CHAPTER – 4

BASIC ADMINISTRATIVE AND MANAGERIAL PRINCIPLES-II

Academic administration requires the service of a large number of

personnel. These personnel occupy the various positions created through the

process of organising. University is a ‘man-oriented’ organisation. Each position

of the university administration has certain specific contributions to achieve its

basic objectives. Hence the person occupying the position should have sufficient

ability to meet its requirements. Staffing possesses an important role in service-

motived organisations like a university. This may require a detailed study about

a number of problems in the areas of manpower planning, recruitment,

selection, training and development, performance appraisal, promotion, transfer

etc.

FUNDAMENTALS OF STAFFING

4.1.1 Introduction

Any organisational fabrication requires a variety of people, and the supply

of people consists of differing types. The staffing function includes the process

by which the right person is placed in the right organisational position. Human

resource administration involves matching the jobs and people through

preparation of specifications necessary for positions, appraising the

performance of personnel, training and retraining of people to fit the needs of

the organisational positions, and developing methods by which people will

respond with maximum effort and increased satisfaction. Often the organisation

structure includes a special functional department to administer the program.

This often is called the personnel department.

Thus, personnel management is very broad in its scope and covers variety

of functions. Staffing is one among the various groups of functions. It is called

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here as employment function and includes various sub-functions. These

functions are also called operative functions of the personnel department.

4.1.2 Meaning and Definition

Staffing is that part of the process of management, which is concerned

with obtaining, utilizing and maintaining a satisfactory and satisfied work force.

Its purpose is to establish and maintain sound personnel relations at all levels

in the organisation so as to make effective use of personnel to attain the

objectives of the organisation and to provide personal and social satisfaction

which the employees require. Staffing consists of a wide range of inter-related

activities. In the words of Haimann “staffing function pertains to the

recruitment, selection, development and compensation of subordinate

managers. Staffing like all other managerial functions, is a duty which the

manager performs at all times.”1 In a book edited by R. D. Agarwal scope of

staffing has been widened to include every possible activity relating to human

beings in an organisation. “Staffing is a multi-step process. It consists of

determination of manpower, transfer, demotion and termination.”2

In the words of Koontz and O’ Donnell staffing can be defined as “filling

positions in the organisational structure through identifying work force

requirements, inventorying the work force, recruitment, selection, placement,

promotion, appraisal, compensation and training of people.”3

Staffing, like all other managerial functions, is the duty, which a manager

performs at all times. Although this function is stated after planning and

organising, this should not be interpreted to mean that the manager should

perform these two functions before staffing. It is a continuous process and

every manager from top to bottom is continuously engaged in performing this

function.

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4.1.3 Elements of Staffing

Staffing or human resource process consists of a series of steps, which

are given below:

1. Procurement- Employment of proper number and kind of personnel is

the first function of staffing. This involves (a) Manpower planning, (b)

Recruitment, (c) Selection, and (d) Placement.

2. Development- After placing the individuals on various jobs, it is

necessary to train them so that they can perform their jobs efficiently.

3. Compensation- Compensating personnel means determining adequate

and equitable remuneration of personnel for their contributions to the

organisational goals.

4. Integration- It involves developing a sense of belonging to the enterprise.

Sound communication system is required to develop harmony and team

spirit among employees.

5. Maintenance- Maintenance involves provision of such facilities and

services that are required to maintain the physical and mental health of

employees.4

4.1.4 Needs and Importance of Staffing in Academic Administration

Staffing is a very important function of management in academic

administration. No university administration can be successful unless it can fill

and keep filled the various positions with the right type of employees. Managers

would be more competent and effective if they are carefully selected and trained.

Staffing provides manpower, which is the key input of a university. Effective

staffing provides the following benefits:

1. It helps in discovering and obtaining competent personnel for various

jobs.

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2. It makes for higher performance by placing right persons on the right

jobs.

3. It improves job satisfaction and morale of employees through objective

assessment and fair compensation of their contributions.

4. It facilitates optimum utilisation of human resources and in minimising

costs of manpower.

5. It ensures the continuity and growth of the university through the

development of managers.

6. It enables a university administration to cope with the shortage of

executive talent.

In recent years, the need for staffing in academic administration has

increased due to the following reasons:

(1) Increasing size of university administration- In a large organisational set

up, there are several positions. Systematic programmes for selection,

training and appraisal of employees are required for efficient functioning

of the university administration. This has increased the significance of

staffing.

(2) Long-range needs for manpower- In order to execute the long-term

plans, management must determine the manpower requirements well in

advance. It is also necessary to develop managers for succession in

future. The need for staffing has increased due to shortage of good

managerial talent and high rate of labour turnover.

(3) High wage bill- Personnel cost accounts for a major portion of operating

costs of academic administration today. Efficient performance of the

staffing functions is essential to make the best use of personnel.

(4) Trade unionism- Efficient system for staffing has become necessary to

negotiate effectively with top managers of the university. With the spread

of education, top managers have become increasingly aware of their

prerogatives. Collective bargaining has brought about change in their

attitudes.

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4.1.5 Guidelines for Staffing in Academic Administration

1. Staffing ensures that all positions in the university administration are

occupied by right persons who are competent and willing to discharge

their responsibilities duly.

2. The planning of a university administration must be based on the typical

nature and needs of the university. Job analysis offers information

about the job contents, job duties and personal qualities for the job.

3. Scientific selection, training, compensation and appraisal are based upon

the information given by job analysis. Planned staffing function assures

better employee qualities and employee performance.

4. Open competition in selection and placement assures employment of

most competent and qualified staff in the university administration.

5. Scientific training and development of all employees will build up

adequate and fully competent staff to give best productivity with

minimum control.

6. Training and development plans and programmes will be an ongoing

process as staffing function insists on employee excellence and employee

satisfaction on the jobs.

MANPOWER PLANNING

4.2.1 Introduction

One essential requirement of every manager is his ability to plan because

responsibility for planning extends to every function. It follows that planning for

manpower resources is a major managerial responsibility to ensure adequate

supply of personnel at the right time both in terms of their quality and aptitude

and effective utilisations of these personnel. Therefore, the university

administration will do better if it plans well in advance about the type of

personnel required, from where they can be made available, how they can be

trained and developed. So that right people are available at right time for right

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positions. All these exercises are undertaken in manpower planning. The

problems in manpower planning may negatively affect not only the present

organisation, but the future of the university also.

4.2.2 Meaning and Definition

Manpower planning denotes determination of the kind of people needed

in future, kind of people to be made available from internal sources, the

additional requirements and the steps to be taken to bring them into the

organisation. Mac Beath has divided manpower planning into two parts:

planning of manpower requirements and planning of manpower supplies. He

defines manpower planning as follows: “Manpower planning involves two stages.

The first stage is concerned with the detailed of planning manpower

requirements for all types and levels of employees throughout the period of the

plan and the second stage is concerned with planning of manpower supplies to

provide the organisations with the right types of people from all sources to meet

the planned requirements.”5

Geisler, while comparing various definitions of manpower planning has

emphasised that a suitable definition of manpower planning should include four

aspects: effective utilisation, forecasting, developing appropriate policies and

programmes to meet needs and reviewing and controlling the total process.

Based on these, he has defined manpower planning as follows: “Manpower

planning is the process- including forecasting, developing, implementing and

controlling by which a firm ensures that it has the right number of people and

right kind of people at the right place at the right time, doing things for which

they are economically most suitable.”6

In the words of Robert C. Appleby. “Manpower, planning seeks to

maintain and improve an organisaion’s ability to achieve corporate objectives by

developing strategies which are designed to increase the present and future

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contribution of manpower.”7 Coleman defined, human resources or man power

planning as “the process of determining manpower requirements and means for

meeting those requirements and in order to carry out the integrated plan of the

organisations.”8

Thus, manpower plays a vital role in the achievement of the common

goals of the university. Without proper manpower planning, destructive

problems are also bound to occur. But there is a great difficulty in forecasting

future demand because of the dynamic nature of the society. Based on these

definitions, following features of manpower planning can be identified.

1. Manpower planning is a comprehensive process which includes various

aspects of manpower management. All these aspects try to ensure

availability of right people in the organisation.

2. It involves determination of future needs of manpower in the light of

organisational planning and structure. Determination of manpower

needs in advance permits management to take up further actions.

3. Manpower planning also takes into account the manpower’s availability

at a future date in the organisation. Therefore, it indicates what actions

can be taken to make existing manpower suitable for future managerial

positions.

4. It deals with effective utilisation of manpower by indicating the various

factors which should be considered in this respect like working

environment, suitable performance appraisal, promotion etc.

4.2.3 Objectives of Manpower Planning in Academic Administration

The manpower planning is concerned with the optimum use of human

resources in the university administration. Normally, manpower planning

contributes in the following ways.

1. Manpower planning enables the university administration to forecast its

manpower requirements. That is helpful in two ways. First, the

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university administration can take suitable steps to make sure that right

personnel are available at the time when they are required. Second, by

projecting manpower requirement and consequently cost of manpower in

terms of salary and perquisites, cost of training and development, etc.

the university administration is able to project its overall cost.

2. Manpower planning helps the university administration to match its

manpower with skills necessary for achieving its objectives. This is

possible only when the university administration knows well in advance

the manpower requirements.

3. Manpower planning helps the university administration to know how its

personnel are employed and how their skills are being used. This will

help in deploying manpower in much better way.

4. Systematic manpower planning facilitates similar approach in other

aspects of staffing. Since it is the beginning of staffing process, it may

help in the area of recruitment, selections, training and development,

promotions and performance appraisal. Because of all these steps are

undertaken in the light of manpower planning and have to be oriented in

the context of planning.

Thus, it can be seen that manpower planning will help the university

administration in managing its human resources in several ways.

4.2.4 Advantages of Manpower Planning in Academic Administration

1. It anticipates the personnel needs of the university administration in

future so that advance preparation may be made for procurement and

development of the required personnel.

2. It seeks not simply to meet short-term replacement needs but is based

on long-range plans of the university administration.

3. It focuses on the working conditions and relationships in which

individuals function.

4. It reveals the potential and shortcomings of existing personnel.

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5. It provides adequate control measures to ensure that the necessary

personnel are available as and when required.

6. It enables the university administration to cop up with changes in social

environment.

7. It helps in making the best use of manpower resources and in improving

the quantity and quality of manpower.

8. It reveals potential trouble spots like shortage of personnel overstaffing

and under-utilisation of skills in the university administration.

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

4.3.1 Introduction

The aim of personnel planning is to determine the needs for persons both

in terms of number and type. For deciding about the number, both present and

future requirements should be taken into account. If there are expansion plans

in near future then these requirements should also be considered. Besides

number, the type of persons needed is also important. This will be decided by

studying the job requirements, etc. The educational and technical requirements

to manage various jobs should be properly analysed so that right persons are

employed.

4.3.2 Recruitment

Recruitment is the process of searching and obtaining potential

employees to facilitate the selection of the right man for the right job. Job

analysis, job descriptions and job specifications are the prerequisites of any

successful and scientific recruitment and selection process. Thus, recruitment

is the process of acquiring right type of personnel for various positions in an

organisation. It pertains to the tapping of various sources to get the promising

and suitable employees to ensure the successful working of an organisation.

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4.3.3 Meaning and Definition

Recruitment is the process of searching for prospective employees and

stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organisation. When more persons

apply for jobs then there will be a scope for recruiting better persons. The job

seekers too, on the other hand, are in search of organisations offering them

employment. Recruitment is a linkage activity bringing together those with jobs

and those seeking jobs.

In the words of Yoder, “Recruitment is a process to discover the sources

of manpower to meet the requirements of the staffing schedule and to employ

effective measures for attracting that manpower in adequate numbers to

facilitate effective selection of an efficient working force.”9 Recruitment is the

process, which prompts people to offer themselves for selection in an

organisation. This involved locating sources of manpower to meet job

requirements. Flippo has also expressed similar views about recruitment. In

his words, “It is a process of searching for prospective employees and

stimulating and encouraging them to apply for jobs in an organisation. It is

often termed positive in that it stimulates people to apply for jobs to increase the

hiring ratio, i.e., the number of applicants for a job.” 10

Definition of S. Beach: “Recruitment is the development and maintenance

of adequate manpower resources. It involves the creation of a pool of available

labour upon which the organisation can depend when it needs additional

employees.”11

4.3.4 Sources of Recruitment

The major sources used are- (1) Internal people (promotion from within on

merits), (2) Direct applications from deserving candidates, (3) Recommendations

from relatives and friends, (4) Educational institutions, (5) University

Employment Bureau, (6) Defence Services, (7) Other companies, (8) Employee

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recommendations, (9) Management professors, Management consultants, (10)

Employment exchange and (11) Government institutions.

