Module 5: Program Design

5.1 Needs Analysis

The first step in designing a training program for an individual is to perform a needs analysis. This needs analysis has two parts: evaluating the sport and evaluating the individual(s).

The next step is to develop the goal or goals of training. These goals are based off of the needs analysis. After the training goals are developed, the training program is designed so that the periodization, training protocols and exercises match these goals as well as the sport and the individual(s). This pertains to the program design concept of specificity.

The analysis of the sport is based around four factors: movement, physiology, injuries and competition schedule.

Questions that should be asked to analyze the movement of the sport are: Which plane of movement does the sport primarily take place in? Are there

other planes that are important to the sport as well?o For example a sport like football primarily take place in the sagittal

plane, but involves movement in the other planes as well, where as a sport like golf almost entirely takes place in the transverse plane.

What are the joint movements of the sport’s actions? o Flexion? Extension? Internal rotation?

Which muscles primarily cause these joint movements?

Key Point:The movement analysis will heavily influence exercise selection within the training program.

Questions that should be asked to analyze the physiology of the sport are: What are the amounts of force needed to perform the actions of the sport? At what velocity are these actions occurring? Are these actions performed repeatedly or just once? Does bodyweight and, or body composition play a role in performance?

o The above questions can give insight into the relative amounts of hypertrophy, strength, power and muscular endurance training that will be needed.

What energy systems and pathways contribute to fueling activity in the sport, and to what extent?

o For example, is a sport almost entirely aerobic like endurance races or mostly aerobic with periods of maximal intensity like the sport of soccer?

What are the work and rest durations and ratios observed when competing and training for the sport?

Key Point:The physiological analysis will give direct insight into which training protocols should be used within the training program.

Understanding the common injuries and common areas of injury that are sport possesses will also aid in exercise and protocol selection. It is important to note that these may not coincide exactly with the movement and physiological analysis (for example a sport may show that upper body pushing (shoulder horizontal adduction, using the pectoralis major for strength and size) is important for sport performance, but the shoulder is a commonly injured joint and strength in other shoulder joint movements is needed for injury reduction. Both of these needs must be addressed in the training program.

The competitive and training schedule of the sport is important to understand because this will heavily influence the periodization of the training program. This will allow the program design to provide the highest volume of non-technical and tactical training during the non-competitive season and provide the appropriate volume during times of competition or increased technical and tactical training.

The individual analysis is based around three factors: training history, injury history and physical testing and evaluation.

The training history, also known as their training age, must consider the length of previous training, the type of previous training, the intensity of previous training and their experience with exercise technique.

In general, athletes can be placed into three training history categories: beginner, intermediate and advanced. Training variables can be prescribed based on this individual factor.

Current Program

Training Age

Previous Training Frequency per Week

Training Stress

Technique Experience and Skill

Beginner Not training or just began training

Less than two months

One or two times per week

None or low

None or minimal

Intermediate Currently training

Two to six months

Two or three per week

Medium Basic

Advanced Currently Over one Three or High High

training year more times per week

As previous injury is the number one predictor of future injury, understanding an athlete’s injury history is important. An individual’s injury history can be compared with the common injuries of the sport. Again this aspect of the individual evaluation may not aid in prescribing the core exercises or methods, but it will direct assistance exercise choices and protocols.

Physical testing and evaluation can comprise of static and dynamic postural assessments as well as cardiovascular, strength, power, etc. testing. The results of these are then compared to normative or descriptive data to provide an evaluation of the individual’s physical abilities. Testing and evaluation is covered in much greater detail in Module 6. Physical testing and evaluation in comparison to the physiological need of the athlete’s sports is used to determine the training goals of the program.

5.2 Resistance Training Considerations for Children, Females and the Elderly

Key Point:The largest variable to consider when training children and adolescents is their biological age.

Chronological age is not an effective estimate of development. Children do not grow at a constant rate, and there are substantial inter-individual differences in physical development at any given chronological age.

Entering puberty does not happen at the same chronological age of every child. Puberty refers to a period of time in which secondary sex characteristics develop and a child is transformed into a young adult. During puberty, changes also occur in body composition and the performance of physical skills. It is also important to note that females tend to enter puberty at an earlier point than boys.

During puberty, children often go through growth spurts. During these growth spurts decrements in measures of fitness will be observed. Decreases in strength will occur due to muscles trying to lift larger bones and longer bones with the same size muscle and connective tissue will lead to a temporary loss of flexibility. In addition, injury rate dramatically increases as the motor programs are redesigned to accommodate the body’s new, larger structure.

