bam and its cultural landscape
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Bam and its cultural landscapeManjusha Misra aa Development Planning Consultant , 189, Ent. 5, Block D1, PhaseIII, Ekbatan, Tehran, IranPublished online: 11 Aug 2008.
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International Journal of Environmental Studies,Vol. 65, No. 4, August 2008, 603–619
International Journal of Environmental StudiesISSN 0020-7233 print: ISSN 1029-0400 online © 2008 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journalsDOI: 10.1080/00207230802294748
Bam and its cultural landscape
MANJUSHA MISRA*
Development Planning Consultant, 189, Ent. 5, Block D1, Phase III, Ekbatan, Tehran, IranTaylor and FrancisGENV_A_329641.sgm10.1080/00207230802294748
(Received 24 June 2008)International Journal of Environmental Studies0020-7233 (print)/1029-0400 (online)Original Article2008Taylor & [email protected]
Bam is one of Iran’s eight listed World Heritage Sites, and the first to be listed as a ‘CulturalLandscape’. The site is in the list of ‘World Heritage in Danger’ pending achievement of its desiredstate of conservation by 2010, as decided by the World Heritage Committee in its 30th session inVilnius in 2006. This paper describes the World Heritage site and discusses the issues relating to itsconservation and management.
Keywords: Bam; Iran; Qanats; World Heritage; Cultural Landscape; Conservation
Introduction
Bam lies between the Jebal Barez Mountain Range and the Lut Desert, at an elevation of1060 m above sea level. Located on latitude N 29° 07′ 00.6″ and longitude E 58° 22′ 06.5″, itis 200 km south of Kerman city, in Kerman Province, on the road to Zahedan which leads toPakistan and India to the East, and also to Iranshahr and the Chabahar Port on the Oman Sea.It is 120 km north of Jiroft and its archaeological sites. The Bam area has a desert climatewith temperatures ranging between +49°C to −9°C. The Posht-e-Rud River flows to theNorth of Bam and is its main source of water resources.
The ancient Citadel of Bam (Arg-e Bam), to the north of Bam city, covering an area ofabout 80 ha, is considered as the largest extant mud brick complex of its type in the worldwhich has kept its traditional architecture and town planning undisturbed by alien elementsuntil now. It is the most representative example of a fortified medieval town built in vernacu-lar technique using mud layers (Chineh). Although the citadel is uninhabited, its associationswith the present-day Bam city community (situated south of the complex) have been main-tained in religious, spiritual and social activities [1]. The origins of Bam can be traced back tothe Achaemenid period (sixth to fourth centuries BC). Its heyday was from the seventh to11th centuries, being at the crossroads of important trade routes and known for the produc-tion of silk and cotton garments. The oasis depended on the underground irrigation canals,the qan[amacr ] ts, of which Bam has preserved some of the earliest evidence in Iran.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
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History
The origin of Bam Citadel is attributed to Haftvad [2] who lived at the time of ArdshirBabakan, founder of the Sassanian Empire (third century). The name Bam is associated withthe ‘burst of the (silk) worm’. The Darvazeh Qot-e-Kerm (Gate of the Worm) on the last wallof the citadel, separating the Governor’s Quarter from the military sector is associated withthe legendary coming of silk to Persia. China’s monopoly in rearing silk worms was brokenbecause two monks brought silk worms out of the country to Bam in the hollow of a bamboostick. The new discovery was cultured in Bam in great secrecy.
By the 10th century AD, Bam was a prosperous trading city, producing quality silk andcotton garments [3–5]. Between the 12th and 14th century Bam went through tumultuoustimes, affected by the Turkish and Mongol invasions, until about 1408–1409 AD when aTimurid general occupied Bam, restored the citadel and ordered the people to build theirhouses inside the fortified enclosure. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, during the rule ofthe Safavid dynasty, Bam prospered once again as a centre for silk and cotton garments, aswell as cashmere, and came to occupy a strategic role as a frontier fortress. Most of the build-ings that were destroyed by the earthquake of 2003, belonged to this period [6]. Afghanistanheld Bam in 1719, and again 1721–1730. In the late autumn of 1794, Lotf-Ali Khan Zand,the last Zand pretender to the Persian throne, was arrested in Bam’s stables, where he was inhiding, and was handed over to Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (the founder of the QajarDynasty). In 1837, the leader of the Ismailis, former governor of Kerman, bearing the title of‘Agha Khan Mahallati’ sought refuge in the Bam Citadel, where he is said to have held outagainst the forces of Fath Ali Shah for over a year.