The sources of recruitment are grouped under two heads namely (a)

Internal sources, and (b) External sources.

i. Internal sources:

Internal sources means recruiting the employees from within i.e., the

vacancies are to be filled up by selecting the personnel form the existing

employees. Internal sources comprise promotions, transfers, demotions and

lay-off of employees.

1. Promotions. Promotion refers to the advancement of an employee from a

lower position to a higher position.

2. Transfer. A transfer means the movement of an employee from one job to

another involving no change in position, responsibilities, grade, cadre or

remuneration.

3. Demotions. Demotion refers to reverting of an employing from a higher

position to a lower position involving lesser authority and responsibility.

4. Lay-off. Lay off is the separation of an employee temporarily on account

of unavoidable circumstances like a lack of work, raw materials, power

cut, etc.

ii. External Sources:

In contrast to the internal recruitment, the term external sources indicate

the sources outside the enterprise. The persons recruited from outside sources

are, thus, unknown to the enterprise so far. Some organisations prefer this

source, particularly where originality, initiative and drive are of paramount

importance. Particularly in a competitive economy, fresh blood should be

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injected into the organisation so as to make it more dynamic. The outside

sources usually include:

1. Advertisement. The advertisement provides detailed information

regarding the history of the organisation, job specifications, job

description, number of vacancies to be filled up and sometimes the

format of application also

2. Employment Exchanges and Agencies. The employment exchanges act

as a liaison between the employees and the job hunters. They help in

securing skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled personnel.

3. Recommendations. Recommendations by employee’s friends and

relatives may be a better source of recruitment, as the background of the

recruits is known.

4. Educational Institutions. The modern enterprises maintain close

contacts with the educational institutions to supply the competent

personnel to fill up the vacancies for facilitating both the employers and

the job seekers.

5. Labour Unions. Labour unions are regarded as another important

source of recruitment. The persons to be eligible for recruitment should

be the members of the union.

6. Casual applicants. Another common source of recruitment is that of the

casual applicants, who send their applications on their own or stand at

the gate for recruitment.

7. Nepotism. Nepotism is not a good source of recruitment. But, however,

most of the people in higher positions misuse their authority to recruit

and appoint their own relatives.

8. Labour Contractors. Labour contractors are the persons who undertake

the responsibility of supplying the labour force required for the

industries

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9. Leasing. Leasing serves as a good source of recruitment to fill up the

vacancies likely to arise due to leave, deputation, lease, excess work etc.,

for a short period.

10. Notices. Another source of recruitment is that of displaying the notice

about the vacancies existing on a separate notice board.

11. Notice Board. This will enable the prospective candidates to apply for the

posts.

Once the manpower requirement is known the problem of attracting

interested applicants and then choosing the best of these for the available jobs

can be taken up. Recruitment refers to the attempt of getting interested

applicants and providing a pool of prospective employees so that selection of the

right person for the right job from this pool becomes possible. Hence,

recruitment precedes the selection process.

The object of recruitment is to attract potential employees with necessary

characteristics and in the proper quantities for jobs available. It locates

available and willing people to work in the enterprise. It is a positive function

persuading people to apply for work.12

4.3.5 Recruitment Policy

Every organisation should formulate an effective recruitment and

selection policy. But in practice most university administrative systems have no

definite or clear-cut recruitment policy and proper manpower planning.

Recruitment decisions are taken on an adhoc basis depending on the

circumstances. This adhoc policies and procedures shall adversely affect the

success of the university administration and its productivity.

A sound recruitment policy should consists of the following five elements.

1. Identification of recruitment needs

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2. Decision on the preferred sources of recruitment

3. Decision on the criteria for selection and selection techniques

4. Cost of recruitment

5. Role, if any assigned to the union in the formulation and implementation

of recruitment and selection policies.

4.3.6 Selection

Selection is a process of choosing or picking up the right persons from

among the applicants. More so selection is a process of elimination or weeding

out the unsuitable candidates. Therefore, it is described as a negative process

while recruitment is a positive process as it encourages more and more people

to apply for the vacancies.13

After receiving the applications from the prospective candidates, the

selection process begins. Selection is the process of discovering the most

suitable and promising candidates to fill up the vacancies. It should be noted

that recruitment is the process of inviting applications from probable

candidates, selection is the process of elimination so as to be left with the most

suitable candidate to be placed on the job. Thus, recruitment is a method while

selection is a procedure.

4.3.7 Types of tests

So far a wide variety of tests have been devised by the industrial

psychologists.

1. Performance tests. This is the most simple and obvious method of

testing. Under this method, the applicant is asked to demonstrate his

ability to do the job.

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2. Intelligence tests: This test is used to measure the mental ability or

mental alertness of the applicant. Individuals differ in their ability to

learn various types of technical jobs.

3. Personality tests. Personality tests seek to measure personal

characteristics like motivation to work, temperament, co-operation,

dominance, self confidence etc.

4. Aptitude tests. In a sense, aptitude test is a kind of intelligence test that

measures the overall learning ability i.e., the applicants potential ability

rather than past achievement.

5. Achievement tests. These tests are also known as proficiency tests.

The skill already acquired by the candidate either through his education

or experience can be measured through these tests.

6. Interest tests. These tests are conducted to see the field of interest of a

candidate in terms of his liking and disliking. Interest is a positive factor

which leads to favourable results on the job.

7. The final interview: Interview is an almost universally-accepted selection

device. At the same time, it is the most delicate aspect of the selection

procedure. The interview enables the interviewer to appraise the

candidate and his behaviour.

8. Checking of references: Usually in a blank form, there is a column for

references and the candidates are required to mention the names of the

referees, their residential addresses and their present occupation.

References, if unbiased, may prove to be a useful source of information

regarding the character and reputation of the candidate.

9. Medical Examination: Medical examination is yet another important step

in the process of selection. Some authorities consider it as the last step

in the process of selection.

10. Final Selection: After a candidate has cleared all the hurdles in the

selection procedure, he is formally appointed by issuing him an

appointment order or letter or by entering into a contract of service with

him. Generally, the candidates are appointed as probationers for a few

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months ranging from 6 months to one year. After successful completion

of the probationary period, he will be appointed on permanent basis.

11. Placement and Induction: The final step is the placement and induction.

Placement means the placing of the selected candidate in a job with other

workers. The induction function follows this step. Induction is concerned

with the problem of introducing or orienting a new employee to the

organisation and to the procedure, rules and regulations.14

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

4.4.1 Introduction

The efficiency of a university administration depends directly on how

capable its personnel are and how much they are motivated to work. Capability

of a person depends on his ability to work and the type of training he receives

while his personal capability is evaluated through proper selection procedure,

his training is taken care of by the university administration after he has been

employed by the university. Hence a detailed study about the problems of

training and development in academic administration may identify the root

cause of inefficiency in the university administration

4.4.2 Training and Development

There are three terms which are used in the context of learning- training,

development and education. All these three terms can be used along a

continuum with training on one end, education on another, and development

falling in between. The term training is concerned with imparting specific skills

for particular purposes. Flippo has defined training as “the act of increasing the

knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job.”15 The term

development refers broadly to the nature and directions of change induced in

employees through the process of training and education. Development has

been defined as follows.

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“Management Development is all those activities and programmes when

recognised and controlled, have substantial influence in changing the capacity

of the individual to perform his assignment better and in so doing are likely to

increase his potential for future management assignments.”16

4.4.3 Training

No organisation has a choice of whether to train its employees or not, the

only choice is that of methods. The primary concern of an organisation is its

viability, and hence its efficiency. There is a continuous environmental pressure

for efficiency, and if the organisation does not respond to this pressure, it may

find itself rapidly losing whatever share of market it has. Training imports skills

and knowledge to employees in order that they contribute to the organisation’s

efficiency and be able to cope up with the pressure of changing environment.

4.4.4 Meaning and Definition

Training is an organised procedure for increasing the knowledge and skill

of people for a specific purpose. The trainees acquire new skill, wide knowledge,

problem solving ability, etc. It also gives an awareness of the rules and

procedures to guide their behaviour. Training improves the performance of

employees on present job and prepares them for taking up new assignments in

future. Training is not something that is done once to new employee. It is used

continuously in every well-run establishment

4.4.5 Training Methods

Today’s training programmes offer something for everyone- from pre-

employment preparation for the first job to pre-retirement courses for those who

retire. The range of training method is such that they can provide opportunity

to unskilled to become skilled; they offer people to be promoted at various levels

of the university administration. Training methods are means of attaining the

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desired objectives in a learning situation. These methods can be grouped in to

various categories.

4.4.6 On- the- Job Training Methods

On-the-job training methods emphasise on learning while an individual is

actually engaged in work. This method can be suitable for all types of

employees. Thus people can learn by working on jobs. There can be several

ways in which on-the-job training can be offered.

1. On specific job- On specific job method is the most common of training

for all individuals. A person can learn when he is put on a specific job.

2. Position Rotation- In position rotation, a person is given jobs in various

departments of the university administration. This is to make an

employee able to handle any job in the organisation.

3. Special Projects, Task Forecast- Assignment of people on special projects,

task forces committees etc. works like position rotation. Besides learning

the jobs performed in these assignments, he also learns how to work

with different types of persons.

4. Apprenticeship- Apprenticeship is like understudy in which the trainee is

put under the supervision of person who may be quite experienced in his

field.

5. Veritable School- The concept of veritable school is that people will learn

and develop skills while working in the situation similar to what they will

face after they are put on actual jobs.

4.4.7 Off-the-Job Training Methods

In off- the-job training, a trainee has to leave his place of working and

devote his entire time for training purpose. During this period, the trainee does

not contribute anything to the organisation. These methods can be followed

either in the organisation itself or the trainee may be cent away for training

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courses organised by specialised institutions. Various methods of off-the-job

training are as follows.

1. Special Courses and Lectures- Special courses and lectures are

knowledge-based training methods. In these programmes, an effort is

made to expose participants to concepts and theories, basic principles,

and pure and applied knowledge in any subject area.

2. Conference- In order to overcome the limitations of lecture method which

emphasises only one way of communication, that is, from trainer to

trainee may organisations have adopted guided-discussion type of

conference in their training programmes.

3. Cases- A case is a written description of an organisation containing

information about its numerous aspects. Normally, cases are discussed

in-groups. Each member of the group is asked by the instructor to

present his analysis and to comment on the analysis of others. This

process helps to develop analytical skills among participants.

4. Role Playing- Role playing technique is used in group where various

individuals are given roles of different managers who may be required to

solve a problem or arrive at a decision. At the end of the role playing

session, usually there is a critique session, in which the trainees are

given feed back about their role-playing.

5. Management Games- Management games are used to stimulate the

thinking of people to run an organisation or its department. The

management game is played by two or more teams which are given a unit

or department to operate over the periods. Various situations of the

game are specified by the trainees. All the teams have to make decisions

regarding the operation of their companies in the given situation. This

process is repeated over a number of times. Since each team is

competing with others each team’s decisions will affect the result of

others. The trainees give feedback to every team after every period.

6. Brainstorming- Brainstorming is a technique to stimulate idea

generation. Osborn has defined brainstorming simply as “using the

brain to storm the problem. For conducting brainstorming, a group of 10

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to 15 persons is constituted. Since idea generation is the main objective;

usually the group consists of people of the same level. The participants

should be connected with the problem directly or closely, though they

need not necessarily be from the same discipline.

7. In- Basket- Exercise- In- basket- exercise is a simulation technique

designed around the ‘incoming mail’ of a manager. A variety of situations

are presented in this exercise which would usually be dealt by a manager

in his typical working day. One method of this exercise is to present mail

of various types to a trainee whose reactions on these are noted. A slight

variation in this method may be in the form of incident method. In this

method, the trainee is given certain incidents and his reactions are noted

down.

8. Sensitivity Training- It is also called as T Group training. Sensitivity

training is a small group interaction under somewhat strained

conditions. The training group has the following characteristics. (1) The

group is small one; generally there are ten to twenty members in the

group (2) The group begins its activity without any formal agenda (3) The

role of trainees is primarily to call attention from time to time to the on-

going process within the group. (4) The procedure tends to develop

introspection and self-examination, with emotional level of involvement

and behaviour and the possibility of severe criticism of colleagues and

emotional breakdown. (5) The trainees provides feedback about the

behaviour of each individual pointing out where the trainees have gone

wrong particularly in situations which have been stressing. This way

trainees can develop tolerance for other views, become less prejudiced,

develop understanding for group process and listening skills.17

4.4.8 Benefits of Training in Academic Administration

It is needless to emphasis the need for proper training in a dynamic

situation where the management techniques are ever changing and new

techniques are increasingly discovered. Being an endless process, proper

training benefits the university administration, the existing employees and the

new entrants as well. The following are the important advantages of scientific

training programme in academic administration.