It is important to not interpret the natural consequences of development and its associate decrease in makers of fitness as a loss of the individual’s fitness. During these growth spurts it is important to use caution when designing training programs due to developing soft tissue and nervous system. The teaching and reinforcement of proper lifting technique during this time is critical.

During the developmental process during puberty and the subsequent teenage years, the body will naturally increase its muscle mass, strength and power and lose fat mass. Using resistance training during this time can enhance this process as long as certain precaution is taken. Studies have shown that properly supervised and prescribed training programs have the same injury rates in children as adults. Therefore, safety is always the first priority with technique emphasized over load or speed of movement. In addition, understanding the sequence of maturation of the body’s systems indicates that the hormonal system lags behind the development of the others. Thus, children may be more susceptible to overtraining and less responsive to body composition changes due to training than adults.

The gender of the individual is also a consideration when designing a resistance-training program. Females tend to be not as strong as males, but this is due solely to muscle quantity and not muscle quality. This difference in muscle mass is mainly due to the difference in hormonal environments between the genders, mostly because males have significantly more testosterone. Another consideration is that this difference in muscle quantity is much more present in the upper body than the lower body.

Another factor in this muscle mass difference can be a divergence in training goals as males tend to, but not always, participate in sports in which larger amounts of mass are important more than females.

Special consideration must also occur during the injury analysis as females have slightly different skeletal structures and hormonal profiles than can alter incidence rates of various injuries. The difference in hormonal profiles can also lead to females being more susceptible to overtraining than males.

As we age, there is a loss of bone and muscle mass, which will increase the risk for falls, hip fractures, and long-term disability. Bones become fragile with age because of a decrease in bone mineral content that causes an increase in bone porosity. After age 30 there is a decrease in the cross-sectional areas of individual muscles, along with a decrease in muscle density and an increase in intramuscular fat. Resistance and other training can reverse these effects.

Characteristic Effect of Aging Effect of Resistance and Other Training

Muscular Strength Decrease IncreasePower Decrease IncreaseMuscular Endurance Decrease IncreaseMuscle Mass Decrease IncreaseMuscle Fiber Size Decrease IncreaseMuscular Metabolic Capacity

Decrease Increase

Resting Metabolic Rate Decrease IncreaseBody Fat Increase DecreaseBone Mineral Density Decrease IncreasePhysical Function Decrease Increase

What Are the Safety Recommendations for Resistance Training for Seniors? All participants should be prescreened Warm up for 5 to 10 minutes before each exercise session Perform static stretching exercises before or after, or both before and after,

each resistance training session Use a resistance that does not overtax the musculoskeletal system Avoid performing the Valsalva maneuver Allow 48 to 72 hours of recovery between exercise sessions Perform all exercises within a range of motion that is pain free Receive exercise instruction from qualified instructors

5.3 Resistance Training Variables

When designing a training program there are seven training variables that must be considered: training frequency, exercise selection, exercise order, training load (intensity), number of repetitions, number of sets and rest period. All of the factors determined during the needs analysis are used in order to prescribe these variables in order to achieve the training goal.

Training frequency is simply the number of training sessions (in this case resistance training sessions) per week. This training variable is primarily determined by the training age of the individual or team, but is also influenced by the training goal.

Need to Know:Resistance Training Frequency Based on Training Status

Beginner: Two to three times per week Intermediate: Three to four times per week Advanced: Four to seven times per week

When assigning training frequency, it is important to space the resistance training sessions to allow for adequate recovery. The training goal of the athlete may influence the frequency as well, as higher intensity training may require longer periods of inactivity in order to recover. It is also important to consider all types of training, not just resistance training, when assigning training frequency to not overtrain the individual.

Another aspect of training frequency is using splits. A split is simply how the training days of different areas of the body are assigned throughout the week. In general, split routines are reserved for individuals with an advanced training age.

Splits can divide the body into halves (upper body day and lower body day) or body parts (leg days, chest day, back day, etc.).

There are many ways to assign training days and splits, below are some examples

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday SundayFull Body Full Body

Full Body Full Body Full BodyUpper Body

Lower Body

Upper Body

Lower Body

Upper Body

Lower Body

Upper Body

Lower Body

Upper Body

Lower Body

Chest Legs Shoulders Back Legs Arms

Need to Know:Frequency is also dependent on the sport season. The following is the recommended frequency of training based on the time of year:Off-Season: Four to seven times per weekPre-Season: Three to four times per weekIn-Season: One to three times per weekPost-Season: Zero to three times per week

During the process of exercise selection, it is important to choose both “core” and “assistance” exercises. Core exercises are those that have direct application to the sport of the individual and allow for the application of the training goal protocol. For example if training to improve speed, a power exercise (exercises that are performed very quickly or explosively) should be used. Typically core exercises recruit one or more large muscle areas, and involve two or more primary joints.

