt, MeltBanana, Metsavend, Michael042, Mikoism, MithrasPriest, Mmortal03, Mountolive, MrRadioGuy, Mrg3105, Mtiedemann, MuffledThud,Myleslong, N-k, N-true, NSH001, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Nekohakase, Nik42, Nimbusania, Nimur, Ninly, Nixer, Nohat, Norm mit, Numbo3, Oharrez, Ohnoitsjamie, Oleg Alexandrov,Oliverlewis, Olivier, Orangemarlin, Osias, Otsoa17, OwenBlacker, Pablo-flores, Pandion auk, Pasquale, Pauli133, Pearle, Petusek, Pgan002, Pgdudda, PierreAbbat, Pne, Poccil, Pt, Ptcamn,PuzzletChung, Pyromonkeykw, Quaeler, Qwyrxian, Random user 8384993, RandomP, Raymond Cruise, Rbanzai, Recury, RepliCarter, Reyes300, Rich Farmbrough, Richwales, Rjanag,Rodesindo, Roidhrigh, Royote, Rspeer, Rueckk, Rustasaurus, Ryulong, SOPHIAN, Saforrest, Sam Hocevar, SameerKhan, Sassisch, Schneelocke, Schuetzm, Schuyler, Shadowjams, Sharukkin,Shaydon, SimonP, Sir Paul, Sjheiss, Slicing, Sopoforic, Soundoftoday, Steinbach, Steorra, Stephen Morley, Stephen Shaw, Stiivyn, Storkk, Sugaar, Supadawg, Surfingslovak, Susana Freixeiro,Svunt, Taivo, TaliSaar, Tartessos75, Tattylicious, Tempshill, Teppei Aita, The wub, TheLeopard, Theklan.eu, Thewayforward, Thewhyman, Thiseye, Thryduulf, Thumperward, Thunderbird2,Timwi, Tobias Conradi, Tocharianne, Tomatosoupfreak, Trigaranus, Tropylium, Twirligig, Uaxuctum, Ulric1313, Unamuno, VKokielov, Vardion, Varlaam, Velho, VeryVerily, VickiRosenzweig, Virginal6, Viwehei, Waitak, Wakuran, Wathiik, Wavelength, Wayfarer.es, Welsh, West Brom 4ever, Wikiacc, Willtron, Woohookitty, Xabier Armendaritz, Xabiereus, Xelgen,Xyzzyva, Yaco, Yahabibi, Yolgnu, Yurik, Zachlipton, Zakawer, Zfr, Zimriel, Zorion, 640 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Spain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the Basque Country.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Basque_Country.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Daniele Schirmo aka Frankie688File:Bandera de Navarra.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandera_de_Navarra.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MiguillenImage:Basque as first language(corrected).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basque_as_first_language(corrected).JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Andrew ChampsImage:Basque Country Location Map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basque_Country_Location_Map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: EddoImage:Euskara.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euskara.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Linguistic maps of Basque Country Linguistic maps fromMuturzikin.comImage:Navarra - Mapa densidad euskera 2001.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Navarra_-_Mapa_densidad_euskera_2001.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Barasoaindarra. Map by Tony Rotondas.Image:Navarra - Zonificacion linguistica.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Navarra_-_Zonificacion_linguistica.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Barasoaindarra.Image:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Linguistic_map_Southwestern_Europe.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Alexandre Vigo at gl.wikipediaImage:Euskalkiak koldo zuazo 2008.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euskalkiak_koldo_zuazo_2008.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Asier SarasuaGarmendia, AssarImage:Ascain Stèle discoïdale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ascain_Stèle_discoïdale.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Error, G.dallorto, Harrieta171, Havang(nl), Roomba, Wst, 1 anonymous editsImage:Basquefontsample.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basquefontsample.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AkerbeltzImage:Errotarienzenbakiak.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Errotarienzenbakiak.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Akerbeltz

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