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1. Better performance: A sound training programme results in better

performance of the employees both in terms of quantity and quality of

out put.

2. Lesser learning period: The learning time is considerably reduced by

training.

3. Elimination of wastage: The quantity of spoiled work or wastage is also

reduced sizably. It leads to reduction in the cost of production.

4. Uniformity of procedure: With the help of training the best available

method of performing the work can be standardised and made available

to all employees.

5. Elimination of misfits: As stated already mere selection and induction are

not sufficient to procure proper personnel for the university

administration.

6. Economy in materials handling: Trained personnel will be able to make

better and economical use of materials and equipments.

7. Less Supervision: The need for close and continuous supervision is also

reduced considerably.

8. High morale: Training also motivates employees to work hard.

Employees who understand the job are likely to have higher morale.

9. Reduction in labour turnover: Scientific training reduces the labour

turnover and introduces stability and flexibility of employees.

10. Removes fear of the employees: Scientific training programmes are highly

essential in dynamic organisations undergoing changes.

There are various changes in job, changes in process, methods and

procedures, changes in technology, changes in personnel, etc. These changes

are constantly taking place. They are also rapid. They demand modification

and changes in skills, knowledge, attitudes and understanding on the part of

workers and managers. They create needs that must be met by training and

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development of personnel. Development and training of personnel is an on

going process to meet and adapt change effectively and quickly.

PROMOTIONS

4.5.1 Introduction

The term promotion means movement of an employee from his present

job to a job which is better in terms of status or prestige, responsibilities etc.

Better job entails increased responsibilities, more prestige or status, requires

greater skills, provides increased scales of pay and has fovourable working

hours, improved working conditions etc.

4.5.2 Types of Promotion

On the basis of factors involved in promotion it can be classified into two

forms: horizontal promotion and vertical promotion. In horizontal promotion,

employees job classification remains the same, only his position is increased.

For example, a lower division clerk may be promoted as upper division clerk

with same job assignment and responsibility. In vertical promotion, an employee

crosses his job classification. This increases his responsibility and status. For

example, a superintendent becomes departmental manager.

4.5.3 Need for Promotion in Academic Administration

It is emphasised that university administration should have proper and

systematic promotion policy. In fact, promotion is highly desirable for both

university administration and its employees.

1. Organisation Needs- No university administration can rely on outside

recruitment to fill all its requirements. It is true that certain jobs are

similar in most of the organisations but most jobs require some

specialisation which can be acquired in a particular organisation. Thus

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promotional ladders are needed to funnel upward those who have had

broad experience in the university administration.

2. Providing Motivation- Promotion possibilities influence the behaviour of

individuals in the university administration. People will work harder if

they feel this will lead to promotion.

3. Providing Satisfaction –Promotions are highly desirable to individuals

both for their intrinsic benefits as well as their symbolic connotations of

success values.

4.5.4 Basis of Promotion-Seniority vs. Merit

Promotion is made either on the basis of seniority or on the basis of merit

or both. Normally, management of any university administration prefers merit.

But the trade unions and workers favour seniority. Seniority means the length

of service put in by an employee in the service of university administration.

Merit, on the other hand, means the qualification, which an employee

possesses. The advantages and limitations of these bases are briefly discussed

below.

4.5.5 Promotion on Merit Basis

Management personnel generally prefer merit as determined by job

performance and by analysis of employee potential for promotion. In this way,

they ensure that competence shall be the fundamental determinant of progress.

If promotion is to be an incentive, the best performing employee ought to be

promoted. Thus, when merit is taken as the base for promotion, efficiency is

ensured in the university administration.

However, the argument for merit has little foundation unless

conscientious and systematic attempts are undertaken to measure merit. The

main difficulty in weighing merit in making a promotion decision is the lack of

objective criteria. Test scores, performance appraisal and analysis of behaviour

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can be taken for consideration, but there is no accurate assessment procedure

that is free of judgement.

4.5.6 Promotion on Seniority Basis

Distinguishing among persons on the basis of seniority is as old as

civilization itself. Seniority is widely recognised in all types of organisation.

However the extent to which promotions should be based on seniority is always

an area of dispute between employee’s unions and management.

Determining Seniority- While determining the seniority of individuals in

the university administration, the rules should be carefully and specifically

spelled out. If they are not, seniority can generate more personal problems than

it can eliminate.

4.5.7 Promotion Policy

An employee has little incentive for self-development if he has no

opportunity to secure step by step promotion within the university

administration as far as possible.

Promotion is the advancement of an employee to better job-better in

terms of responsibilities, more prestige or status, greater skill, higher grade and

salary and increased privileges also. Promotion should be distinguished from

transfer. Transfer refers to changes in jobs that involve little or no change in

status, responsibility and pay. Every organisation should have some type of

formal and systematic promotion policy and programme.

4.5.8 Essentials of Sound Promotion Policy

1. There should be clear-cut paths of advancement or lines of promotion

describing ability, experience, education and other qualifications for each

job.

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2. Middle management and senior management level jobs must be provided

through promotion from within whenever possible. It should be faithfully

followed.

3. Sound promotion policy should have little to fear from a commitment to

arbitrate grievances about promotions from trade unions or aggrieved

parties.

4. Opening for immediate promotions may be posted to employees in

advance. So that interested employees may apply for promotion within a

specified period.

5. There should be scientific plans for rating of employees with the help of

job evaluation and job rating techniques. This would ensure objective

and impartial character of promotion.

6. Candidates having potential value and selected for promotion should be

given adequate training as a means of preparation for promotion.

7. There should be probationary period, say, of one year, given to the

employees before confirmation.

8. Personnel department should advise on promotion to the top

management, but the supervisor’s recommendation must be duly

considered by the top management or by his immediate superior in the

line organisation.

9. Bases for selection for promotion may be seniority, i.e., length of service

or experience or ability and competence or merits.

Management generally prefers merit as determined by job performance

and by analysis of employee potential for development. Performance appraisal

studies constitute the guide for promotion by merit.

4.5.9 Merit Versus Seniority

Seniority is the length of recognised service in university administration.

Seniority is an objective means of promotion. The measurement is exact and

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simple. It is accepted by the majority in a group. It satisfies human relation’s

approach. It promotes more peace that does the use of merit; whereas merit is

a subjective measurement effected by bias and favouritism. Promotion by

seniority also reduces labour turnover. Seniority ignores merit or ability. It

overvalues experience, gives no incentive towards preparation for advancement.

It drives talents out of the firm. Merit alone can assure talents out of the firm.

Merit alone can assure productivity. There should be a compromise between

seniority and merit. When ability is substantially equal, seniority and merit.

When ability is substantially equal, seniority should govern promotion. (1)

Length of continuous service, (2) Productivity and ability to perform the work

required by the company and (3) Physical fitness should be duly considered for

promotion. When factors 2 and 3 are relatively equal, length of continuous

service will govern promotion.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

4.6.1 Introduction

In a work group, members consciously or unconsciously, make opinion

about others. The opinion may be about their quality, behaviour, way of

working, etc. Such an opinion becomes the basis for interpersonal interaction.

In the same way, superiors form some opinion about their subordinates for

determining many things like salary increase, promotion, transfer etc. in large

organisations. This process when formalised is taken to be performance

appraisal. The problems in the area of performance appraisal in academic

administration require a detailed study and analysis.

4.6.2 Meaning and Definition

Appraisal is the evaluation of works, quality or merit. In the

organisational context, performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of

personnel by superiors or others familiar with their performance. Performance

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appraisal is also described as merit rating in which an individual is ranked as

better or worse in comparison to others. The basic purpose in this merit rating

is to ascertain an employee’s eligibility for promotion.

Robert Owen, a Scottish Mill owner, first evolved the system of merit

rating in the early 19th century. Merit rating is concerned with measuring and

evaluating employee performance after he is placed on a job. In those days, the

task of measuring the employee’s efficiency was left to the judgement and

opinion of the managers. But in modern times, a scientific approach is needed

to find out the qualities and merit of the performance of the individual

employee. The merit rating technique provides for a systematic and scientific

assessment of the ability of the employees. The various definitions formulated

by efficient scholars are given below.

Definition of Edwin B. Flippo: “Merit rating is systematic, periodic and so

far as humanly possible, an impartial rating of an employee’s excellence in

matters pertaining to his present job and to his potentialities for a better job.”18

From this definition it is clear that merit rating is concerned with the

evaluation of the performance of the employees on particular jobs.

4.6.3 Methods of Merit Rating

There is a number of merit rating methods. They vary a great deal. But

they usually fall into one or another of certain basic types. The most important

basic systems are as follows:

i. Rating Scales

This system is also known as the chart system. Under this system a

straight line measuring about 5 inches long is used for measuring each of the

trait. At regular intervals above the straight line, short deceptions are written to

signify different degrees of the trait. The scales used for this purpose may be

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descriptive like excellent, good, average, poor, very poor, etc. In some cases

numbers, percentages or grades like A,B,C, are also used. The rater places a

tick mark at the position along the scale that he considers representing the

degree of the trait for the employee being rated.

ii. Employee Comparison Systems

The Employee Comparison systems provide for the rating of employees in

comparison with each other. These systems aim to avoid the obstacles found in

the rating scale system. There are three principal variations in the method of

comparing employees with each other.

1. Rank Order System.

2. Paired Comparison System.

3. Forced Distribution System.

1. Rank Order System: Under this method, the rater simply ranks his

employees and arranges his men in the order of merit from the best to

the poorest. Generally the rater considers the qualities as a whole and

compares one employee with another. However, if several qualities are to

be considered separately the ranking should be made separately for the

each trait. Small cards containing the names of men to be rated are

used in this process of rating.

2. Paired Comparison system: This is another straight method of rating

employees through evaluation of performance of specified pairs. Under

this method each individual is compared with all others in the same

group. However each men only once at a time. For example, X is

compared with Y. Y is compared with Z then Z is compared with P and so

on. The results are tabulated and a rank is assigned to each worker on

the basis of the men who are to be compared are used for this purpose.

3) Forced distribution system: Under this method, the employee’s overall

performance on the job is rated and not a single quality. Under this

method the workers doing the same job are grouped into some definite

groups such as high, above average, average, low and poor.

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A relative percentage is also added to each group. The rater should

observe all the employees and distribute them in a particular set of groups of

rating.

iii. Check List-rating System

Check list-rating system constitutes a third basic method of rating the

employees. A check list is a standard list of statement about the traits of the

employees which can be checked by the evaluation to show whether the person

satisfied the trait contained in the statement or not.

Here the rater is provided with descriptive statements of employee

behaviour and he has to report about the working behaviour. The final rating is

done by the personnel department. Thus, the rater acts more or less as a

reporter rather than an evaluator of the employee’s performance. The checklist

rating systems fall into two kinds. They are 1. Weighted Checklist System. 2.

Forced Choice Checklist System.

1. Weighted checklist system: The checklist used under this system

contains a large number of descriptive statements and a scale value is

assigned to each of the statements. The rater simply checks each

statement which he considers as descriptive of the employees behaviour.

2. Forced choice checklist system: Under this method also a number of

descriptive statements or phrases are selected by experts. The

statements should express equally favourable and unfavourable things

about an employee. The statements are then printed on form in-groups

of four. A group of four phrases is called a tetrad. Of the four

statements in the tetrad two may be favourable and the other two may be

unfavourable. The rater should choose one statement which best

describes the partiicular employees performance. The scale values are

given to each statement and the rater does not know the score he is

giving to a person. The three groups of statements given below are

illustrative of the type of statements that are used.

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iv. Critical incident techniques

The critical incident technique was developed by J.G. Flanegan and R.K.

Burns. This method is based on the assumption that each job calls for certain

requirements of special traits or specific occasions or critical incidents. A

critical incident, in this context, means an incident which explains that an

employee has done or failed to do something which results in unusual success

or failure on some part of his job. Under this system the supervisor should

keep a regular record of the critical incidents and the reactions of the employee

on these specified cases. These critical behaviour are usually classified into

certain definite categories such as physical conditions, co-ordination, checking

and inspection etc.

4.6.4 Other Methods

Besides there are a number of methods developed for appraising

employee’s performance. Some of them are the following.