Assistance exercises are typically smaller muscle areas and less joints (though not always) and do not have the same direct application to sport performance. These assistance exercises should be chosen to achieve one of three purposes: to promote better performance of the core exercises, to train the antagonist muscles of the core exercises in order to promote muscle balance and prevent injury or to directly affect a common or individual injury or area of injury.

Some important considerations during the exercise selection process: Start beginners with bodyweight or machine core exercises and free weight

assistance exercises For intermediate and advanced resistance-trained athletes, assign more free-

weight core exercises. Use assistance exercises for injury prevention Always evaluate athletes’ technique, regardless of their stated experience Take into account available equipment when choosing exercises Weigh the amount of time the athlete has to train against the value to each

exercise when considering which exercises to assign

The order of these exercises within a training session is also an important variable, but this has little or nothing to do with the needs analysis and is based solely on the nature of the exercises themselves.

Must Know:Exercise order is based on the following factors:

Training Goal- core exercises are performed before assistance exercises Speed of Movement- core exercises are performed from high velocity to low

velocity (power exercises before strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance exercises)

Number of Joints- multi-joint exercises are performed before single joint exercises

Muscle Mass- large muscle mass exercises are performed before smaller muscle mass exercises

Degree of Difficulty- more technical exercises are performed before less technical exercises

Common Question: Which of the following is the correct order for a group of exercises that includes the snatch, squat, bench press and biceps curl?-First of all, the snatch, squat and bench press are most likely to be core exercises (and the biceps curl an assistance exercise), but how should these be ordered?-The Snatch would be first because it is performed at the highest velocity-The squat would be before the bench press because it is a more complicated exercise and uses a larger muscle mass-The biceps curl would be last because it is an assistance exercise, is single joint and uses a small amount of muscle mass

Some considerations in exercise order that can aid in recovery if performing sessions with many exercises is to alternate exercises based on body area or movement. For example, exercises can be alternated between upper and lower body or between pushing and pulling exercises. Alternating exercises is most likely to be useful when performing circuit training.

The pairing or grouping of exercises can also be utilized to increase density of the workout and possibly cut down total training duration. A superset, two sequentially performed exercises that stress two opposing muscles or muscle areas (i.e. an agonist and its antagonist), or a compound set, sequentially performing two different exercises for the same muscle group, can be used for this purpose.

During resistance training, the intensity is expressed as load, or the amount of weight lifted. Prescription of load can be expressed in one of two ways, as a percentage of one repetition maximum (1RM), which is the maximum amount a person can lift with proper technique once, or a percentage of the most weight that a person can lift for a specific number of repetitions, or a repetition maximum (xRM,

where x is the number of repetitions). Using a percentage of 1RM is the most common.

Loads are prescribed based on the training goal of the individual, with specific loads providing specific stress to achieve the desired result. High loads will increase motor unit recruitment and rate of motor unit recruitment to improve strength and power. Moderately high loads will be enough stimulus to cause muscle damage and promote rebuilding of tissue, but not too high to not allow a higher volume of training. Low loads are used during muscular endurance training to allow for a high volume of repetitions.

Must Know:Load prescription based on training goal:

Muscular Endurance: Less than or equal to 67% of 1RM Hypertrophy: 67 to 85% of 1RM Strength: 85 to 100% of 1RM Power: for single (or two repetition) events- 80 to 90% of 1RM; for multiple

(three to five repetition) events- 75 to 80% of 1RM

During resistance training, load is the most common variable that is progressively overloaded in order to continue adaptation. Monitoring each athlete’s training and response helps the strength and conditioning professional know when and to what extent loads should be increased. The conservative way to determine when an individual is ready to increase load is the two for two rule. The two for two rule states that if the athlete can perform two or more repetitions over his or her assigned repetition goal in the last set in two consecutive workouts for a given exercise, weight should be added to that exercise for the next training session.

Must Know:Progression of load based on training experience:

If a beginner or intermediate lifter adding 2.5 to 5 pounds of resistance is appropriate for upper body exercises and increasing 5 to 10 pounds is appropriate for lower body exercises.

If an advanced lifter adding 5 to 10 pounds of resistance is appropriate for upper body exercises and increasing 10 to 15 (or more) pounds are appropriate for lower body exercises.

