barnett, michael - rastafari dialectism

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Rastafari Dialectism: The Epistemological Individualism and Conectivism of Rastafari

Author(s): MICHAEL BARNETTReviewed work(s):Source: Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 4 (December 2002), pp. 54-61Published by: University of the West Indies and Caribbean QuarterlyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40654296 .

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54RastafariDialectism:TheEpistemologicalndividualism ndConectivismfRastafari

byMICHAEL BARNETT

This paperexplorestheessentiallydialectical natureof the RastafariMovement,withregards o its simultaneous ollectiveand individualistic rientation.On one hand themovement s characterized ya strong egard or ndividuality, yvirtue f tsemphasisonthe radical freedomand libertyof the individual (Edmonds 1998); on the otherit ischaracterized ya strong enseofcollectivism, ommunalism ndcommunitys a result fitsanti-capitalist,nti-materialistthos. Herein ies thedialectismof themovement nd aninterestingrony.At one levelthemovements based on the ndividualistic andI concept;that s the notionthat divineessence lies in all Rastafari dherents; hat n effect hey reall Sons andDaughtersof theMost High,and thushave no need forpriests rmediators ofacilitate heir ommunicationwith heMost High. To knowwhat s right ndhow to act,Rastas just need to get in touchwith the God within. There is no need to follow theguidanceof a minister rreligious eader. In fact s things tandnow there reno formalleaders in theRastafarimovement;there s no emphasison hierarchical tructures;achRastafari ndividualcan be consideredto lie at the same level withan equal potential oexert nfluence n themovement s a whole. On theotherhandthemovement ejectsthecrass individualism fmodemdaycapitalism,with tsemphasison unboundedconsumer-ismand gluttonousmaterialism,n favour fa non-materialisticree-spiritedommunalis-tic existence. In factthe long standing xistenceof Rastafaricommuneshas been welldocumentedSmithet al 1960; Barrett 997; Chevannes 1994; Campbell 1987). LenordHowell's PinnacleCamp whichwas first stablished n 1940 (Smithetal 1960) is thebestknown early commune,while Prince Emmanuel's Boboshante Camp in Bull Bay, StThomas, Jamaica,affectionatelyeferredo as FoundationCamp by Boboshante SistrenandBrethren,s an exampleofa stillexistingRastafari ommune.

The dialectismthatexists withinthe movementonly goes to emphasize themulti-facetednd indeedmulti-dimensionalature ftheRastafarimovement.The move-mentwhilenotrelying n an authoritativeeaderorexecutiveboardtobind ttogether rtoimposea structures in thecase of centralizedmovements uchas theNationof slam,stillclingstotheconceptofcohesionbutthrough sharedconsciousnessand commonconsen-sus, (arguably somewhatreminiscent f Emile Durkheim's conception of mechanicalsolidarity orpre-industrialocieties.)Decisions arereachedvia inter-subjectiveeasoningsratherhanvia a chainofcommand. This is ust as Durkheim onceivedfornon-industrialsocietiesa collectiveconsciousness. Each personcan do whatever heother ersoncan do;each possesses a divineessence; thereforeach person s equal butindependent. This iscuriously ifferentrom hecase oftheNationof slamfor nstancewhereinwhichwe find