During the siege, the Citadel and its inhabitants are said to have relied on a water supplybased on siphoning and four deep wells which were located within the fortifications. Thewell located in the governor’s section on top of the fortress of the citadel (Gav Chah) is duginto rock on the mound and estimated [7] to be about 60–70 m deep. The water for the wellwas drawn from a reservoir said to have been connected by a kilometre long tunnel to theFarahabad Qanat which surfaces at Nartich village east of Bam. These wells had beenplanned for defence and were separate from the water supply for the town which camethrough a channel (Shotorgalu) near the western gate and were sources of water supply towells located strategically at the citadel (above), Artillery (Chah e Tupkhaneh) (31.5 mdeep), Stables (Chah-e-Estable) (27–28 m deep) and the 12th Imam’s Well near the FridayMosque (Chah-e-Hazrat Saheb-e-Zaman) (20 m deep). The water for the town was distrib-uted in open channels and most affluent houses had their own reservoirs [8]. It is interestingto note that religion was not a factor for discrimination and that the ‘Sabat-e- Johudha or theJewish passageway to the east of the stables, which has one of the loftiest buildings in theArg and the spacious house of the Hindu Merchant next to the Meydan-e-Barandaz had theirown water reservoirs with a private bath [7].
After the siege of 1837–1838 the inhabitants of Bam were forced to abandon the citadel,which was maintained only for military use by the local government and to keep a watch onBam’s community, which was suspected of supporting the revolt [9,10]. A new settlementwith gardens and date groves was established 1 km southwest of the citadel. In 1881, theseat of the governor of the eastern provinces (Baluchistan and Makran), was changed fromBam to Bampur in the southeast. Syke’s accounts [11] of his visit in 1896 show that the cita-del was still being used by the military and not yet in a state of disrepair. The citadel, nolonger of military value, was abandoned. But the people of Bam continued to hold the citadelin reverence and lobbied for its conservation and restoration with the cultural heritage
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organization. Arg-e-Bam was registered as national heritage in 1945 and some parts reno-vated in 1954 and again from 1975 onwards. This has been the main reason for the restora-tion of the citadel after the earthquake, together with its potential for contributing to Bam’seconomy through tourism [12–14].
Brief description of the cultural landscape of Bam
Bam and its cultural landscape was listed as a World Heritage Site [15] on 7 July 2004, post-haste, six months after it was struck by a devastating earthquake on 26 December 2003. Thecitation was confirmed in 2007, upon submission of the revised management plan, but thisdid not alter the decision of 2006 to retain Bam and its cultural landscape as a World HeritageSite in Danger [16]. The citadel was almost completely destroyed in the earthquake.Although files for nomination of the adobe citadel for world heritage listing had been underpreparation, what was listed after the earthquake was far beyond the boundaries of the citadelitself. Studies undertaken after the earthquake [17], revealed archaeological remains from theSeleucid-Parthian dynasty (248 BC-224 AD) both in the collapsed citadel and in the adjoin-ing area a kilometre wide. Although this site lay there in full view all the while, it was‘discovered’ only during the reconnaissance trip by the UNESCO/ICOMOS team [7,17].
The Adobe Citadel
The Adobe Citadel of Bam has all the features of a fortified town in Central Asia. Similartowns have either been destroyed centuries ago, such as Zuzan in the Khorassan Province ofIran [18] or have changed drastically with the addition of asphalt roads or modern buildings,though retaining examples of impressive mud brick civic structures. The division of Bam’sfortified town into two sections – the Administrative or Governor’s Quarters (Hakemiyeh) andthe town – is similar to the Sassanid city of Abarshahr, later known as Neyshabour [19] andthe ancient city of Rey, south of present day Tehran, also known as Umn Al Bilad (Mother ofCities) among Muslim and Arab historians [20]. Both cities were razed to the ground first inthe 13th century AD by the Mongols, and then again in the 19th century as part of city expan-sion and modernization programs. While the plan adopted by the Bam fortified town is CentralAsiatic, existing examples post-date Bam; such as the Sassanid city of Firuzabad (thirdcentury AD) and Ctesiphon in Iraq. The rectangular plan of Bam is considered Hellenistic,similar to Heart (ancient Alexandria in Aria) or Merv (Alexandria in Margiana), both foundedby Alexander in the territories of present Afghanistan and Turkmenistan (fourth century BC)[6]. Indian influences cannot be ruled out either, in view of its original square plan [21].