1. Field review method: This method of merit rating was enclosed by G.W.

Wadsworth. Under this method the personnel department interviews the

supervisor and the supervisors are asked to give their opinion about the

progress of the subordinates etc. Detailed notes are also taken during

the time of such interviews. The comments made by the supervisors on

the behaviour of each employee are recorded in the employee’s personal

folder. This system is highly practical and suitable for large

undertakings.

2 Group appraisal plan: This method was formulated by U.K. Rowland.

Under this method each worker is rated by a group of supervisors. The

group should consist of the employees, immediate supervisors and other

higher managerial personnel.

3. Essay type merit rating: Under this method the supervisor writes an

essay on his subordinates. The supervisor should consider several

factors like job knowledge, physical conditions etc. while drafting his

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essay on each employee. The essay is then submitted to the reviewing

supervisors and they examine the comments made by him.

4. Man–to–man comparison: Under this system a key man is selected. He

is supposed to have the necessary qualities to perform a job effectively.

All other employees to be rated are compared with the key man and

scores are allotted to each employee. This method was used in the army

during the First World War. This method is also known as Factor

Comparison method.

5. Inadequate explanation: Every merit-rating plan should be adequately

explained. Otherwise it will cause lack of support of the employees due

to the misunderstanding of the purpose and uses of the rating system.19

4.6.5 Promotion Appraisal

To adopt a system of promotion by merit calls for an efficient performance

appraisal system. The true purpose of a performance appraisal system is

primarily to assess the capabilities of a person in terms of his contribution

towards the achievement of organisational goals. It, thus, serves a short-term

purpose of assessing the usefulness of an employee to the organisation and in

the long run determines his potential for elevation to higher levels. Conversely,

it pinpoints the shortcomings of an employee and by pointing these out to him,

the superior officers can manage better utilisation of the services of that

employee through either correction or position-change.

4.6.6 Benefits of Merit Rating in Academic Administration

(1) It can act as a sound basis for pay rise within prescribed range as well as

for promotion or selection for higher training.

(2) It can check effectiveness of recruiting and training and placement of

employees because it can locate the weaknesses of individual workers

once they are pointed.

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(3) It promotes employee morale, desire for self-advancement or

improvement in the performance.

(4) It can locate or discover the talents by uncovering the strong points of

employees.

(5) It can stimulate healthy competition among the employees just like

examination for students.

Merit rating is purely a subjective device and to that extent it has an

inherent limitation. Workers resent their performance appraisal by the

supervisor, merit rating may be prejudiced and the prospects of the employee

may be debarred. However, under the modern managerial style employees are

themselves required to appraise their performance, i.e., self appraisal studies

and the leader is merely guide or his adviser enabling the employee himself to

rate his merits.

4.6.7 Importance of Performance Appraisal in Academic Administration

Performance appraisal is expected to provide answers to many of the

questions relating to management of people in the university administration.

The role of performance appraisal is not limited only to make decisions about

salary increase but it helps to arrive at many decisions. Let us see how

performance appraisal helps in arriving at decisions for various points.

1. Salary Increase- Normally salary increase of an employee depends on

how he is performing his job. There is continuous evaluation of his

performance either formally or informally.

2. Promotion- Most of the universities often use a combination of merit and

seniority for promotion. Performance appraisal discloses how an

employee is working in his present job and what are his strong and weak

points.

3. Training and Development- Performance appraisal tries to identify the

strengths and weaknesses of an employee on his present job. This

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information can be used for devising training and development

programmes appropriate for overcoming the weaknesses of the

employees.

4. Feedback- Performance appraisal provides feedback to employees about

their performance. It tells them where they stand. A person works

better when he knows how he is working and how his efforts are

contributing to the achievement of the objectives of the university

administration.

5. Pressure on Employees- Performance appraisal puts a sort of pressure

on employees for better performance. If the employees are conscious

that they are being appraised in respect of certain factors and their

future largely depends on such appraisal, they tend to have positive and

acceptable behaviours in this respect. Thus appraisal can work

automatically as control device.

4.6.8 Suggestions for Improving a Merit Rating Programme

In spite of the several advantages offered by merit rating the system has

failed to create a favourable atmosphere for its implementation. Joseph Tiffin,

an industrial psychologist, has suggested the following measures.

1. Train the raters. Rating of the people requires skill and efficiency. Good

supervisors need not necessarily be good raters unless they have been

taught how to rate.

2. The ratings are to be made while the raters are gathered for this purpose

under the guidance of some one whom is thoroughly familiar with

system.

3. Be extremely cautious in comparing the ratings of men in different

departments or on different jobs. The rating of one employee should not

be compared with the rating of other employees in different departments.

4. Interpret the rating in terms of the actual job demand. An employee

should not be punished because he is weak in some ability that his job

does not require.

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5. Avoid the use of numerical values in discussing rating with employees.

6. Use only records available. If records are available it is better to use only

records in evaluating the ability of the employee rather than to rely on a

supervisor’s judgment.

Take final discussion only after obtaining all possible supplementary

information’s from other sources. In other words one should not rely completely

on the results based on rating scale.

4.6.9 Uses of Merit Rating in Academic Administration

Various reasons have been given by modern management experts for

using merit rating system. In general, the purposes seem to fall into two major

categories.

1. Administrative uses of merit rating and

2. Other uses.

Administrative uses of merit rating

1. Promotions: A well designed and administered merit rating system can

aid the management in determining whether individuals should be

considered for promotion or not. The potentials of an employee for

performance on a higher level job is an important factor which needs a

special consideration for promotion. The merit rating system can provide

sufficient information about the employer’s potentialities for greater

responsibilities in the university administration.

2. Transfers and discharges: This system is also useful in case of transfer

and discharge of an employee from his present employment. A misfit can

be traced out and can be transferred to a suitable vacancy. Similarly an

unfit can be discharged from the university services.

3. Wage and salary administration: The results of merit rating are also used

as a basis for granting increase in wages or salaries.

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4. Training: A well designed merit rating system can be useful for training

purposes in two ways. Firstly, it can aid in identifying the area of skills

or knowledge in which employees are lacking. Secondly, it can help to

identify individuals who may need additional special training in the

university administration.

5. Criteria for personal research: The merit rating systems are frequently

used as criteria for personnel research purposes in a number of ways.

Other use of merit rating

An efficient system of merit rating shall provide the following benefits

besides its uses to the administration.

1. Employee self-improvement: This system is highly useful to measure the

skill and knowledge of the employee’s indefinite terms. By this, each

employee knows where he stands and he himself can understand his

strengths and weaknesses.

The superior can also give suggestions for his improvements and reduce

his shortcomings. This will create an atmosphere in which criticisms can be

taken without any misunderstanding.

DIRECTING

Just as starting the motor of a car does not make it move unless put into

gear and accelerator pressed, organised actions are initiated in the organisation

only through the directing functions of management.

Management, after the functions of planning, organising and staffing,

begins directing function. It is the heart of the managerial process, because it is

involved with initiating action. Till now in the university administration,

suitable persons have come in and they have assumed their positions as created

through the process of organising through which various individuals are

arranged in the organisational hierarchy and gradually they become superiors

and subordinates. All the individuals in the university administration are both

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superiors and subordinates, except the individuals at the extreme top or at the

extreme bottom. A superior manager directs his subordinates as to how and

when they have to perform various duties assigned to them. This becomes

necessary, as without this direction, human factor in the university

administration become inactive, consequently making various resources

useless. This process originates at the top and flows right up to the bottom.

Thus, every manager in the university administration gives direction to his

subordinates.20

The other related concepts in the area of directing are Motivation,

Leadership and Communication. These are called three basic elements in the

process of directing. In this chapter various problems related to motivation,

leadership and communication in the university administration are analysed.

FUNDAMENTALS OF DIRECTING

4.7.1 Introduction

Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager influences

actions of subordinates. First, it includes the issuing of orders that are clear,

complete, and within the capabilities of subordinates to accomplish. Second, it

implies a continual training activity in which subordinates are given

instructions to enable them to carry out the particular assignment in the

existing situation. Third, it necessarily involves the motivation of workers to try

to meet the expectations of the manager. Fourth, it consists of maintaining

discipline and rewarding those who perform properly. In short, directing is the

final action of a manager in getting others to act after all the preparations are

completed.

4.7.2 Meaning and Definition

Directing is the managerial function of guiding, inspiring, instructing and

harnessing people and their efforts towards the accomplishment of desired

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results. It is that part of the management process which actuates the members

of an organisation to work effectively and efficiently for the achievement of the

goals.

In order to clearly understand the meaning of directing function of

management, a few definitions are given below:

According to Marshall E. Dimock, “The heart of administration is the

directing function which involves determining the cource, giving orders and

instructions and providing the dynamic leadership.”21

Ernest Dale defines directing as, “telling people what to do and seeing

that they do it to the best of their ability. It includes making assignments,

explaining procedures, seeing that mistakes are corrected, providing on-the-job

instructions, and of course, issuing orders.”22

Haimann remarks, “Directing consists of the process and techniques

utilising in issuing instructing and making certain that operations are carried

out as originally planned.”23

In general, direction may be defined as a function of management which

is related with instructing, guiding and inspiring human factor in the

organisation to achieve organisational objectives. The direction is not merely

issuing orders and instructions by a superior to his subordinates, but it

includes the process of guiding and inspiring them. The analysis of definition

reveals that direction function consists of three elements:

1. Motivation 2. Leadership and 3. Communication

4.7.3 Techniques of Direction

In order to direct the subordinates effectively, managers use several

techniques. Some of these techniques are delegation, supervision, orders and

instruction.

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Delegation as a Means of Directing - delegation of authority implies that a

superior entrusts his subordinates with certain rights or powers. He assigns a

part of his work to the subordinate and authorises him to do the work. It is a

means of sharing authority with a subordinate and providing him an

opportunity to learn.

Supervision - Supervision implies expert overseeing of people at work in

order to ensure compliance with established plans and procedures. Every

executive has to supervise the works of his subordinates. At the operating level,

supervision is the most significant part of a manager’s job. The supervisor

directs the workers.

Issuing Orders and Instructions- Issuing of orders and instructions is

essential to direct the subordinates so that they may work efficiently and

effectively for the realisation of predetermined objectives. Giving orders and

instructions to subordinates is an indispensable component of directing and no

manager can get things done without them.24

4.7.4 Importance of Direction in Academic Administration

The importance of direction in the university administration can be

viewed by the fact that every action is initiated through direction. Human

beings in the university administration handle the various resources to

accomplish certain functions by which its basic objectives are achieved. Thus,

telling each individual in the university administration what he should do, how

he should do, and when he should do becomes an important factor for

organisational efficiency and effectiveness. Thus, in a large organisation like M.

G. University, the integration of individual efforts becomes a complex problem

for management. In this context, the importance of direction function in the

university administration can be presented as follows.

1. Direction Initiates Actions- An administrative system is the sum-total of

human and non-human resources. These resources should be handled

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in a certain way to get the desired results. Through direction,

management of the university conveys and motivates individuals in the

university administration to function in the desired way to get the

objectives.

2. Direction Integrates Employee’s Efforts- For achieving university’s

administrative objectives, the employees need not only to be efficient, but

also effective. Individual efforts need to be integrated, so that university

administration achieves its objectives in the most efficient manner and

this is possible through direction only.

3. Direction Attempts to Get Maximum Output from Individuals- Every

individual in the university administration has some potentials and

capabilities which, in the absence of proper motivations, leadership and

communication- all elements of direction- cannot be utilized fully.

4. Direction Facilitates Changes in the Organisation- A university exists in

the society and any change in the society changes it’s administrative

process to keep the university administration ready to face

environmental changes. To incorporate and implement these changes,

management should motivate individuals affected by these changes,

which is an essential part of direction.

5. Direction Provides Stability and Balance in the University

Administration- Effective leadership, communication and motivation,

provide stability in the university administration and maintain balances

in academic administration.

Considering the importance of directions in management process,

Marshall Dimok has called it the heart of administration. He finds high

correlation between direction and work performance.

MOTIVATION

4.8.1 Introduction

In the university administration, management tries to coordinate various

factors and activities in such a way that each factor contributes to its maximum

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efficiency to achieve organisational goals. To make all factors of the university

administration efficient and effective, one has to improve the performance level

of human beings in the administrative system. This performance is determined

by two factors: (1) level of ability to do certain work and (2) level of motivation.

The personnel work up to the satisfaction and expectations of the

management only when an interest in their job is created. Inspiring this

interest in the minds of the employees is known as motivation.