The number of repetitions is the number of times the weight is consecutively lifted at one time. Like load, the prescription of repetitions is based on training goal. Lower intensity goals such as endurance have higher repetitions counts to place stress on the body for a longer period of time. Hypertrophy training needs longer time under tension to increase muscle damage and promote lactate buildup and therefore requires relatively high repetition counts. Finally, the higher intensity training goals of strength and power use lower repetition counts in order to keep quality optimized.

Must Know:Repetition prescription based on training goal:

Muscular Endurance: 12 or more repetitions Hypertrophy: 6 to 12 repetitions Strength: 6 or less repetitions Power: for single events- 1 or 2 repetitions; for multiple events- 3 to 5

repetitions

Key Point:There is a direct inverse relationship between the load and the number of repetitions.

Common Question:What is the appropriate load for a given number of repetitions and vise versa?

Percentage of 1RM Number of Repetitions Allowed100 195 293 390 487 585 683 780 877 975 1070 1167 1265 15

A set is a group of repetitions. An exercise is typically performed for a given number of sets. Like the number of repetitions, this is based on training goal. Muscular endurance has a lower set count because of the higher repetition counts as well as to force a greater variety of exercises in order to stress the entire body instead of a few agonists. The higher intensity training goals (strength and power) use a higher number of sets due to the lower repetition count, but to still achieve an appropriate volume of training for the core exercises. Hypertrophy training is all about volume, therefore this training goal will use a higher set count to coincide with its relatively high repetition count.

Must Know:Set prescription based on training goal:

Muscular Endurance: Two to three sets Hypertrophy: Three to six sets Strength: Two to six sets Power: Three to five sets

The number of exercises, number of repetitions and number of sets are all factors in the overall volume of training. Volume is often measured to monitor training. Multiply the number of sets and repetitions will give the repetition volume of each exercise and the sum each of these can give the overall volume of a training session. When the product of the load and number of repetitions of each set is calculated, the load volume is discovered.

The rest interval is the time taken between sets for the body to recover. Again this variable differs in relation to the training goal of the individual. In general, the higher the intensity of training, the longer the rest interval will be.

Must Know:Rest Interval prescription based on training goal:

Muscular Endurance: 30 seconds or less (not complete recovery, heart rate will remain elevated in order to tax the cardiovascular system as well)

Hypertrophy: 3o to 90 seconds (incomplete recovery, this increases training density and maintains high lactate levels to promote release of anabolic hormones)

Strength and Power: Two to five minutes (allow complete or near complete recovery of the ATP-PC energy system, remember replenishment rates of these metabolic pathways)

5.4 Periodization of Resistance Training

Periodization is a strategy to promote long-term training and performance improvements with preplanned, systematic variations in training specificity, intensity, and volume organized in periods or cycles within an overall program. This strategy is used to gradually increase and improve the training state of the athlete over a period of time.

In addition, periodization is an injury prevention measure. Optimum performance should coincide with the competitive season without increasing the risk of overtraining or injury and periodization allows for this. Periodization tries to find a balance between keeping the optimum stresses and variety during training without developing the consequences of overtraining.

Must Know:There are three main cycles that make up the process of periodization:

Macrocycle- Typically an entire training year but may also be a period of many months up to four years (for Olympic athletes). This cycle focuses on the overall training goal of the individual, which is typically to increase sport performance.

Mesocycles- Two or more cycles within the macrocycle, each lasting several weeks to several months. These cycles break the training program into specific training goals such as hypertrophy, strength, etc. The combining of the training within these cycles leads to improved sports performance.

Microcycles- Typically one week long but could last for up to four weeks, depending on the program. This is the specific training cycle of a training goal that occurs before the overload is progressed for the next microcycle.

Common Question:The relative lengths of the cycles that make up a periodized program:

Shortest is the microcycle, longest is the macrocycle. Mesocycle is in between.

In general, there are two types of periodization plans: linear and undulating. Linear periodization involves shifting training priorities from non-sport-specific activities of high volume and low intensity to sport-specific activities of low volume and high intensity over a period of many weeks to prevent overtraining and optimize performance.

Non-Linear or Undulating periodization involves large fluctuations in the load and volume assignments for core exercises. Despite these fluctuations, there is still an overall linear pattern as intensity increases in a wave like pattern and volume will decrease in a wave like pattern.

Must Know:There are four phases that make up a macrocycle:

Preparatory Period- This is the period that is usually the longest and occurs during the time of the year when there are no competitions and only a limited number of sport-specific skill practices or game strategy sessions. Thus, the highest volume of physical training occurs during this time. The major emphasis of this period is establishing a base level of conditioning to increase the athlete’s tolerance for more intense training. The preparatory period can consist of multiple mesocycles that address a variety of training goals.