The archaeological site near the earthquake fault and qanats
Some archaeologists believe [22] that the newly discovered Achaemenid site near the fault isprobably the city ‘Nashimeh’ inscribed in Bistun, which was once believed to be anothername for Pasargadae. Unfortunately, the destruction of most pre-Islamic sites and recordswithin Iran has left a big gap in the understanding of the period, and whatever remains is inthe form of mythology, stories and beliefs, which are not very reliable. Further excavationsin the area are expected to provide evidence of the continuing civilization in the area fromNeolithic times [23,24]. The examination by the ICOMOS/UNESCO/ICHTO team alsoresulted in the discovery of an ancient qanat (underground waterway) system, which is the
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oldest in Iran. Ancient people had made ingenious use of an earthquake fault, which acts as anatural reservoir, to create a complex underground irrigation system. This was exploited foragricultural land use, gardens and orchards and the built environment; and the growing scar-city of surface water led to the corresponding use of underground waters [7]. As has beenobserved in the world heritage nomination papers [1]:
It appears amazing to observe how in Bam an earthquake fault, a result and a symbol ofa most destructive power, has been transformed through men’s genius into an outstand-ingly remarkable mean of continual creation for over two thousand years.
The high cost of constructing and maintaining subterranean irrigation systems requiredsubstantial economic resources, high technology and well organized management. The capac-ity to engineer qanats dating from Seleucid–Parthian times, using the existence of the earth-quake fault, indicates a highly developed civilization. While post-Islamic qanats in Bam arecomparable to those of Yazd and Gonabad, the earlier qanats dating from the Achemenianperiod (sixth to fourth BC) and even earlier, bear close resemblance to the archaeologicalevidence of qanats in the Southwest Asia region, which were made possible with the emergenceof powerful kingdoms: the Assyrian, Urartian, Median Kingdoms, and later the AchaemenidEmpire [25]. Qanats in Ayn Manawir in Egypt are similar to those of Bam, but smaller, andtheir presence is short-lived – about 3 km were developed between the Persian and Romanperiods. Since they used fossil and not renewable water sources they were soon abandoned.The qanats of Bam are similar to the falaj of Oman, which also happen to be very ancient,having been excavated in the Iron Age (1300–300 BC). The falaj of Oman were listed as aWorld Heritage site on 16 July 2006 [26].
Iran has about 32,164 active qanats (1998) providing 10 billion m3 water per year [27].Three times as many structures are no longer in use. About 80% of the qanats are located inthe arid eastern part of Iran, although the oldest dated qanats (800 BC) are in northwesternIran. Bam district has qanats totalling in length 437 km, with a highest seasonal total dischargerate of 5510 l/s and an average rate of 2443 l/s [28]. Of these 48 are in the Bam-Baravat region.Twenty-three qanats have been abandoned or have collapsed after the earthquake. In the year1998 Bam’s qanats provided 414 mm3 of the 785 mm3 water provided in the area. Of this,95.7% was used for agriculture. The increase in the number of deep wells and over-pumpingof groundwater has reduced the discharge rate of qanats from 483 million m3 in 1993 to457 million m3 in 2000 and to 338.3 million m3 in 2002; and the trend has continued, althougha law in 1980 prohibits the digging of deep wells [29]. One of the priority projects after theearthquake, assisted by the UN, and jointly funded by the UK Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) (GBP 250,000), UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs(UNOCHA) (US$ 50,000) and UNDP (US$ 157,000), was the lining and rehabilitation ofmore than 4 km of canals channelling water from two major qanats, Eisavieh and Najmieh.These grants also were used to restore 25 wells, install 40 pump houses, and train 50 pumpoperators for Water User Groups and farmers. Most of the income (70%) in the agriculturaleconomy is from dates and citrus fruits [30]. The control of the water rights and the mainte-nance of the qanat system depend on the working of the traditional social system.