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various ranksamongthemembership nd a distinct ependenceon theMosque ministersforguidance (Barnett2000; Lincoln 1969). In accordance with the more centralized,hierarchical tructure f theNationof slam,themembership f the Nation do not have theextensive adical freedom f Rastafari dherents;his n fact s sacrificed or he sake of thegreater niformitynd cohesionenjoyed bytheorganizationBarnett 000). Similarto thecase oftheArmy, n individualNation of slammemberforsakes wn individuality or hegreatergood of the organizationas a whole. A noticeable outwardexpressionof thevaryingdegreesof individualityn bothmovements s theway the male adherents f theNation of Islam wear theirhair n comparison o their ounterpartsn theRastafarimove-ment. That is, themale Nation members re characterized y their horthaircuts nd insome cases cleanlyshavedheads, whilst heRastafari dherents re characterized y theirlongflowingdreadlocks. Symbolically hortly roppedor shornhairsignifies onformityorstrict bediencewhile longunkempt airsignifiesndividualityndfreedom rom ocialcontrol Barrett1991). In an interviewwiththeauthor,Ronald Muhammad,theassistantminister ftheMiami Mosque, remarked hat senseofstructure,niformityndconform-itywere mportanteatures f theNationof slam andas suchtheoutward ppearanceof thememberswenta long way to ensuring heinternalizationf these organizationalcharac-teristicsBarnett2000). Not onlywas referencemade to themenbeing clean-cutand thewomen coveringtheirheads, but also to uniforms.For instancethemen are expectedtoweareither ruitofIslam uniformswhichareverymilitaristicn appearance) or suitsandbow-ties, nd in some cases suitswithconservativeneck-ties.The womenusuallywear ashawlwitha matching oosely fittingobe, such that heyresembletheirEasternMuslimcounterparts. arrett1991) contends hat heuniformsperhapstheultimate xpression ftheharnessedbody,remarkinghat t is emblematicof a regimented rder nd signifyingthat he ndividual s at theserviceoftheorganization.He insightfullyointsoutthat fthebody is held in check, f t is harnessed n some way suchas with themeans ofa uniform,theperson's behaviourwill itselfbecome constrainedn some manner, ausing themtobehave in a predictable, niform ashion.

For Rastafarithereis no such sense of conformity,athera strongsense ofindividuality.Members (especially themen) are freeto dressas theywant and in manycases will wearAfrican lothes, uchas dashikis s opposedto themoreEuropeanorientedmodesofdresssuchas suitsandties. BeingRastameans ndividualfreedom fexpression,with lmostunlimited oundaries ndfewrestrictions.f we simply onsider hevariety fformsnwhichthedreadlocksofa personcan growandthedifferenttylesofclothing hattheymaywearthe ndividuality fRastafari ecomes evident Barnett 000).

However havingsaid thisthere s a pricetopay for lmostunlimited reedom ndthat s a loss of structurend orderforthemovement. In factas a resultof the lack ofstructurend orderwithin heRastafarimovement,t s notviewed as an organization, utsimply s a movement.The lack ofcentralizations viewedbysomeRastafarimembers sa distinct dvantage,while forothers t is viewed as a hindrance o progress. When theauthor poke to legendaryReggae recording rtist, unnyWailer, in 2001, it was clearwhichside of thefencehe was on. "The RastafariMovementcannotbe trampled, own-trodden rdestroyed," e exclaimed,"Thismovementsbigger han nyoneperson, t s an



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56unstoppableforce. If the enemy attempts o cut down anybodythey consider to beinfluentialt will be of no avail because thepowerof Jah s in each and everyoneof us." IncontrastRas Miguel Lome, a leadingCouncil personof theNyahbinghiOrder n Jamaicaexclaimed, We as a movement eed more tructurendmoreorder fwe are toaccomplishsome of theobjectivesand goals thatwe have setforourselves. The more centralized ndorganizedwe are,the more ofa force hatwe as Rastawillbe". (Lome 2000)

One clear example of an attemptt centralizationn the movement s thatof theR.C.O. the RastafariCentralizationOrganization, n organizationfounded n Jamaicain1995 to encouragecentralizationwithin heRastafarimovement. The chairperson f theorganizations Ras SydneyDe Silva and thesecretarys Ras Gabre Selassie Campbell. Inan interviewwithBongo Kosmos inKingston n November1998,Ras Gebretells him"Thepurposeof this organization) s toorganize nd centralize hegeneralRastafarimovement,nationaland international,o thatwe can speakunderone umbrella,with one voice to thenational and international orldssuch thatwe can gettogetour needs He goes on tosay, "The program of theR.C.O.) is to coordinate nd unify ll Rastafarimansionsandhouses. God is for ll colour,class and creed as longas I and I recognizethatHis ImperialMajestyEmperorHaile Selassie is ourAlmighty reator;thathis Majesty is the returnedMessiah,thefulfilmentfprophecy nd thevisible Christ."Kosmos 1998). This statementspeaksclearlyto the matter fhow farreaching nd ambitious hegoals of theR.C.O. are.CurrentRastafariorganizations hathave affirmedheir ffiliationo the R.C.O. are : theTheocracy Reign Orderof theNyahbinghi Jamaica),MysticRevelationsof Ras Tafari,100 Drums, riticalHouse oftheCentenaryCommitee,EthiopianUnitedFront,RastafariMammarCulturalSchool, ImperialEthiopianFederation,RastafariHouse ofDread,RassesInternationalistrens,Haile Selassie I TheocracyGovernment,t.ThomasBathNyabinghiHouse, Rastafari nternationalheocracyAssembly,Rastafari atrioticUnity,Peace Mak-ersAssociation,EthiopianWorldFederation.De silva 1998).