First Transition Period- this occurs between the preparatory and competitive periods to denote the break between high-volume training and high-intensity training. The number of sport-specific skill practices or game strategy sessions increases during this period and the training that occurs during this period is the most sports specific (though training volume is not as high as during the preparatory period).

Competition Period- The period where physical training is not emphasized. Physical training is either targeted toward maintenance or peaking.

Second Transition Period- This is also known as the active rest period that occurs between the competitive season and the next macrocycle’s preparatory period. This phase consists mostly of recreational activity that may not involve resistance training.

It is important to note that some individuals may have multiple preparatory, competitive and transition periods within a microcyle. In general (but not always), a team sport athlete will go through these periods once during a microcycle and individual sport athletes may go through them twice or more.

An example of a macrocycle using linear periodization for a team sport athlete:Preparatory Period First

TransitionCompetitive Second

TransitionTraining Goal

Hypertrophy/Endurance

Strength Strength/Power

Maintenance

Peaking Active Rest

Intensity Low to Moderate (50 to 80% 1RM)

High (80 to 90% 1RM)

High (75 to 95% 1RM)

Moderate(80 to 85% 1RM)

Very High (93 to 100% 1RM)

Low

Volume High Moderate Low Moderate Low Low

Sometimes the terms used within periodization can be confusing, but they do relate to a sports season:

The preparatory period is the off-season, which occurs between the postseason and six weeks (although this varies greatly) prior to the first contest of the next year’s season.

The first transition could also be called the pre-season, which leads up to the first contest and commonly contains the late stages of the preparatory period and the first transition period.

In-Season, or competitive period, contains all the contests scheduled for that year, including any tournament games.

The postseason, or second transition occurs after the final contest and continues for approximately six weeks (although this varies greatly).

5.5 Training Goals and Variables of An Aerobic Training Program

Need to Know:There are five goals of an aerobic training program

To increase maximum oxygen consumption and utilization (VO2max)o Improving this attribute allows an individual to perform at a higher

intensity aerobically, can increase time to exhaustion and increase recovery speed

Increase exercise economy, which is less energy cost for same amount of work or a lower oxygen consumption (VO2) at a given exercise intensity

o Improving this attribute decreases the effort needed by the individual during submaximal exercise, allowing quicker recovery after submaximal training and increasing energy reserves for when maximal effort is needed

o This attribute is related to maximal oxygen consumption Increase lactate threshold and onset of blood lactate accumulation

o This will increase the intensity at which one is still primarily using the aerobic system, which allows more work to be done aerobically and increases time to fatigue

o Endurance athletes typically will compete below these energy pathway markers, but train above

Alter fuel (energy substrate) use through glycogen conservation and fat utilization

o Again, this will increase time to fatigue Increase oxidative capacity of muscle fibers through increased mitochondrial

densityo This is essential to improving VO2max, exercise economy and lactate

threshold

Training to make these improvements are rely heavily on genetics and pre-training status. The number of mitochondria, muscle fiber type distribution (amount of type I fibers) and VO2max all has individual, genetically determined set limits and potential for improvement. In addition, those starting at the lowest level of fitness have the most to gain and already well-trained individuals will only see small improvements.

Key Point:There are four main variables to consider when designing an aerobic training program: mode, intensity, volume and frequency.

The mode is simply the type of exercise or activity used to perform the training (is analogous to exercise selection in resistance training). In general the mode chosen should use a large muscle mass, be a repetitive movement and be sustainable for many minutes. In general, the mode will be very sport specific, or at least based heavily on the movement analysis of the sport, and in the case of endurance athletes is often the sport movement itself. However, other modes may be used when muscular balance is needed to prevent injury, the sport activity is difficult to reproduce in a training setting or a break or recovery is needed from the sport-specific activity. Using non-specific activities during aerobic training is often referred to as cross-training

Intensity is the difficulty of the activity, and like resistance training, is prescribed as a percentage of maximum. This maximum could be VO2max, heart rate of perceived exertion or effort. The desired training goal of the individual will dictate the intensity that is prescribed. To achieve general fitness, the individual will train at 50 to 85% of this maximum, where as to improve the energy demands of athletic performance the intensity will reach above 85% or at a level that exposes an athlete to high lactate concentrations.

Duration is the length of time spent in an activity and can be compared to the repetitions of resistance training. As in resistance training, the duration is dependent on the intensity of the activity as more intense activities will have to be of shorter duration and lower intensity activity can be performed longer. For aerobic training to be effective, the activity must combine intensity and duration in such a way that the body can generate the needed ATP using the aerobic pathways. Therefore, like intensity, duration is based upon the training goal of the individual.