Bam City and Baravat
Bam City, which lies to the south of the Adobe Citadel, came into existence after the siege of1837–1838, as mentioned earlier. In the garden-like structure of Bam city, there are several
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Bam and its cultural landscape 607
large garden homes with palm groves and citrus orchards, as well as workshops for the stor-age, packaging and export of their products. The city also had a thriving Bazaar. There issignificant retailing and tourism. Bam city had an estimated [31] population of about 86,930before the earthquake. Its civic structures and most houses were also adobe constructions.Twenty-seven buildings in the city had been registered by the Iran Cultural HeritageOrganization; most were destroyed in the earthquake. The large number of deaths in Bamhave been attributed to substandard construction and asphyxiation under the debris [32–34],but the International Workshop in Bam declared that this was not due to the constructionmaterial [35]. The buildings and complexes included a traditional bazaar, mosques, baths,schools and houses. The main access road leads to the citadel and the wealthier house-gardens are located near to it. A Structure Plan (2015) had been prepared for Bam city beforethe earthquake. This was hastily revised and approved by the High Council for Architectureand Urban Planning, Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, in April 2004 [36].
Bam and its cultural landscape: the nomination and listing
Bam has been listed by the World Heritage Committee (WHC), under criteria (ii), (iii), (iv)and (v) of its Operational Guidelines [37], under a single nomination, as an ensemble [1].
The criteria emphasize the relation of the parts to the whole. The Citadel, the qanats andtheir water catchments area, the archaeological site, palm groves of Bam and Baravat and thetangible and intangible heritage of the city of Bam must all be seen as worth conserving andkeeping useful for the inhabitants.
Bam was listed as a result of its catastrophe. The Adobe Citadel was almost completelydestroyed and looked like a large mound of mud and debris, the city was about 70%destroyed and about 43,000 were feared dead (the number was lowered later to 30,000dead and the same number injured) [38]. Some 25,000 housing units in Bam and another24,000 in the surrounding villages were destroyed. Some 2000 orphans had nowhere togo and 5000 children had lost one parent [39]. The loss of life meant loss of human resourcein terms of professionals, managers and government staff. The qanats had been disruptedand some destroyed. The priorities were clean drinking water, health, safety, hygiene, sanita-tion, food, clothing and shelter. The costs of damage estimated by the IDBRI were US$1.5billion [40].
The Bam Research Base of the Cultural Heritage Organization sought advice fromUNESCO’s Tehran Cluster Office in regard to best practices for managing the World Heri-tage site [41]. The Bam Research Base achieved much in the early days of the earthquake.They organized a visit by ICOMOS and UNESCO’s World Heritage experts to the destroyedcitadel to assess the loss and secured listing of the site by the World Heritage Committee.Bam personnel organized international workshops in Bam to assist their Research Base inpreparing the nomination dossier and in taking up a grant from the Japan Trust for Culture(US$ 500,000) as well as the Italian Trust Fund (US$ 200,000).
Several field missions were taken to Bam and recommendations made in an InternationalWorkshop [42] which was held in Bam on 18 April 2004, World Monuments Day, less thanfour months after the earthquake. The impressive list of attendees, who came at short notice,included high level delegations from the UNESCO, ICOMOS, World Bank, ICCROM,World Monuments Fund, The Getty Conservation Institute, CRATerre-EAG, France andrepresentatives from the governments of France and Italy.
The recommendations of the workshop may be summarized as follows:
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1) Conserving the full significance of Bam and its setting.2) Conserving the character and the heritage of the city and landscape.3) Integrating heritage in the recovery process and the future development of Bam.4) Preserving and enriching the tradition of earthen architecture.5) Protecting and preventing damage to earthen heritage in seismic areas.6) Sustaining co-operation to realize the conservation goals.7) Sustaining momentum and focus to implement the Declaration and Recommendations (of
the workshop).
Bam was listed as an example of World Heritage in Danger based on the recommendationsof the workshop and Iran was asked to prepare an updated version of the nomination dossier:
so as to match the perimeter and the outstanding universal value of the world heritageproperty and to develop a management plan, reflecting the extent and values of theWorld Heritage property, in close coordination and integration with other existingplanning frameworks and all concerned institutions and stakeholders. [43]
In 2007, Iran submitted a revised Management Plan, prepared with the assistance of theUNESCO Tehran Cluster Office and the Japan Trust Fund. In January 2008, Iran furthersubmitted a State of Conservation report. This contains an enhanced description of thecultural landscape of Bam.