4.8.2 Meaning and Definition

The term motivation is derived from the term motive which means any

emotion, need, idea or organic state which cause motion. The concept of

motivation is mainly psychological. The motives are expressions of a person,

needs and personal and internal. Hence motivation relates to these factors

within the individual employees or subordinates which impel him to act or not

to act in certain ways. It determines the behaviour of the worker to a great

extent. Now we shall see some of the interesting definitions formulated by

experts.

According to the Encyclopedia of Management, “Motivation refers to

degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goal, and implied

the determination of the nature and locus of the forces, including the degree of

readiness.”

Lillis defines, “Motivation is the stimulation of any emotion or desire

operating upon one’s will and promoting or driving it to action.”25

According to Memoria, “It is a willingness to expend energy to achieve a

goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies and sets in motion

the action of the people. It is the function that kindles a burning passion for

action among the human beings of an organisation.”26

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Vitiles defines, “Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates

a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to make in a goal-

directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium by satisfying the

needs.”27

4.8.3 Characteristic of Motivation

By analysing the definitions cited above the basic characteristics of

motivation can be listed as follows:

1. Motivation is a psychological notion or concept.

2. It is an endless process, because the needs of human beings are

unlimited and are constantly changing. Hence continuous motivation is

a must in every organisation.

3. The whole individual must be motivated and not a part of him.

4. Mentally frustrated personnel cannot be motivated.

5. Goals or objectives and motives are inseparable i.e., motives are directed

towards certain goals.

In brief, motivation helps to attain the individuals and organisational

objectives in a most effective, efficient and economical manner.

4.8.4 Theories of Motivation

From the very beginning, when human oganisations were established

people had tried to find out the answer to what motivated people maximum.

The satisfactory and generalised answer is getting to be found out. Many

researchers and managers in the field have given their views on the subject.

The findings of research studies and theories are not universally applicable and

these are affected by time, country, and circumstances. In this context it is

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imperative to have knowledge about various theories of motivation and how

these affect the behaviour of human beings.

(a) Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

The behaviour of an individual at a particular moment is usually

determined by his strongest need. Psychologists claim that needs have a certain

priority. As the more basic needs are satisfied, an individual seeks to satisfy the

higher needs. If his basic needs are not met, efforts to satisfy the higher needs

should be postponed. According to A.H. Maslow, a famous social scientist,

there seems to be a hierarchy in which human needs are arranged.

1. Physiological Needs- The physiological needs are shown at the top of the

hierarchy because they tend to have the highest strength until they are

reasonably satisfied. Human beings first try to acquire necessities for

their survival.

2. Safety Needs- In this hierarchy comes the needs for safety, that is need

for being free of physical danger or self- preservation. In the industrial

society, safety needs may take considerable importance in the context of

the dependent relationship of employees to employers.

3. Since man is a social being, he has a need to belong and to be accepted

by various groups. When social needs become dominant, a person will

strive for meaningful relations with other.

4. Esteem Needs- The esteem needs are concerned with self- respect, self-

confidence, a feeling of personal worth, feeling of being unique and

recognition satisfaction of these needs produces feelings of self-

confidence, prestige, power and control.

5. Self-actualisation Needs- Self-actualisation is the need to maximise one’s

potential, whatever it may be. This is related to the development of

intrinsic capabilities which lead people to seek, situations that can utilise

their potential.

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Maslow is of the opinion that if one need becomes substantially satisfied,

the next need becomes dominant. Second need does not dominate until first

one is reasonably satisfied and so on. The other side of the need hierarchy is

that-man is a wanting animal and he continues to want something or the

other.28

(b) Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Theory

The motivation-hygiene theory was proposed by Fredrick Herzberg, a well-

known psychologist in 1959. Herzberg considerably modified Maslow’s need

approach and propounded the Hygiene Theory and developed a two factor model

of motivation. According to Herzberg, there are two separate factors that

influence motivation. They are (i) Satisfiers and (ii) Dissatisfiers.

In the first group Herzberg listed certain satisfiers – a set of job conditions

which operate primarily to build strong motivational factors. Herzberg listed the

following six motivational factors. (1) Achievement (2) Recognition (3)

Advancement (4) Challenging work (5) Possibilities for growth and (6)

Responsibility

The second group of factors is known as maintenance of hygiene factors.

They are also called as dissatisfiers. The presence of these factors will not

motivate people in an organisation. Otherwise dissatisfaction will arise.

Herzberg called these factors as maintenance factors because they are

necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction in the employees.

Herzberg was of the opinion that these two sets of factors must be present in all

organisations.29

(c) Mc Clelland’s Needs Theory

Mc Clelland has identified three types of basic motivating needs. He

classified these as need for power, need for affiliation and need for achievement.

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Considerable research work was done by Mc Clelland and his associates in this

respect, particularly, on achievement motive.

Power Motive-The ability to induce or influence behaviour is power. Mc

Clelland and his associates have found that people with a high power need to

have a great concern for exercising influence and control. Such individuals are

generally seeking positions of outspoken, hard header, and demanding.

Affiliation Motive- Since people are social animals, most individuals like to

interact with others in situations where they feel they belong and are accepted.

Sometimes affiliation is equated with social motives.

Mc Clelland has suggested that people with high need for affiliation

usually derive pleasure from being loved and tend to avoid the pain of being

rejected. They are concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationships,

enjoying a sense of intimacy and understanding, and enjoy consoling and

helping others in trouble.

Achievement Motive- Mc Clelland’s research has led him to believe that

the need for achievement is a distinct human motive that can be distinguished

from other needs. It can also be isolated and assessed in any group Mc Clelland

has identified four basic characteristics of high achievers.

1. Moderate risks- Taking moderate risk is probably the simple most

characteristic of the person possessing high achievement need.

2. Immediate feedback- Person with high need for achievement, desires

activities which provide immediate and precise feedback on how he is

progressing towards a goal.

3. Preoccupation with the tasks- Once a high achiever selects a goal, he

tends to be totally preoccupied with the task until it is successfully

completed. He would not feel satisfied unless he puts in his maximum

efforts towards completing the task.30

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(d) Vroom’s Valence Expectancy Theory

A famous psychologist Victor. H. Vroom formulated another theory known

as Expectancy Theory.

According to Vroom, people will be motivated to do things to achieve some

goals to the extent that they expect that certain actions on their part will help

them to achieve the goal. Vroom’s model is built around the concepts of value;

expecting and force; its basic assumption is that the choice made by a person

among alternative causes of action is lawfully related to psychological events

occurring contemporaneously with the behaviour. Vroom’s concept of force is

basically equivalent to motivation and may be shown to be the algebraic sum of

products of valences multiplied by expectations.

Valence- According to Vroom, valence means the strength of an

individual’s preference to a particular outcome. Other terms equivalent to

valence used in various theories of motivation are incentive, attitude, and

expected utility. In order for the valance to be positive for individual, he must

prefer attending the outcome to not attending it: a valance of zero occurs when

the individual is indifferent towards the outcome and the valence is negative

when the individual prefers not attaining the outcome so attaining it.

Expectancy- Another factor in determining the motivation is expectancy

that is the probability that a particular action will lead to the outcome.

Expectancy is different from instrumentality input into valence. Expectancy

differs from instrumentality in that it relates to first level outcomes where

instrumentality relates first and second level outcomes to each other.31

4.8.5. Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

Porter and Lawler explain their choice for the expectancy approach as

under. The emphasis in expectancy theory on rationality and expectations

seems to describe best as the kinds of cognition that influence managerial

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performance. We assume that managers operate on the basis of some sort of

expectancies which although based upon previous-experience, are formed-

oriented in a way that does not seem to be as easily handled by the concept of

habit strength. The various elements of this model are as follows.

Effort- Effort refers to the amount of energy exerted by an employer on a

given task. Performance- reward probability refers to the individual’s perception

of the probability that differential rewards depend upon differential amounts of

effort.

Performance- Effort leads to performance but both of these may not be

equal, rather performance is determined by the amount of effort and the ability

and role perception of the individual.

Rewards- Performance is seen as leading to intrinsic rewards (such as a

sense of accomplishment and actualisation) and extrinsic rewards (Such as

working conditions and status). However, the intrinsic rewards are much more

likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.

Satisfaction- Satisfaction is derived from the extent to which actual

rewards fall short, meet or exceed the individuals perceived level of equitable

rewards if actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards the

individual will feel satisfied, if these are less than equitable rewards, he will be

dissatisfied.32

4.8.6 Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation

The Carrot and the Stick approach of motivation comes from the old story

that the best way to make a donkey move is to put a carrot out in front of him

or jab him with a stick from behind. The carrot is the reward for moving and

the stick is the punishment for not moving. The carrot and the stick approach

of motivation takes the same view. In motivating people for behaviour that is

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desirable, some carrots, rewards are used such as money, promotion, and other

financial and non-financial factors. Some sticks, punishments, are used to

push the people for desired behaviour or to refrain from undesired behaviour.

The punishment may be defined as presenting an aversive or noxious

consequence contingent upon a response.

4.8.7 Contingency Approach to Motivation

What motivates people is situations. This is the basic theme of

contingency approach of motivation. This shows the complexity of human

behaviour and consequently the inability to predict his behaviour. Since

individuals differ, or discussed earlier, it is not possible to motivate them by a

single method. Thus, universality of motivational strategy is out of question. In

fact, the contingency approach is derived out of these theories which merely

suggests that in motivating people, all the contextual variables must be

specified and their inter-relationship should be established. Following factors

seem to be important in this respect: individual personality organisational

climate, and type of incentives available.

1. Individual Personality. Individual differences suggest that all people do

not like the same things. Consequently, their need pattern will be

different. This is the reason that research studies show conflicting

results when a particular theory is tested in the field. Thus, the analysis

of individuals will give a clue as to what a person wants.

2. Organisational Climate. A person’s needs are determined by his initial

needs as well the needs which he develops through the interaction with

the organisation. It means many of individual’s needs are modified by

organisational factors. The various organisational factors may be termed

as organisational climate.

3. Available Incentives. No doubt, organisational climate will affect human

behaviour, what is more important for motivating people are the

availability of various types of incentives through which they can be

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motivated. Availability and applicability of incentives are determined by

various factors, both internal and external.

When all these factors are considered, a manager can get some insights of

how in each case, he should go for motivating people. Thus, rather than going

for a universal framework of motivation, he should decide this on the basis of

situational factors.

4.8.8 Importance of Motivation in Academic Administration

Motivation is one of the most important factors determining

organisational efficiency. All organisational facilities will go waste in the lack of

motivated people to utilize their facilities effectively. Every superior in the

organisation must not motivate his subordinates for the right types of

behaviour. The importance of motivation in the university administration may

be summed up as follows:

1. High Performance Level- Motivated employees perform better when

compared to other employees. The high performance is a must for the

university administration to be successful and this performance comes

only through motivation.

2. Low Employee Turnover and Absenteeism- Motivated employees stay in

the university administration and their absenteeism is quite low. High

turnover and absenteeism create many problems in the university

administration.

3. Acceptance of Organisational Changes- The universities are created in

the society. Because of changes in the society- changes in technology,

value system, etc. the university administration has to incorporate those

changes to cope up with the requirement of the time. When these

changes are introduced in the university administration, there is a

tendency to resist these changes by the employees. However, if they are

properly motivated they accept, introduce and implement these changes

keeping the university administration on the right track of progress.

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4. Optimum Utilisation of Resources- Motivation inspires employees. They

work wholeheartedly to apply their abilities and potential in minimising

waste and cost. The university administrative system can make

maximum use of its various resources.

LEADERSHIP

4.9.1 Introduction

Leadership is the ability to guide, direct and lead people in an

organisation towards the attainment of the objectives of the enterprise. It is the

act of inducing and persuading people to work in the desired manner.

Leadership presupposes the existence of a group of people who are ready to

work as per the instructions of the leader.

Human beings are the most precious part of the university

administration. In the university administration, effective utilisation of the

capacity of human resources depends upon the middle level management.

Management can get the results from the people in the university

administration in two ways: (1) by exercise of authority vested in it or (2) by

winning support of the people. Out of these, the second method is better as it

has a lasting effect over the people’s motivation. However, it is only possible

when a manager becomes their leader in the real sense to influence their

behaviour in the desired direction. Thus leadership is an essential ingredient

for successful administration of the university.