In an audiencewith he author tthe 1998 InternationalarbadosConference,RasDe Silva describedtheR.C.O. as an organization hat ctsas themediator nd organizer ftheRastafari ommunity lobally;that n effecttwas a nucleusorganization mongst hevariousRastafari rganizations hat xistedbothnationally nd locally. De Silva retorted," theRastafaricommunitymust be mobilized intoproductive ndependent ommunitieswith heultimategoal ofestablishing RastafariTheocracyGovernment.Hence it s clearherethatwhiletheR.C.O. strives orgreaterohesionbetween hevariousRastafari ouses,theyare not askingor expectingthatthevarioushouses and organizationsgive up theirautonomy o achieve this, hey re simply skingformore nter-linkingmongthehousesand more focus on common goals. As JabulaniTafari (2000) puts it, "UnitywithoutUniformitys theway forward or heRasta communitynd indeed for ll Black people."Ras De Silva identifiedhecommongoals of themovement s thethreeRs: Redemption,Reparations ndRepatriation.

Another ttempt o bringabout some centralizationn theRastafarimovementalbeitonnot sucha grand cale was in thecase oftheformationfR.I.T.A. (The RastafariInternational heocracyAssembly) at the 1983 International astafariConference n Ja-



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maica. Thepurpose f this rganizationas tobring bout united ronto thediversehouses ndranks fRastafario that coherentnitymightmergebetweenhe onstitu-entRastaorganizations). he organizationttemptsomeet nnuallywith hegoal ofdiscussingssues andproblems acing hemovement,s well as devising trategiesndsolutions o address heseproblemsLome 2000). For variousreasonshowever hisorganization as essentially een limited o beingan internationalonglomeratefNyahbinghi ansionsBarnett000).The sourceof the collectivismf Rastafaris due to severalfeatures f themovement:irstlys the utcome fthemovement'sehementejectionfcapitalismnd

allthe ocial lls that reassociatedwith t uch s greed,elfishness,ndividualized-mate-rialismnd a weakened enseofmorality. econdly s an outcome fthemovements'questforwhat t referso as Ital livity; hat s their ommitmento an earthy,rganic,naturalifestyle. astasbyand arge riticizeheWestfor tsdeparturerom aturalnessand ts ommitmentoartificialityndpassionatelydvocate returnonature.nthiswayRastas eekto buildun-industrializedommunitiesith naturalifestyle hereverossi-ble. ShashemanenEthiopia ndsettlementsnGhana reexamples).Suchcommunitieswhere armings thekeyactivityndmeans heof subsistence irrorhepre-industrial,mechanicalolidarityased societies hatDurkheim iscussed n his classicwork,TheDivision fLabour nSociety1893). In an idealRastafariommunityustas inDurk-heim' conceptionfhuntingndgatheringocietiesheres lessemphasis nhierarchicalstructureshere ecisions hat ffecthewhole ommunityreonlymadebythe lite ewandmore ndecisionmaking ia a collectiveonsensuswhere verybodyas a say. ForRastafariecause verybodyasa divine ssencewithinhemselvesheyre llessentiallyequalandthus re ustifiednhaving on-hierarchicalocial tructure. goodexample fthe ollectiveonsensuswithin astafaris in the ase ofa Rastafari-easoning, hichsbasedonthenotion f he nter-subjectivityf ruth,herein hich ecause llparticipantspossessthehigher as wellas the ower , they ll havethe ruth ithinhem, utmoreimportantlynly easethis utafternteractingith achother.Thusall arecapableofarrivingt this ruth,ia consensus,fterdequate easoning.ThereasoningraditionfRastafaris ustoneexample fthe ollective imensionfRastafari,owevert sa veryimportantne n thattclearly empershe ndividualismhats inherentnthemovement(Edmonds 998:356).Anotherxample f thecollective imensionfRastafaris in fact hat ftheNyahbinghieremonies.Heretheres collectiveworshipfHis ImperialMajesty,HaileSelassie , with hebeating fdrums,inging fhymnsndchantingfpraisesfor heemblematicaviour fhumanity.heNyahbinghiseffectivelycongregationfbrethrenandsistren hothroughommunualnteractiononnectwith hedivine ssenceofthecreatorhatieswithinhem.The Nyahbinghiitual hen, enters n drumming,ancing nd chantingndrepresentshefullest xpression f the ndividualnd collective xperience nown s"Praising ah."ntheBobo-Shante ouseofRastafari, hichs consideredysometobethemost hurchical,rmost teepednreligious itualism,MorganHeritage 999),there