Cultural Landscapes: a new approach to world heritage
The term ‘Cultural Landscape’ was adopted by WHC in 1992. It is intended to be a term ofart useful for definitions of landscapes where cultural features are present and which have avalue recognizable all over the world [44,45]. Several world heritage sites, listed before theterm was adopted, would obviously qualify, for example, the gardens of Versailles, France(1979), Stonehenge and Avebury, England (1986); sites registered as natural heritage butwhich have a cultural significance, such as the Grand Canyon, USA (1979) and SagarmathaNational Park, Nepal (1979); or ‘mixed sites’ such as Mount Athos and Meteora in Greece(1988) and Hierapolis-Parnukkale, Turkey (1988).
Cultural Landscapes have been defined in several ways [46]. According to the definitionagreed by the WHC in the le Petite Pierre session, Cultural Landscapes are
combined works of nature and man, illustrative of the evolution of human society andsettlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunitiespresented by their natural environment, and of successive social, economic and culturalforces, both external and internal.
Prior to the adoption of this term, world heritage sites were listed for their architecturalmerits, or natural sites for their natural resource merits. There were also mixed sites includ-ing cultural and natural elements, but there was no emphasis on the interaction of these,and they were mainly treated as a form of wilderness – human interference being mini-mized. In contrast, a Cultural Landscape is a memorial to the unknown labourer [44]. Theterm ‘Cultural Landscape’ is intended to reflect the diverse cultural heritage across theglobe.
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Cultural landscapes … are often about living people as much as living landscapes; theymay sometimes be remote but in general they are not deserted places. They are charac-teristically areas where people are continuing to try to gain a livelihood. [45]
As stated by UNESCO on its official website [47] (http://whc.unesco.org/en/globalstrategy/):
A global study carried out by ICOMOS from 1987 to 1993 revealed that Europe,historic towns and religious monuments, Christianity, historical periods and ‘elitist’architecture (in relation to vernacular) were over- represented on the World HeritageList; whereas, all living cultures, and especially ‘traditional cultures’, were underrepre-sented.
The reasons for the gaps were attributed to the structure of the World Heritage nominationprocess and their management and protection; and qualitative issues relating to the way prop-erties are identified, assessed and evaluated. A kind of argument about cultural perception orEurocentric approaches is in the background, apparently.
According to Rossler,
The decision [to adopt the term] was a milestone achievement in many ways, in its recog-nition of the diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and itsnatural environment and traditional forms of land use; acceptance of the living heritageof indigenous people, consideration of spiritual relationships to nature, introduction oftraditional management mechanisms and the term sustainability into the OperationalGuidelines via specific techniques of sustainable land-use … thereby opening the conven-tion to regions and cultures of the world that were hitherto not represented and paving theway for the Global Strategy for a representative World Heritage List adopted in 1994. [48]
The legal and institutional implications and the instruments for the management of CulturalLandscapes are as yet in the process of development. To date, only 58 World Heritage Siteshave been listed as Cultural Landscapes [49] which are as varied as the rice terraces of thePhilippine Cordilleras and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (i.e., Ayers’ Rock and TheOlgas) in Australia. The UK has led the way in developing a legal framework for managingits World Heritage Sites as Cultural Landscapes, whether or not listed under the category,such as in the Ironbridge Gorge, City of Bath and Derwent Valley Mills, which provide goodmodels for reference. This is the result of a long and sound town and country planning tradi-tion, which is not always present in the 185 state parties to the World Heritage Convention,and is unfortunately not present in Iran.
Conservation of Cultural Heritage as practised in Iran, as perhaps in several countries, suchas India whose national heritage is managed by the Archaeological Survey of India and bythe Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), is a complicated task.Many interests must be reconciled, many elements of the problem require highly developedskills; and in the case of India there has been a long experience of analysis and conservationwhich Iran simply does not have. This may be seen also, sadly, in the current problems ofEsfahan. Iran needs to share the experiences of other countries, to develop best practices forthe management of its heritage sites, but the current climate of Iranian political opinion isunfavourable to this.