4.9.2 Meaning and Definition

In spite of the overwhelming significance of leadership there is no

unanimity about its contents. “Indeed, I have never observed any leader who

was able to state adequately or intelligently why he was able to be a leader, nor

any statement of followers that acceptably expressed why they followed”, says

Barnard.33 In one sense it means “to excel, to be in advance, to be prominent;

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in another sense it means “to guide others, to be head of an organisation; to

hold command”. A useful distinction can, thus be drawn between personal

leadership and management leadership. A person is born with the talent for

personal leadership; he must learn management leadership.” 34

Leadership has, thus been defined as “the activity of influencing people to

co-operate in the achievement of a common objective.”35 In a similar vein, Terry

defines it as “the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual

objectives.”36 In the words of Seckler-Hudson, “Leadership in large organisations

may be defined as influencing and energizing of people to work together in a

common effort to achieve the purposes of the enterprise.”37 According to

Barnard, “Leadership referes to the quality of the behaviour of individuals,

whereby they guide people in their activities in organised effort. In his opinion,

leadership “depends upon three things –(1) the individual, (2) the followers, and

(3) the conditions.”38

Leadership has been defined by Davis as follows: “Leadership is the

ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the

human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.”39

Thus, leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a

group for goal achievement in a given situation. Leadership process comprises

three factors- the leader, the follower, and other variables.

An analysis of the definitions of leadership gives certain basic

characteristics. These are as follows.

1. Leadership is basically personal quality. This quality motivates the

individuals to be with leaders.

2. Leader, by exercising his leadership, tries to influence the behaviour of

individuals around him to fulfill certain pre-determined objectives.

3. Leader tries to influence the individual to behave in a particular way.

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4. There is a relationship between leader and individuals (fullness) which

arises out of functioning for a common goal.

5. Leadership is a continuous process of influencing behaviour.

6. Leadership is exercised in a particular situation. The situation variables

also affect the effectiveness of leadership.

The above characteristics of leadership functions hold well in any

organisation whether it is a political, religious, business or any other

organisation.

4.9.3 Qualities of a Good Leader

1. Health and physical fitness: A leader must have sound physique to

withstand the pressure work. He must have sufficient stamina for

undertaking the heavy responsibility thrust upon him.

2. Will power and self-confidence: A leader must have strong will-power and

self-confidence. The will- power refers to his capacity of determination

and conviction. Self-confidence means ones belief in himself.

3. Emotional stability: A leader must have emotional stability. Stability of

mind plays a vital role in deciding the quality of leadership. He must be

a man of patience and perseverance.

4. Courage: A leader must be bold and cold to face the situations that may

arise in the course of working. He must be bold enough to accept new

responsibilities and new ventures.

5. Enthusiasm: He must have zeal, enthusiasm and zest in his work and

must infuse such qualities in subordinates. If he is not enthusiastic he

will not take keen interest in the working of the enterprise.

6. Initiative and intelligence: Being the leader he must take initiative in the

effective working of the organisation. He must be intelligent in grasping

and understanding the situations or others’ ideas so that it is possible to

put them into practice.

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7. Dynamic: A leader must be a dynamic person. He must try to impound

in his mind, others opinions, suggestions, recommendations and the

changes that are taking place every now and then.

8. Judgement: A leader must be capable of exercising his own power of

judgement. Very often he is to hear and listen to his subordinates

regarding matters pertaining to the organisation or department.

9. Technical competence: He must have thorough working knowledge

regarding the operations of the enterprise. He must be an expert in

certain fields so that the employees bow their heads down to his

technical competence.

10. Managerial ability: He must have administrative talents and skills to

manage the enterprise efficiently. He must be able to peep deep into the

future so that he can foresee the future and thus make provision of it.

11. Moral qualities: A leader is supposed to be a model and therefore, he

must set good example to his subordinates. This is possible when he has

certain principles to follow. He must be a man of discipline, integrity,

sincerity and self- respect.

4.9.4 Importance of Leadership in Academic Administration

Leadership is an important factor for making the university

administration successful. Without good leaders, university administration

cannot function efficiently and effectively. The importance of good leadership

can be discussed as follows:

1. Motivating Employees- A good leader by exercising his leadership

motivates the employees of the university for higher performance.

2. Creating Confidence- A good leader may create confidence in his

followers by directing them, giving them advice and getting through them

good results in the university administration.

3. Building Morale- Morale is expressed as attitudes of employees towards

the university administration. Through providing good leardership in the

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university administration, employees’ morale can be raised high ensuring

high productivity and stability in academic administration.

4.9.5 Functions of Leaders in Academic Administration

1. Leader leads: The first function of a leader is to take initiative and

interest in leading the group. He has to give direction and guidance to

his men in the university administration.

2. Leader is an ambassador: He represents the university administration in

all aspects. He represents his group through which the objectives of the

university administration are achieved.

3. Leader motivates: He should encourage and stimulate, the employees for

better performance through the exercise of formal authority without

harming their interests. He must provide monetary and non-monetary

incentives to make them put their best.

4. Leader justifies actions: The leader by interpretation and explanation

provides sufficient logical, reasoning for the instructions given by him.

He makes his instructions clear. This enables the subordinates to carry

out the work accordingly.

5. Leader develops team spirit: He must be able to develop team spirit in

the group that he leads. He must repose confidence in his subordinates

and must gain their faith and co-operation.

4.9.6 Techniques of Leadership

1. Congenial environment: The leader must create a congenial atmosphere

in the university administration in which the employees must feel like

working. Under such an environment the leader can expect good and

willing co-operation from his subordinates.

2. Exercising of authority: The exercising of authority does not mean the

misuse of authority. It is not just making the people feel that the leader

is using it but to see that it is meant for getting the work done

systematically.

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3. Discipline: The leader himself must be disciplined to inculcate a sense

of discipline amongst the employees. If a leader is punctual in attending

his office, naturally his subordinates also become punctual.

4. Instilling confidence: The leader must instill confidence in the minds of

subordinates by better understanding and communication. He must be

loyal to the group so that the group will be loyal to him.

4.9.7 Leadership Styles

Leadership styles are the patterns of behaviour which a leader adapts in

influencing the behaviour of his followers (subordinates) in the organisational

context. These patterns emerge in the people as they begin to respond in the

same fashion under similar conditions. There are various types of leadership

styles as discussed below:

4.9.8. Autocratic Leadership:

This is also known as authoritarian, directive, or monotheistic style. In

autocratic leadership style, a manager centralizes decision-making power in

himself. He fabricates the complete work situation for his employees and they

do what they are told. Here, the leadership may be negative because followers

are uninformed, insecure, and afraid of leader’s authority. There are three

categories of autocratic leaders.

a) Strict Autocrat- He follows autocratic style in a very strict sense. His

method of influencing subordinates behaviour is through negative

motivation, that is, by criticising subordinates, imposing penalty etc.

b) Benevolent Autocrat- He also centralises decision- making power in him,

but his motivation style is positive. He can be effective in getting

efficiency in many situations. Some people like to work under strong

authority structure and they derive satisfaction by this leadership.

c) Incompetent autocrat- Sometimes superiors adopt autocratic leadership

style just to hide their incompetence, because in other styles they may be

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exposed before their subordinates. However, this cannot be used for a

long time.

4.9.9 Participative Leadership

This style is also called democratic, consultative or ideographic.

Participation is defined as mental and emotional involvement of a person in a

group situation, which encourages him to contribute to group goals and share

responsibility in them. A participative manager decentralises his decision-

making process. Instead of taking unilateral decision, he emphasises

consultation and participation of his subordinates. Subordinates are broadly

informed about the condition affecting them and their jobs. This process

emerges from the suggestions and ideas on which decisions are based.

4.9.10 Free- rein Leadership

Free rein or laissez-faire technique means giving complete freedom to

subordinates. In this style, manager once determines policy; programmes and

limitations for action and the entire process is left to subordinates. Group

members perform everything and the manager usually maintains contacts with

outside persons to bring the information and materials which the group needs.

COMMUNICATION

4.10.1 Introduction

The word “Communication” is derived from the Latin word ‘Communis’

which means common. Communication is concerned with passing of

information from one person to another. An organisation minus communication

is zero. That is to say, an organisation cannot function effectively without

communication.

Chester Bernard was the first man who recognised the need for

communication and gave serious consideration to communication. He was of

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the view that it is communication which linked together all the employees within

an organisation.

4.10.2 Meaning and Definition

The communication can be defined as the process through which two or

more persons exchange ideas among themselves. The definition involves two

aspects in communication. First, there is something which is transmitted, such

as facts, feelings, ideas etc. It implies that there must be a receiver if

communication is to occur. Second the definition emphasises the element of

understanding in communication. Sharing of knowledge would be possible only

when the person, to whom the message is meant, understands it in the same

sense in which the sender of the message wants him to understand. Thus,

communication involves something more than mere transmission of the

message or transmission and physical receipt there of.

Management is interested in the work performance and with the way jobs

are done through other people. Communication is often used in the sense of

imparting knowledge or transmitting information. The term, as used here,

however, has a wider connotation, and includes interchange of thoughts,

partaking of ideas, and a sense of participation and sharing. The essence of

communication, thus, is not information but understanding. Millet has aptly

defined it as “shared understanding of shared purpose.”40 Tead expresses the

same idea as “The underlying aim of communication is a meeting of minds on

common issues.”41

In the words of Keith Davis, “Communication is the process of passing

information and understanding from one person to another.”42

Communication in an organisation may be internal, external and

interpersonal. The first, deals with the relationship between the organisation

and its employees. The second is concerned with the relations of the agency

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with the public and is called “public relations”. The third is related to the

relationship among the agency’s employees inter se. Communication has also

been classified as “up”, “down” and “across”. “Up” communication is achieved

by such method as systematic, written and verbal reports of performance and

progress, statistical and accounting reports concerning work, written verbal

requests for guidance, suggestions and discussions.

4.10.3 Elements of Communication

According to Redfield the following are the elements of communication.

1. A communicator – is one who passes on the information.

2. Transmission – actual issue of orders or information.

3. Stimuli – the message, order, report or information itself.

4. Communicate – is one who receives the information influencing his acts.

5. Response- is the reply or reaction of the receiver.43

Organisation is a human group constituted for certain specific objectives.

The achievement of these objectives largely depends upon the fact that human

efforts are properly coordinated and integrated. Thus, individuals in the

organisation performing different activities are functionally interrelated. The

working and maintaining of those relationships is possible through

communications, which provides for exchange of information and sharing ideas.

4.10.4 Essentials of Communication

According to Millet, there are seven factors necessary to make the

communication effective, namely-it should be clear, consistent with the

expectation of the recipient, adequate, timely, uniform, and acceptable.44 Terry

recommends eight practices to achieve the goal.

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1. Inform yourself fully;

2. Establish a mutual trust in each other;

3. Find a common ground of experience;

4. Use mutually known words;

5. Have regard for context;

6. Secure and hold the receiver’s attention;

7. Employ examples and visual aids; and

8. Practise delaying reactions.45

4.10.5 Communication Process

Communication has been defined as a process. The process is a concept

of changing rather than static existence. Events and relationships are seen as

dynamic, continuous and flexible, and as such, must be considered as a whole,

a dynamic interaction both affecting and being affected by many variables. A

communication process may involve various elements as follows.

1. Sender- The person who intends to make contact with the objective of

passing informations or ideas to other persons is known as sender.

2. Ideas- This is the subject matter of communication. This might be an

opinion, attitude, feelings, views, suggestions, orders etc.

3. Encoding- Since the subject matter of communication is abstract and

intangible, its transmissions requires the use of certain symbols such as

words, actions, pictures etc. Conversion of the subject matter into these

symbols is the process of encoding.

4. Channel- The encoded ideas are transmitted through certain media eg.

radio, telephone etc. depending upon the situation of the two parts, viz,

sender and receiver.

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5. Receiver- Receiver is the person to whom message is meant for.

6. Decoding- Receiver converts the symbols received from the sender to give

him the meaning of the message.

7. Feedback- Feedback is necessary to ensure that the receiver has received

the message and understands it in the same sense, as sender wants.

Further, it also as an energising factor, thereby changing the course of

action in the communication.

The model given in the figure is based on the model developed by David K.

Berlo. This model can be applied to any human communication-from a

television network to a college classroom or to two persons conversing.

The components are: (1) Source, (2) Encoder, (3) Message, (4) Channel, (5)

Receiver, (6) Decoder, (7) Meaning, (8) Feedback and (9) Noise.

Model of Communication

8

Feed Back

Information

Common Factor Noise

(message is subject to

noise that will result in

its distortion)

1

Source

Communicator

or sender of the

message

7

Meaning

Destination

2

Encoder

Encoded

Message 3

Message

4

Channel

5

Receiver

6

Decoder

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4.10.6 Media of Communication

We can have communication through the following media:

1. Face to Face, for interviews, meetings, conferences, seminars, etc.

2. Oral, telephone, radio, inter-communicating systems.

3. Written letters, books, periodicals, circulars, manuals, newspapers,

posters, advertisements, suggestion schemes, etc.