Frequency is how often the training is scheduled, often expressed as number of days per week. Frequency assignment is based on the training status of the individual, training season and the recovery needed for the intensity and duration of the activity. In general, those with less training experience will train less frequently. The frequency of training will increase over the post and off-season before peaking in the pre-season with only maintenance sessions occurring during the season to prevent fatigue during competition and those competitions serving as the main stress to maintain or improve aerobic abilities. Athletes requires adequate recovery time between workouts, and higher intensity and, or duration training will increase the amount or recovery needed. Recovery time should be long enough to allow the athlete’s body to rehydrate and refill its glycogen stores and this may alter the frequency of aerobic training.

Key Point:The general plan of aerobic training is to work at an intensity that creates a physiological adaptation. The exercise prescription must overload the appropriate physiological systems. Therefore, as in resistance training, intensity is the most important training variable.

As mentioned earlier, intensity can be prescribed as a percentage of VO2max, maximum heart rate or maximum perceived exertion. The most common method is to use heart rate as the percentage prescription. This is because heart rate is closely related to VO2 (increases in both are relatively linear) and is the easier to measure than VO2 and more accurate than perceived exertion.

There are two formulas that can be used to prescribe exercise via heart rate, known as the target heart rate, the Karvonen Method and the Percentage of Maximal Heart Rate Method.

The Karvonen Method is considered more accurate because it takes into consideration the individual’s fitness level through resting heart rate.

Must Know:Target Heart Rate (Karvonen Method) = (Heart Rate Reserve x Exercise Intensity) + Resting Heart Rate where Heart Rate Reserve = Maximal Heart Rate – Resting Heart Rate.

Common Question:

An example of using the Karvonen Method is to find the target heart rate of an individual with a maximal heart rate of 200 and a resting heart rate of 60 who wants to train at an intensity of 80%.

First find the heart rate reserve = max heart rate – resting heart rate = 200 – 60 = 140

Then multiply the heart rate reserve by the intensity = 140 x 0.80 = 112 Finally add the resting heart rate to this number (112 + 60 = 172) to get the

target heart rate of 172 beats per minute

The Percentage of Maximal Heart Rate Method is not as accurate, but can be used if the resting heart rate is unknown.

Must Know:Target Heart Rate (Percentage of Maximal Heart Rate Method) = Maximal Heart Rate x Exercise Intensity.

Key Point:Often the maximal heart rate is not given. In this case it must be estimated using the formula: Maximum Heart Rate = 200 – Age (in years).

Common Question: As an example of using the Percentage of Maximal Heart Rate Method is to

find the target heart rate of a 20 year old who wants to train at an intensity of 80%.

First, because the maximal heart rate is unknown, this must be estimated = 220 – age = 220 – 20 =200 beats per minute

Then multiply the estimated max heart rate by the exercise intensity (200 x 0.80 = 160) to get the target heart rate of 160 beats per minute

Notice how different this target heart rate is from the result using the Karvonen Method despite having the same maximum heart rate and exercise intensity. It is therefore very important to understand which method to use. First look to see if the question advises which method to use, and if not, look for if a resting heart rate (if so use the Karvonen Method) is given.

5.6 Types of Aerobic Training Programs and Periodization of Aerobic Training

Key Point:The following aerobic training programs will be presented in increasing order of intensity.

Long, slow distance, or steady state aerobic training is one of the most common types of aerobic training programs. It is performed at approximately 70% of VO2max or 80% of maximum heart rate. The duration usually falls between 30 minutes and 2 hours with race distance or competition duration being a typical

upper threshold to mimic or surpass in order to ready the athlete for the duration of the event. This is one type of training in which, although intensity is a factor, duration is the primary training variable. One or two of these sessions are typically performed per week, but this frequency can increase early in the training plan.

Individuals use this type of training to increased oxidative capacity, mitochondrial ATP production and use of fat as an energy substrate in addition to improving cardiovascular function and thermoregulation. Despite all of these positive adaptations, long, slow distance training does have its limitations. It may not mimic the performance pace or intensity or use the same motor unit recruitment (and fiber) pattern as it can limit training to some fibers, but not all those used in competition. In addition, as mentioned earlier the overload can only be achieved by increasing duration, not intensity.