The management plan submitted by the ICHHTO (former ICHO) to the World HeritageCommittee reflects this dilemma. The underrepresentation of the qanats, the cities of Bam
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and Baravat as places where people are indeed earning a livelihood, as well as the archaeo-logical landscape including the earthquake fault in the management plan, can be explainedby the limitations of the cultural heritage organization, which has responded far better tothe conservation of the Adobe Citadel. The organization’s establishment of the ‘CulturalHeritage Task Force’ at Bam, was ineffectual because of failure to define relevant policyobjectives.
The image and character of a city is the sum total of its socio-economic and physical devel-opment. The City Master Plan and its implementation affect the quality of Bam’s landscape.Already, box-like housing is being built in Bam’s various districts, and its socio-economicstructure remains gravely disrupted [50].
Although the Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization (ICHHTO) hasbeen managing other complex heritage sites, such as the ‘Maidan e Nakshe Jahan’ in Esfahan,located in its business district, it has been unable to stop the forces that threatened almost toremove the site from the Heritage List [51]. Or in case of archaeological sites, such as inLorestan, Jiroft, Sialk, and Aveh, it has been unable to stop theft of artifacts and vandalism[52]. In the name of development, Iran has lost archaeological sites through dam construc-tions in Kuzestan Province and Hamedan Province, the most recent being the Sivand Dam,in Fars Province which threatens a World Heritage Site, with the potential of a Cultural Land-scape in the Tanghe Bolaghi [53]. The High Council of Architecture and Urban Planning haspassed a law for the conservation of historic cores of cities. Yet even in the national capitalTehran, it has been difficult to keep developers and speculators at bay. In recent years, somesmall urban civic structures such as traditional hamams, water wells or ice houses under theownership of the ICHHTO, have been leased out for use as restaurants, workshops for artistsor exhibition areas on an experimental basis. In Ghazvin, ICHHTO bought up the entirehistoric core area including a traditional bazaar with its caravansaries and a palace gardenfor heritage revival. This is counter to best international practices that conserve the livingtraditions of such areas through a policy of inclusion rather than exclusion of its inhabitants.
ICHHTO has undergone structural changes in the last four years with two mergers, firstwith the tourism organization in 2003 and then with the handicrafts organization in 2005. Thethree organizations have continued pursuing their activities as before and the only sectionthat has merged is administration and finance.
Cultural Landscapes require management skills for the continuation of traditional systemsin the context of change and development. The Bam Research Base of the ICHHTO needs todevelop new approaches, with a matching organizational framework for the conservation ofBam and its Cultural Landscape.
Issues related to the conservation of Bam and its Cultural Landscape
a) The revised management plan for the World Heritage Site
In view of the scale of the site and the complexity of issues surrounding its conservation, onecould wish for a better integrated plan of work. Yet the management plan shows ambiguitiesin the identification of the site and the definition of its boundaries, although there wasinternational assistance in its preparation.
The table identifying the world heritage property, in section 1 of the management plan(1208bis) [1], lists a core zone of 81 ha, including the Bam citadel (Arg-e-Bam), Qaleh Dokhtar,(another older ruin of a citadel situated across the Posht Rud river at a lower elevation), the
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Vakil Ensemble, two residences (Ansari and Mehdizadeh) and two mausoleums (ImamzadehZeyd and Imamzadeh Asiri) outside of the citadel in the Bam city proper. Nearly all thesebuildings have been destroyed in the earthquake and need to be restored or renovated.
Except for the citadel and its buildings and complexes, the others such as the Vakil ensem-ble, residences and mausoleums outside the citadel are peripheral and local. They are notcentral to the criteria for the world heritage listing. Instead, the Achaemenian fire temple(Tall-e-Atesh) and the arched pavilion (Chaharsugh) should have been added as evidence ofthe continuity of Bam’s Landscape over 2000 years. The qanats, the archaeological site, thepalm groves, the garden city of Bam and Baravat are conspicuous by their absence in the list.This is surprising because they were documented at the request of the Arg-e-Bam ResearchBase, by the National Cartographic Organisation. The UNESCO Tehran Cluster office hadorganized a workshop in June 2005 to make recommendations for the inclusion of the qanatsin the management plan [54].