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is a Nyahbinghi everyweek on the Sabbath, (Saturday). It is for this reason that thismansion of Rastafari s not only consideredthe most churchical,but in fact the mostcommunal. Out of the churchical religious)musicof theNyahbinghi ame the foundationand basis forReggae music (Savishinsky 1998). It was Count Ossie and the Mysticrevelation of Rastafari that first arried the essentiallyKumina and Burra rhythms fNyahbinghi o the Jamaicanrecording tudios. Then therewas Ras Michael and the SonsofNegus, anotherRastafariRoots group,who were also very nstrumentaln influencingtheearlysoon to be Reggae musiciansofthe ate 50's and late 60's. Savishinsky 1998)specificallydetails CountOssie' s direct nfluence n the definitive ka band ofthe1960s,theSkatalites,who in turn aid thefoundations or he evolutionofJamaicanSka toRockSteadyand thenReggae. Additionally, e arguesthat hepercussivefoundation orReggaemusiccame from heNyahbinghidrummingfRastafariSavishinsky1998). It shouldbedulystatedherethatReggae music n and of tselfmaybe utilizedfor he"PraisingofJah,"andis notablydone so bytheTwelve Tribesof sraelmansion Barnett 000). Savishinsky(1998) positsthatfor hosewhowould arguethat here s little nReggae that s religioussincethemusic s typicallyistened o,dancedto,andperformedn secularsettings-ne cancounter hat heblurring fthe inesbetweenthe secularand the sacredrepresentsust oneof the Africanfeaturesthat characterizethe Africanbased religion of Rastafari. Asnumerous esearchers ave noted, mongAfricans ndtheirNew Worlddescendants, ewrigiddichotomiesexistbetweenthesacredand thesecular,particularlyn terms fmusicand dance (Alleyne 1971; Herskovitz1958rThompson1966). Another ommunalactivityforRastafari s thesmokingofherbs Bilby 1985). Bilbywrites n theritualisticspectofsmoking heherbforRastafari, s well as thestrong ommunaldimensionthat s inherentin theact. He providesan ethnographicworkbyCarol Yawney that learly llustrateshecommunaldimensionoftheritual.An excerpt s givenbelow:

Whenthepipe is ready t s invariably lessed. What-everthe evel ofactivityhere s a temporaryespite sattentionurns o the brother ivingtheblessing. It isgenerallyhewhoprepared heherbs, lthoughyoungerbrethrenften ive itto their lderstolight s a gestureof respect. He may ask: who will accompanyme?Brethrendof theirtarnsand I have even witnessedthose who have long preceptsor beards tucked upundertheir hins,unroll hemfor he occasion. Itsnotmandatoryto remove the tarns,and some brethrenOnly do so whentheywantto emphasizea particularoccasion. Accordingto theRastas thesecretto herb-smoking s to bless thepipe, to give JahPraises, andthenyouwon't getmad A communion onddevel-ops amongthose sharing hepipe, and itwould be atransgression o leave the circle untilthe last draw.Carol Yawney 1979