Pace, or tempo training is a higher intensity longer duration training that is performed at, or slightly above lactate threshold or the pace of competition for a total duration of 20 to 30 minutes. This duration can be performed at a steady pace throughout or broken down into intervals of at least five minutes of higher intensity (at or above lactate threshold) activity intermittent with periods of lower intensity. As a result of this higher intensity, one or two of these sessions is the maximum recommended frequency of this type of training.

This higher intensity-training program provides an intensity overload to the athlete by pushing the system to or above the lactate threshold. As a result, exercise economy will improve and the lactate threshold and onset of blood lactate accumulation will increased. In addition this training is targeted to sport-specific muscle fibers.

Fartlek training is a hybrid of the aerobic training methods that will switch between intensities performed during long, slow duration training, pace training and possibly more intense methods. These intensities are varied in random fashion throughout the 20 to 60 minute duration and should only be performed once per week.

This multidimensional training approach stresses the body in a variety of ways within one training session by combining several of the other methods. This training is designed to increase VO2 max, lactate threshold and use of fat as an energy substrate as well as to improve exercise economy.

With interval training, the adaptations begin to transfer into the anaerobic energy pathways as well as both VO2max and anaerobic metabolism is improved. The work bout is performed just below VO2max with a 30-second to 5-minute duration with an equal duration rest and recovery period between bouts. This intermittent, near maximum intensity training pushes the body to a large overload and follows up with a rest or recovery period over and over during a session, which can be performed once or twice per week.

The final, and most intense, type is the repetition method. The intensity is above VO2max up to maximal for 30 to 90 seconds with five times the working duration prescribed for rest and recovery (1:5 work to rest ratio). As this protocol pushes the system to an extreme overload, it must be balanced with adequate rest intervals between work bouts and training sessions. Therefore, only one session of repetition training is recommended per week.

This supra-maximal training is used to increase speed and enhance end of race performance. In addition, this training will enhance exercise economy, improve lactate tolerance and increase anaerobic capacity.

As in resistance training, periodization, or a planned method of workout variation, which involves altering the training schedule, based on the training season to optimize athletic gains. A periodized plan must involve progression, a strategy of advancing the exercise loads so that improvements will continue over time. For aerobic training programs these progressions should include 5 to 10% increments of a variable. In order to prevent overtraining, progression of only one variable at a time should occur.

An important aspect of periodization of aerobic training programs for endurance athletes is tapering. This is the systematic reduction of training duration and intensity combined with an increased emphasis on technique work and nutritional intervention. The objective of tapering the training regimen is to attain peak performance at the time of competition

Periodization of aerobic training programs can follow a linear plan, which involves a gradual increase of training variables over time coinciding, or an undulated plan that fluctuates the intensity and volume. In general, more linear plans are preferred for aerobic training that follow these general guidelines:

Preparatory Period (Off-Season) o Begin with long duration and low intensity. Gradually increase

intensity and, to a lesser extent, duration. First Transition (Pre-Season)

o Focus on increasing intensity, maintaining or reducing duration, and incorporating all types of training.

Competitive Period (In-Season)o Program should be designed around competition, with low-intensity

and short-duration training just before race days. Second Transition (Post-Season)

o Focus on recovering from the competitive season while maintaining sufficient fitness.

Example of linear aerobic training plan for an endurance athlete:

Sport Season

Objective Frequency per Week

Duration Intensity

Off-Season(base training)

Develop sound conditioning base

5-6 Long Low to moderate

Pre-Season Improve factors important to aerobic endurance performance

6-7 Moderate to long

Moderate to high

In-Season Maintain factors important to aerobic endurance performance

5-6 (training and racing)

Short (training)Race distance

Low (training)High (racing)

Post-Season(active rest)

Recovery from competitive season

3-5 Short Low

Although the need for aerobic training for strength and power athletes in order to perform their sport is apparent, the use of resistance training for endurance athlete can be overlooked. Research is limited, but some data suggest that benefits can be derived from performing resistance training during aerobic endurance trainingThese benefits may include improvement in short-term exercise performance, faster recovery from injuries, prevention of overuse injuries and reduction of muscle imbalances and during competition, improve hill climbing, bridging gaps between competitors during breakaways, and the final sprint.

Module 5 Practice Questions

1. Which of the following is the method most commonly used to assign and regulate exercise intensity?

A. oxygen consumption

B. heart rate

C. ratings of perceived exertion

D. race pace

2. Bill is 32 years old. What would his target heart rate range be if he wanted to exercise between 70 and 80% of his maximum heart rate?