4. Actions smile, frown, red face, coming early, staying late in the office, etc.

Correct timing, the wording and manner of communications, and the use

of language both play a vital role in communication. A manager’s behaviour

and actions must carry the same message as his words. Actions speak louder

than words.

4.10.7 Importance of Communication in Academic Administration

The significance of communications in the context of modern complex

organisation is even greater. Effective communication is essential in any type of

human grouping. As Honey has put it, “communications is imminently

essential in business, in government, military organisations, hospitals, schools,

universities, homes- anywhere people deal with one another. It is difficult to

imagine any kind of rules personal activity which does not depend upon

communication.” Dealing with the problems of communication, then, becomes

an important area of activity in university administration whose objective is the

directions of individual efforts in such a way as to secure overall coordination of

organisational activities of the university administration.

1. It can promote managerial efficiency and performance in the university

administration. It serves as lubricant fostering the smooth operation of

the process of management.

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2. Only effective communication can build up good employee morale and

harmonious relations between employees and management. In fact,

participative management rests on good communications.

3. The two-way personal communication is necessary for effective

leadership in the university administration.

4. Effective communication alone can establish mutual trust and

confidence between management and employees. This gives job

satisfaction to empoyees.

5. The sincere desire to express your thoughts and ideas simply and

directly is supported by facts. It is a long step towards the development

of a chain of understanding. The receiver of a message should be free to

ask questions, make suggestions and comments. Two-way

communication is more accurate in terms of developing understanding

than one-way communication. Free feedback alone will create trust and

only with trust can there be any real communication.

6. Communication bridges all the gaps and provides a good path on which a

university administration can march ahead successfully towards the

attainment of the objectives set before it.

7 Without proper communication every one in the university

administration is handicapped and cannot take the decisions and

without decisions execution is out of question. Thus, improper, incorrect

and insufficient communication lands a university administration in

jeopardy.

8. A good system of communication enables a university administration to

prepare its plans more accurately and thus putting the plans into action

becomes easy.

4.10.8 Difficulties and Barriers

The first great difficulty is the complexity of language. Communication is

made difficult by the ‘tyranny of words’ which at best are only poor vehicles for

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the expression of ideas. Word differences are a big hindrance to mutual

understanding. This is particularly true of intentional words.

Secondly, there are, in the words of Pfiffner, ‘ideological barriers’.

“Differences in background, education, and expectation result in different social

and political views. These are probably the greatest handicaps to effective

communication and probably the most difficult to overcome.”46

Thirdly, lack of a will or desire to communicate is not unknown. Some

managers do not believe that administration is a co-operative endeavour and a

group effort, they do not think it necessary to share their ideas with their

subordinates. Their concept of the role of the subordinates, in the words of the

poet, is “not to wonder why but to do and die”.

Lastly, there may be lack of definite and recognised means of

communication. Channels of communication may be formal or informal.

Formal channels are established procedures by which information flows

through an agency. Hierarchy helps the process. Nothing on files and the flow

of files up and down the line are recognised means of communication.

“Procedure through proper channels” epitomises this concept.

CONTROLLING

Control is the process that measures current performance and guides it

toward some predetermined goal. The essence of control lies in checking

existing actions against some desired results determined in the planning

process. It is very important to study about the overall control system of M. G

University administration and the role of modern controlling techniques like

Management Information System, Human Resource Accounting, Management

Audit and Social Audit in it.

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4.11.1 Introduction

Generally in a layman’s language controlling indicates constraints or

restraints on the employees performing the job. But it is a misconception as it

does not refer to the restrictions on the workers. Controlling in managerial

sense pertains to the appraisal of performance for improving the performance.

Controlling is necessary to know whether everything is undertaken according to

the plans already determined.

All organisations, business or non-business face the necessity of coping

with problems of control. Like other managerial functions, the need for control

arises to maximise the use of scarce resources and to achieve purposeful

behaviour of organisation members. In the planning stage, managers decide

how the resources would be utilised to achieve organisational objectives; at the

controlling stage, managers try to visualise whether resources are utilised in the

same way as planned. Thus control completes the whole sequence of

management process

4.11.2 Meaning and Definition of Control

Control as an element of management process can be defined as the

process of analysing whether actions to make there to conform to planning.

Thus, control process tries to find out deviations between planed performance

and actual performance and to suggest corrective actions wherever there are

needed. Terry has defined control as follows:

“Controlling id determining what is being accomplished, that is evaluating

the performance and, if necessary, applying corrective measures so that the

performance takes place according to plan.”47

In the words of Koontz and O’ Donnel “The managerial function of control

is the measurement and correction of the performance of subordinates inorder

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to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain them are

acomplished.”48

A comprehensive definition was formulated by Henry- Fayol, which reads

as follows, “The control of an undertaking consists of seeing that every thing is

being carried out in accordance with the plan which has been adopted, the

orders which have been given, and the principles which have been laid down.

Its object is to point out mistakes in order that they may be rectified and

prevented from occurring again.”49

According to C. B. Gupta, “Control means measuring and comparing

actual performance with predetermined standers and taking steps to ensure

that objectives are achieved.”50

Based on the definition of control, its following features can be identified.

1. Control is forward looking because one can control future happenings

and not the past. However, on control process always the past

performance is measured because no one can measure the outcome of a

happening which has not accused. In the light of these measurements

managers suggest corrective actions for future period.

2. Control is both an executive process and, from the point of view of the

organisations of the system, a result. As an executive process, each

manager has to perform control function in the organisations. The word

control is also preceded by an objective to designate a control problem,

such as, quality control, inventory control, production control, or even

administrative control. In fact, it is administrative control which

constitutes the most comprehensive control concept. All other types of

control may be subsumed under it.

3. Control is a continuous process. Though managerial control enables the

manager to exercise control at the point of action, it follows a definite

pattern and timetable, month after month and year after year on a

continuous basis.

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3. A control system is a coordinated-integrated system. This emphasises

that, although data collected for one purpose may differ from those with

another purpose, these data should be reconceived with one another. In

a sense, control system is a single system, but it is more accurate to

think of it as a set of interlocking sub-systems.

4.11.3 Principles of Control

1. Strategic Point Control- Optimum control can be achieved only if critical,

key or critical, key or limiting points can be identified and close attention

directed to adjustments at those points. An attempt to control all points

tends to increase unnecessary efforts and to decrease attention to

important problems.

2. Feedback- The process of adjusting future actions on the basis of

information about past performance is known as feedback. Management

has many uses of the feedback principle in areas that, at first, appear to

be unrelated.

3. Flexible Control- Any system of control must be responsive to changing

conditions. Often, the importance of a control system demands that it be

adaptable to new developments, including the failure of the control

system itself.

4. Organisational Suitability- Controls should be tailored to fit the

organisation. The flow of information concerning current performance

should correspond with the organisational structure employed. To be

able to control overall operations, a superior must find a pattern that will

provide control for individual parts.

5. Self Control- Units may be planned to control themselves. If a

department can have its own goals and control system, must of the

detailed controls can be handled within the department. These

subsystems of self-control can then be tied together by the overall control

system.

6. Direct Control- Any control system should be designed to maintain direct

contact between the controller and the controlled. Even when there are a

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number of control systems provided by staff specialists, the supervisor at

the first level is still important because of having direct knowledge of

performance.

7. Human Factor- Any control system involving people is affected by the

psychological manner in which human beings view the system. A

technically well-designed control system may fail because the human

being reacts unfavourably to the system. For example, a dynamic and

imaginative leader tends to resist control. Controls for such a person

demand special attention to the human factor.

The essentials of any control system and the principles of control provide

a sound basis for a manager; planning is a prerequisite for this important

managerial function.

4.11.4 Essentials of an Effective Control System

Control is necessary in every organisation to ensure that everything is

going properly. Every manager, therefore, should have an effective and

adequate control system to assist him in making sure that events conform to

plans. However, control does not work automatically, but it requires certain

design. While the basic principles involved in designing a control system in

organisations may be universal, the actual system in an organisation requires

some specific design. In this tailoring of control system, there are certain

requirements which should be kept in mind.

1. Reflecting Organisational Needs- All control systems and techniques

should reflect the jobs they are to perform. There may be several control

techniques which have general applicability, such as, budgeting, costing,

etc. However, it should not be assumed that these might be utilised in

all situations. The managers should choose an appropriate tool for

control which helps him in controlling actions according to plans.

2. Forward Looking- Control should be forward looking. Though many of

the controls are instantaneous, they must focus attention as to how

future actions can be conformed to plans. In fact the control system

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should be such that it provides and in planning process. This is done in

two ways, it draws situations where new planning is needed, and it

provides some of the data upon which plans can be based.

3. Promptness in Reporting Deviations- The success of a thermostat lies in

the fact that it points the deviation promptly and takes corrective actions

immediately. Similarly, an ideal control system detects deviations

promptly and informs the manager concerned to take timely actions.

This is done through designing good appraisal and information systems.

4. Points Out Exceptions at Critical Points- Control should point exception

at critical points and suggest whether action is to be taken for deviations

or not. Some deviations in the organs attains have no impact while

others, through very little in quantity, may have great significance.

Thus, control system should provide information for critical point control

and control on exception.

5. Objectives- The control should be objective, definite, and determinable in

clear and positive way. The standards of measurement should be

quantified as for as possible. If they are not quantifiable, such as,

training effectiveness, etc., they must be determinable and verifiable.

6. Flexible- Control system should be flexible so that it remains markable in

the case of changed plans, unforeseen circumstances, or outright

failures. Much flexibility in control can be provided by having alternative

plans for various probable situations. In fact, flexible control is normally

achieved through flexible plans.

7. Economical- Control should be economical and must be worth its costs.

Economy is relative, since the benefits vary with the importance of the

activity, the size of the operation, the expense that might be incurred in

the absence of control and the contribution the control system can make.

8. Simple- Control system must be simple and understandable so that all

managers can use it effectively. Control techniques which are

complicated such as complex mathematical formulae, charts, graphs,

advanced statistical methods and other techniques fail to communicate

the means of theirs control data to the managers who use them.

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9. Motivating- Control system should motivate both controller and

controlled. While the planning and control are necessary for economical

operations, researches in human relations show that planning and

control are, more often then not, antagonistic to good human relations.

10. Reflecting Organisational Pattern- The control should reflect

organisational pattern by focusing attention on positions in organisation

structure through which deviations are corrected. Organisation

structure, a principal vehicle for coordinating the work of people is also a

major means of maintaining control.51

4.11.5 Control Areas

For effective control, it is important to know what are the critical areas

where control should be exercised. The identification of these areas of control

enhances the management to (1) delegate authority and fixing up of

responsibility. (2) reduce burden of supervising each activity in detail, and (3)

have means of securing satisfactory results. Though controls are needed in

every area where performance and results directly affect the survival and

prosperity of the organisation, these areas need to be specifically spelled out.

The following discussion points out the problems and methods of control in

each major area.

1. Control Over Organisation- Organisation charts and manuals are used to

keep control over organisation structure. Organisation manuals attempt

at solving organisational problems and conflicts, making long range

organisational planning possible, enabling rationalisation of the

organisation structure, helping in proper designing and classification of

each part of the organisation, and conducting periodic check of facts

about organisation practice.

2. Control Over Policies- Policies are formulated to govern the behaviour

and action of personnel in the organisation. Policies are generally

controlled through policy manuals which are generally prepared by top

management.

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3. Control Over Personnel- Generally, personnel manager or head of the

personnel department, whatever his designation may be, keeps control

over personnel in the organisation.

4. Control on Wages and Salaries- Control over wages and salaries is

achieved through job evaluation and wage and salary analysis. These

functions are carried on by the personnel and industrial engineering

departments.

5. Control Over Costs- Control over costs is exercised through making

comparison between standard costs and actual costs. Cost control is

also supplemented by budgetary control system which includes different

types of budgets.

6. Control Over Methods and Manpower- Control over methods and

manpower is to ensure that each individual is working properly and in

time. For this purpose, periodic analysis of activities of each department

is conducted. The functions performed, methods adopted, and time

consumed by every individual are studied to eliminate non-essential

functions, methods and time.

7. Control Over Capital Expenditure- Control over capital expenditure is

exercised through the system of evaluation of projects, ranking of

projects on the basis of their importance, generally on the basis of their

earning capacity. For effective control over capital expenditure, there

should be a plan to identify the generation of benefits from capital

expenditure and to make comparison with anticipated results.