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The sourceof the ndividualismr authoritativendividualityf the Rastafarimovements notonlyrootednthe and concept,ut lso inthewaythattoriginated(Barnett000:106). In the arly aysof themovementherewere numberf Rastafariprotagonistsor eaders) ffectivelyompeting ith ach othern terms fthe ecruitmentof prospective thiopianists.Therewas LeonardHowell,J.N.Hibbert,obertHinds,Altamont eid and Archibald unkley oname some. As a result f all these eadersstartingeparate imultaneousnd ndependentastafarimissionsnJamaica,hemove-mentmmediatelyook n a decentralized,olycephaloustructure.histype f structur-ing lead to an eventualmushroomingf the movementntovarioushouses andorganizations hich n turnhas resultedn theacquirementf highly ndividualizedapproacheso Rastafarimongts nitiatesnd dherents.

Nowthatwe have consideredoa large xtenthedualism fthe ndividualisticandcollective imensionftheRastafari ovement,etus considerpecificallyhedialec-tic of theepistemologicalndividualismnd epistemologicalollectivismfRastafari.EpistemologicalndividualismrguesMcFarlane1998) centresargely n the and Iconceptwhich ffirmshat nowledgeesidesnthe ouland s teased utwithntrospec-tion,nthis ensewe neednot ely nanyoneogiveusknowledge,s theknowledgeieswithin s (McFarlane 998). However aving aidthis orRastafari emberst sviathereasoningessions hat ruthndknowledge,ornotionsf truthndknowledge),nmostcases, reactuallyrrivedt. In otherwords ruthsoftenrrivedt nter-subjectivelyiaa collective rocess nd not npractice,n solation.Even n the aseswheremuch fanindividuals' heologicalnd ideological rientationn Rastafaris arrivedt introspec-tively,heres reinforcementiacollective,ommunalxperiences. oweverndividualis-tic Rastafaridherent ayprofessobe,there enerallys somereaffirmationf dentityat a collective atheringf ome ort, hetherhis sat aNyahbinghi,Rastafarieasoningsession reven Reggaedance.

In light f ourdiscussion n thedualism fthe ndividualisticnd collectiveorientationfRastafari keypoint hat hould e emphasizedn this aper s the imitedway hat he and concept as beenconceived fbypreviousuthorsMe Farlane 998;Edmonds1998). The I and I Rastafarierminologynd concept houldnotonlybeconceived f nanindividualized ay,but lso in a collectiveway. Inotherwordswhenbrethrennd istrenay, I and " theymay lsomeanWe' inthe ollectiveense,We' inthe ense f we' as theRastamovements awhole, ras a mansion,ra house, rsimplyas a smallgatheringf sistrenndbrethren..he and terminologysnot nly imitedothe ndividual erson ndtheir ivine elfbut lsomayreferencen entire roup.Whenused nthis ashion e seeclearlyhat heres a collective imensionothe and concept.This uthoreels hat nyfuturecholarly ork nRastafari oulddowelltobalance nyindividualizedspects fRastafari ithts ollectivespects.

Addendum



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Despitethefact hat he ndividualismf theRastafarimovements to a largeextentemperedy ts ollectivismtmust e said thatmany fthemovement'sdherentsandmembers ave acquiredhighlyndividualizedpproacheso living ndexistingsRastafari.Notonlyarethere henumerousossibilitiesforientatiomprovidedy. hevariousmansions fRastafari,here s also theoption fbeinga selfbuiltunaffiliatedRasta. Thisopensup numerousmorepossibilitiesf orientation. he outcome f thisradical reedomhats offeredytheRastafari ovementsthat heres a strongesistanceto centralization ithin hemovement,dditionallyecause thenumber f theologicaldivergences ithin astafariontinueso ncreases time oeson,a climate f confusionisbeginningomaterialize.ManyRastafarisidefromhose f heR.C.O.are alling or reaterentralizationofthemovemento reversehedivergentrendhat t spresentlyraversing.or nstance,DenroyMorgan, loyalTwelveTribemember as madethepassionate lea for ll thehouses ndmansions fRasta ocomeunderneumbrella,othat hemovement ayhaveonevoice for fficialmatters,ayfor, eliberationsith heU.N. or theO.A.U. or evenwith hegovernmentsfnation-states.Whilst netheologyndonedoctrineor heRastafari ovements a whole s,atthis oint, nrealistic,heremust e somekind frestrictionsr imitationsothenumber