A. 132-150 beats per minute

B. 174-189 beats per minute

C. 151-163 beats per minute

D. 154-176 beats per minute

3. When designing an in-season resistance training program for a soccer team with

limited training time, which of the following exercise arrangements is the most effective

and minimizes the length of the rest periods needed between body areas? (none of the

below is supersetted)

A. dumbbell chest press, seated row, dumbbell shoulder press, lat pull-down

B. dumbbell chest press, dumbbell shoulder press, lat pull-down, seated row

C. dumbbell shoulder press, seated row, lat pull-down, dumbbell chest press

D. seated row, dumbbell shoulder press, dumbbell chest press, lat pull-down

4. Jill is 32 years old and has a resting heart rate of 65 beats per minute, what should her target heart rate range be if she wishes to exercise at between 70 and 80% exercise intensity?

A. 132-150 beats per minute

B. 174-189 beats per minute

C. 151-163 beats per minute

D. 154-176 beats per minute

5. A novice runner is using long slow distance training to build up to a half marathon.

Which of the following describes this type of training?

I. Frequency: 2x/week

II. Duration: 1-2 hours

III. Intensity: greater than VO2 max

IV. Work to rest ratio: 1:5

A. I, II and III only

B. II and III only

C. I and II only

D. II, III and IV only

6. At which intensity should one exercise during the working phase during interval

training?

A. lactate threshold

B. above the lactate threshold

C. above VO2 Max

D. just below VO2 Max

7. Which of the following is LEAST likely to affect the amount of aerobic endurance

improvement an individual can achieve?

A. genetics

B. training

C. gender

D. pre-training status

8. Which of the following is NOT a part of a movement analysis?

A. Anatomical Planes

B. Joint Movements

C. Energy Systems

D. Muscles Used

9. How many reps can typically be performed with a 93% one-rep maximum load?

A. 1

B. 3

C. 6

D. 8

10. Which of the following is the shortest phase in a periodized training program?

A. microcycle

B. mesocycle

C. minicycle

D. macrocycle

11. Which of the following periods would involve the highest volume of resistance

training?

A. in-season

B. pre-season

C. off-season

D. preparatory period

12. Athletes should use which of these exercises to train the ability to produce force in

the shortest amount of time as possible?

A. Dumbbell biceps curl

B. Back squat

C. Overhead press

D. Hang clean

13. In a one day workout with the following exercises: calf press, hang snatch, and

deadlift; which of the following would be the correct order of performing these

exercises?

A. calf press, deadlift, hang snatch

B. hang snatch, calf press, deadlift

C. deadlift, hang snatch, calf press

D. hang snatch, deadlift, calf press

14. Which of the following BEST describes the main reason for strength differences

between males and females?

A. males have a more efficient neuromuscular system

B. males have more muscle mass

C. males strength train more than females

D. males have higher quality musculature than females

15. Which of the following is the MOST significant adaptation of a chronic structural

exercise resistance training program in the elderly?

A. increased flexibility

B. increased bone mineral density

C. increased blood lipid profile

D. increased cardiovascular fitness

16. The basketball coach says his starting center needs to jump higher. In addition to

beginning a plyometric training program, which of the following resistance training

exercises are MOST specific to this goal?

I. power clean

II. leg curl

III. front squat

IV. seated calf raise

A. I and III only

B. I and IV only

C. I, II and III only

D. II, III and IV only

17. Dennis has been training for four months. How many training days per week are

recommended for someone of his training status?

A. 1

B. 2

C. 3 to 4

D. 4 to 7

18. Which of the following is the MOST appropriate to include in the hypertrophy phase

of a collegiate male wrestler?

A. 3 sets of 10 reps of tuck jumps

B. 3 sets of 10 reps of dumbbell lunge

C. 4 sets of 3 reps of power clean

D. 4 sets of 5 reps of back squat

19. 19. During which phase of the periodized yearly model is the amount of total

training, including physical, technical and tactical training, the least?

A. competitive phase

B. first transition

C. preparatory phase

D. second transition

20. What variable of a child is most important to consider when designing a training

program?

A. training age

B. chronological age

C. sport played

D. biological age

1. B (Module 5.5)

2. A (Module 5.5)

3. A (Module 5.3)

4. C (Module 5.5)

5. C Module 5.6)

6. D (Module 5.6)

7. B (Module 5.5)

8. C (Module 5.1)

9. B (Module 5.3)

10. A (Module 5.4)

11. C (Module 5.4)

12. D (Module 5.3)

13. D (Module 5.3)

14. B (Module 5.2)

15. B (Module 5.2)

16. A (Module 5.1)

17. C (Module 5.2)

18. B (Module 5.3)

19. D (Module 5.4)

20. D (Module 5.2)