8. Control Over Service Departments- Control over service departments is

effected either (i) through budgeting control within operating

departments or (ii) through putting the limits upon the amount of service

on each operating department can ask, or (iii) through authorising the

head of service department to evaluate the request for service made by

other departments and to use his discretion about the quantum of

service to be rendered to a particular department. Sometimes, a

combination of these methods may be used.

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9. Control Over Research and Development- Control over research and

development is exercised in two ways: (1) by providing a budget for

research and development and (2) by evaluating each project keeping in

view savings, sales, or profit potentialities. Research and development

being a highly technical activity is also controlled indirectly.

10. Control over External Relations- External relations are regulated by the

public relations department. This department may prescribe certain

measures to be followed by other departments while dealing with

external parties.

11. Overall Control- Control over each segment of the organisation

contributes to overall organisational control. However, some special

measures are devised to exercise overall control. This is done through

budgetary control. The budget acts as an instrument for overall control.

The last but the most important managerial function is controlling. Other

management functions are undertaken to get things done through other people.

While controlling function is performed to ensure that the work is properly

implemented. The objectives of an enterprise cannot be attained by merely

planning, organising, staffing and directing unless the actual results are

measured and compared to the plans. Hence a business enterprise can

accomplish its desired goals only by establishing a proper control system.52

4.11.6 Process of Control

There are three basic steps of elements in the control process:

(1) Setting standards

(2) Comparing actuals with standards

(3) Taking corrective action.

(1) Setting Standards: Certain norms are to be set for measuring the

performance. These norms are technically termed as standards. Now a

days it has become easy to determine the standards with the help of time

and motion study. The standards may be set in quantitative as well as

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in monetary terms. The standard may take the form of budget, estimates

or norms. The standards can be established for the various activities of

the organisation including materials, machines, wages, time, quality

output cost etc.

(2) Comparing Actuals with Standards: Next step in the process or control is

to compare the actual performance with the standards established. By

comparing the actuals with the standards we can come to know the

deviations, either favourable or unfavourable the management is not

worried but on the contrary it is happy. If variances are unfavourable

management is very particular and tries to find out the pertinent reasons

for such variations.

(3) Taking Corrective Action: The last step is the process of control is to take

corrective action. Corrective actions are necessary to avoid the

occurrence of such unfavourable deviations in the future. The purposes

are not to blame or punish anybody but to ensure proper carrying out of

the activities in accordance with the objectives and standards laid down.

Corrective action makes control effective. It also inculcates a sense of

responsibility, discipline and orderliness amongst the employees.53

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)

4.12.1 Introduction

It can be thought of as any systematic process for providing reports, data,

or other outputs. A spy is a type of information system, as is a group of clerks,

who process checks and deposits in a bank. An information system has inputs,

processes, and outputs. The creation and storage of inputs, performance of

processes, and creation and storage of outputs are the functions of an

information system.

4.12.2 Meaning and Definition

Kennevans defines MIS as ‘an organised method of providing past,

present and projection information relating to internal operations and external

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intelligence. It supports the planning, control, and operational functions of an

organisation by furnishing uniform information in the proper time-frame to

assist the decision-making process.’54

While information systems have existed as long as life on this planet,

until recently they have been severely restricted in the ability to assimilate a

large volume of data. The advent of the computer allowed management to

expand its horizons and expectations concerning the possibilities of such

systems. Prior to computers, limited types of analyses and correlation’s of

business data could be extracted from the vast amount of information gathered

in most business environments.

4.12.3 Management Information Categories

Management information can be conveniently categorised into three main

areas.

1. Strategic planning information.

2. Management control information.

3. Operational information.

Strategic planning information- relates to the top management tasks of

deciding on objective of the organisation, on the levels and the kinds of

resources required to attain the objectives on the policies that govern the

acquisition, use and disposition of resources. Strategic planning depends

heavily upon information external to specific organisation. When this is

combined with internal data, management can make estimates of expected

results. The specifics of this information are often unique and tailor-made to

practical strategic problems.

Management Control Information- sheds light on goal congruence; it

helps managers take the actions which are in the best interests of the

organisation; it enables managers to see that resources are being used

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efficiently and effectively in meeting the organisational goals. Management

control information ties together various subactivites in a coherent way so that

managers can gauge resource utilisation and compare expected with actual

results. Management control information is often interdepartmental in that

inputs come from various organisational groups, cutting across established

functional boundaries.

Operational information- pertains to the day-to – day activities of the

organisation and helps assure that specific tasks are performed effectively and

efficiently. It also includes the production of routine and necessary information,

such as financial accounting, payrolls, personnel rosters, equipment

inventories, and logistics. Operational information, such as details of students

and teachers, various colleges and cources, details of examinations etc.

Systems for handling each of these categories differ as a result of the

varying degrees to which the tasks can be well defined. Operational information

can be well defined and easily reduced to routine of a series of instructions,

whereas strategic information is difficult to define; control information falls in

between.55

HUMAN RESOURCE ACCOUNTING

4.13.1 Introduction

One of the basic characteristics of control tools is that they largely

measure activities and results in such areas as profit, costs, production,

programme performance. They do not attempt at measuring the value of

human resources of the organisation which make the most difference in the

results. Accountants have not given any attention to develop criteria to the

value of the human factors and to show these in the balance sheet. To fill up

this gap, Likert and his associate have undertaken experiments in human asset

accounting. When organisation invest in human capabilities and values,

conventional accounting by writing off these values in terms of operating

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expenses understates profit. On the other hand, an organisation might be using

its human assets and showing high current earnings at the expense of lower

future earning. Thus, there is a need for proper valuation of human assets and

making proper adjustment in respect of these.56

Eric Flamholtz defines human resources accounting as the “accounting

for people as an organisational resources. It involves measuring the costs

incurred by business firms and other organisations to recruit, select, hire, train

and develop human assets. It also involves measuring the economic value of

people to the organisations.”57 This definition suggests two approaches for

measuring the value of human assets: valuation at original costs and valuation

at replacement costs.

The original costs of human assets are the costs actually incurred to

acquire and develop people. These costs can be classified further into

acquisition costs and learning costs. Acquisition costs comprise recruitment

costs, selection costs, hiring, and placement costs. In this process, some of the

people may not be selected, or they may be selected but do not join the

organisation. However, organisation has to incur some costs on them also.

Such costs should also be included in the costs incurred on people who are

hired. Thus the total acquisition costs of persons hired would be costs directly

incurred on them plus costs incurred on persons not hired. The learning costs

are incurred in training a person in order to make him effective in the position

meant for him.

4.13.2 Human Resources Accounting in M.G. University

University Administrative system is of service motive and human

centered. The employees- the human assets of the university- should be

sensitive to the needs of the student community. They have to function

efficiently with student friendliness and service motivation if Academic

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Administration is to run smoothly. For this purpose, the university will have to

invest heavily in training and developing a suitable workforce. Besides the

university administration should consider the employees as the real assets of

the system and measure the costs incurred by them to recruit, select, hire,

train, and develop human assets in the University. In short it means to

measure the economic value of people to the University administration. The

human resource accounting compare the cost of human resource and the result

delivered from them through their official duties and responsibilities. It should

be equal to the cost and outcome of Human Resources in an organisation.

4.13.3 Advantages

Human resources Accounting helps in giving valuable and accurate

information to the top management about their work force for effective planning

and managing human resource.

It helps in measurement of standard cost of recruiting, selecting and

training and development of people and the university can select a person with

highest expected realisable value.

Human resource accounting can change the attitude of managers

completely. Thereby, they would try to maximise the expected value of human

resources and effective use of human resources in the university administrative

system.

It also provides necessary data to device suitable promotion policy,

congenial work environment and job satisfaction to the employees of M.G.

university administration.

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MANAGEMENT AUDIT

4.14.1 Introduction

The various control tools, whether responsible for controlling the activities

of the organisation as a whole or of its particular segments, focus attention on

the end-results of activities. The actuals are compared with standards. They do

not focus attention on the quality of managing as a system. Since the quality of

managing ultimately makes the difference between success or failure in an

organisation, this quality should be given an assessment separate from the

ability to do well in a particular functional area. Management audit is an

attempt in this area.

Management audit is an evaluation of management as a whole. It is an

independent and critical examination of the entire management process. Thus,

it examines the total managerial process of planning, organising, staffing,

directing, and controlling. Indeed company’s plans, objectives, policies,

procedures, organisation, systems of control, personnel relations are measured

to evaluate the management achievement. As Bhandari and Abani have

observed, “A periodically done critical analysis of various components of

organisation as a whole, its end-results, deviation and degree of impact of

various factors resulting in deviations in the principles and practices of

managerial functions at different levels in the organisation may be called as

management audit. Such an audit is concerned with the past and present

situations and necessarily be done by the expertise with positive outlook to

advise the top management for necessary adjustments in order to make the

organisation more effective.”58

There are certain problems in management audit, as it is a new control

device. The basic questions involved are about its scope and procedure, people

199

who should conduct it, the characteristics and qualifications of these people,

and the persons to whom the audit reports should be submitted.

Management audit takes the form of reports. The reports should be

specific and must go beyond the typical audit reports. To be meaningful, it

would require that the quality of the managers and the system within which

they manage must be assessed objectively and fairly specific terms. The reports

must be submitted to the top management audit objectively. The auditor has to

report the deficiencies of top management to the same people. This is not an

easy hurdle to overcome unless completely objective standards have been

agreed upon and applied impartially.

Management audit, in spite of the various difficulties involved in its

operation, provides the way to measure the effectiveness of management as a

whole. Thus, it works as an important and effective control tool. However, its

effectiveness depends much upon how the various problems involved in

management audit are overcome.

4.14.2 Management Audit in M. G University

Management audit, if introduced, in the Academic Administration, would

be a novel concept and would produce much dividend. The society as a whole

may be considered to be the real owners of the university. Hence, it should be

periodically enquired into whether the administrators of the system run it for

the overall benefit of the society. This inquiry would bring out whether it has

deviated from its objectives and serve the purpose of the real owners. It may be

patterned or structured as the management audit of the university and would

serve as a proper control technique. An examination about the total managerial

process of planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling of the

University Administrative System would produce good results. A periodically

200

done critical analysis of various aspects of university administration as a whole

is very essential in the present scenario.

A management audit concerned with the past and present situations by

the experts with positive outlook can suggest necessary adjustments in order to

make the university administration adaptive to the changing situation.

SOCIAL AUDIT

4.15.1 Introduction

Social audit is concerned with the social performance of an organisation

in contrast to its economic performance as measured in the financial audit.

Though the concept of social audit was first developed by Bowen in U.S.A. in the

fifties it is just recently that business organisations have given some thought to

this aspect of business performance measurement. There are various

operational approaches of defining social audit. First, the social audit is taken

in terms of measuring total expenditures for social activities. This approach

involves the recognition of costs and search for ways to reduce such costs.

Second, the social audit is designed to measure the value of productive

capability of organisation’s human resources and value of various parties

external to the organisation but interacting with the organisation. Third, there

is a programme management approach of social audit which focuses on

measuring only those activities in which a particular organisation is involved

largely for social reasons. Fourth, there is inventory approach of social audit

involving the cataloguing and describing what the organisation in doing in each

area it recognises that society expects to do something. Fifth, there is a

cost/benefit approach which tries to quantify values contributed to the society

and determents to the society for actions taken or not taken and array them in a

fashion comparable to the typical financial balance sheet.59 Thus, various

201

approaches of social audit provide different measurement yardsticks, though all

approaches lead to the same measurement, that is, an organisation’s

contributions to the society. Thus, social audit has been defined as ‘a

commitment to systematic assessment of and reporting on some meaningful,

definable domain of the company’s activities that have social impact.’60

4.15.2 Social Audit in M. G. University

A University is a public and social organisation. It is closely related to the

public and the society. It is the duty of the Higher Educational Institutions to

produce competent and efficient leaders to the society. A university stands for

the society. Social Audit is very essential in M.G. university administration. In

a Social Audit an organisation’s contribution to the society is examined and

evaluated. It will measure the value of productive capacity of human resources

in M.G. University administrative system and compare it with the output

achieved.

As a modern control technique, Social Audit possesses an important role

in Academic Administration. All universities stand for the development of

society and growth of generations. So it is essential to audit the commitment of

a university to the society. What and how much it will contribute to the society?

It is easy to restructure our university administrative system on the basis of the

suggestions emanating from Social Audit.

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202

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205

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