ofsplinterroupswhich resteadilyn theuprisewithin hemovement.notherwordstheremustbe a move towardstricterdherenceo mansion octrinesndifpossibleconvergencefdoctrineratherhan divergence)fthemovements tobecomemoredirectedndfocused.A centralizedohesivedeologysfarmoreikelyostandhe est ftime ndprovide oncreteesultshan confluxfunconnecteddeas.REFERENCES

AlleyneMervin. 988. Roots fJamaican ulture ondon: luto ress.Barnett, .A. 2000. "Rastafarianismnd theNation f slam s InstitutionsorGroup-dentityormationAmongBlacks n theUnited tates", issertation. iami, L.: Floridanternationalniversity.Barrett,r.,Leonard . 1997. TheRastafarians. oston: eaconPress.Barrett,ichard. 91 CulturendConduct: nExcursionntoAnthropology.elmont,California:Wadsworthublishing ompany.Bilby,Kenneth.985. TheHolyHerb:Notes n theBackgroundfCannibisn Jamaica. n CQ,RastafariMonograph000, Ed.) Nettleford,ex. Mona,Kingston: niversityftheWest ndiesCampbell, orace.1987. Rasta ndResistance:rom MarcusGarveytoWalter odney. renton,J:AfricaNewWorld ress,nc.Chevannes,arry. 994. Rastafari: oots nd deology.NewYork: yracuse niversityress.De Silva, Sydney.1998. Rastafari entralizationrganization.http:eb.syr.edu/-affellem/rco.htmlEdmonds,nnis. 998. The StructurendEthos fRastafari.nChanting ownBabylon. ds. Murrell,Nathaniel., Spencer,William . & McFarlane, drian . Philadelphia:Templeniversityress.Herskovitz,elvilleJ.1958.TheNegro ast,Boston:Beacon niversityress.Kosmos, ongo.1998. InterviewithRas Gabre elassieCampbell, ttp:hwww.nettilinja.fi/-hsaarist/ge-bre.html



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61McFarlane, drian.1998.Theepistemologicalignificancef and as a responseoQuashie ndAnancy-ism nJamaican ulture.nChantingownBabylon.Eds. Murrell, athaniel ., Spencer,W. D. &McFarlane, drianA. Philadelphia: empleUniversityress.Lincoln, ricC. 1969. TheBlackMuslims nAmerica.Boston: eacon Press.Lavishinsky,eilJ.1998. African imensions f theRastafarianovement.nChantingownBabylon.Eds. Murrell, athaniel ., Spencer,W. D. & McFarlane.AdrianA. Philadelphia:empleUniversityPress.Smith, .G.,Augier, oy.& Nettleford,ex.1960. TheRastafari ovementnKingston,amaica.Mona,Ja-maica:UniversityftheWest ndies.Thompson,obert . 1966.An Aestheticf theCool:WestAfrican ance. InAfricanorum (2):85Yawney, aroleD. 1979. DreadWasteland: astafarianitualnWestKingston,amaica,n Ritual- ymbol-

ism nd Ceremonialismn theAmerica: tudies nSymbolicnthropology.Ed.)Crumine, . Greeley,Ccolorado:UniversityfNorthernolorado.Ethnographicnterviews

Lome,Miguel. Telephonenterview, arch 4.2000.MorganHeritage.ReggaeGroup).F.I.U.,Miami, lorida.Lecturevent.January9, 1999.Wailer, unny.Telephonenterview,arch nd2001.

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