The world heritage property (the term of WHC for such sites) identified in Section 1 of therevised management plan comes as a surprise in view of the discussions and recommendation(see table 1).
In table 1, the revised world heritage property boundaries are shown to cover a ‘tentativetotal landscape buffer zone’ of 18,368 ha, which covers Bam city and Baravat with their palmgroves and the territory north of the city which is the main catchment area for the qanats.Buffer zone 1 is 288.2 ha and buffer zone 2 is 544.09 ha.
Although the earthquake fault and its adjoining agrarian archaeological sites with qanatsare indicated within the boundary of the core zone in the revised figures 4a and b of the nomi-nation file, they have not been specifically mentioned in the nomination table. This is proba-bly because the archaeological sites need to be studied and documented in detail, to establishtheir identity and description for the listing. But these items should have been included toshow ‘the big picture’ with further data being provided in due course.
Two buffer zones appear in the table, which refer to the older zone map (Figures 4 a and b),and covered the Bam city in zone 2. They are reduced to only one in the new map (see figures1 and 2). This raises questions as to the logic of the buffer zones 1 and 2 and the tentativelandscape zone in the conservation and management of the world heritage site.Figure 1. Delineation of the World Heritage Site boundary and its zones.(Source: Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization)Figure 2. Revised Core Zone – Bam and its Cultural Landscape.The management plan for Bam appears to be constrained by many uncertainties. For thecore zone (p. 30), ‘the points mentioned in the International Workshop on Bam (April 20,2004) shall also be respected as long as they are not in contradiction of national laws or thoseof the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization’.
Buffer zone 2, which includes Bam city, has three simple restrictions. The height of build-ing, style of facades and widening of streets is governed by the need to avoid visual/aestheticand/or physical damage to historical monuments. Oddly, buffer zone 2 has been omitted inthe revised zone map, raising questions about the application of the recommendation above.
Since the tentative landscape zone in the revised management plan covers the cities ofBam and Baravat, the geological fault and the catchments area of the qanats and the 45 haarchaeological site, and considering the importance of the skyline and horizon line in thepreceding paragraphs of the recommendations for the tentative landscape zone, it is certainlynot recommended that any construction take place in the area, outside of the defined citylimits to preserve the skyline, as well as to safeguard all these areas. Although the revisedplan notes the need to contain the city limits to keep a good relationship between the built andthe natural environment, construction if permitted would certainly destroy that relationship.Any high rise construction is not recommended in Baravat city either, in view of the generalcharacter of the city as an important element in the landscape.
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Tabl
e 1.
Sing
le n
omin
atio
n ta
ble
for A
rg-e
-Bam
and
its
rela
ted
site
s
Buf
fer
zone
s (h
a)
No.
Site
nam
e an
d pe
riod
of
cons
truc
tion
Cor
e zo
ne
(ha)
Buf
fer
zone
1B
uffe
r zo
ne 2
Ow
ners
hip
Reg
istr
atio
n nu
mbe
r (I
CH
O)
Dat
e of
nat
iona
l re
gist
ratio
nC
urre
nt s
ituat
ion
1.A
rg-e
Bam
(Pa
rthi
an &
ear
lier
up to
Qaj
ar)
ICH
HT
O51
913
24/1
945
80%
des
troy
ed
2.H
azra
t-e
Ras
ul S
hrin
e (S
afav
id)
73.1
627
9.06
ICH
HT
O +
O
wqa
f35
0825
/12/
1379
Des
troy
ed
3.Sh
rine
of
Mir
z [amacr ] E
br[amacr ]hi
m
(Saf
avid
)G
over
nmen
t Of
Ker
man
Des
troy
ed
4.Q
al’e
h D
okht
ar (
Pre-
Isla
mic
to
7th
cent
ury
AD
)3.
71IC
HH
TO
9566
27/5
/138
2 (1
7/8/
2003
)In
rui
ns
5.V
akil
Ens
embl
e (2
nd h
alf
of
19th
cen
tury
)5-
1 Q
ueys
arie
h5-
2 V
akil
Mos
que
(187
0–18
71)
5-3
Vak
il B
ath
0.76
6.48
Priv
ate
Ow
qaf
Priv
ate
1729
3506
1729
24/3
/136
6 (1
4/6/
1987
)
25/1
2/13
79 (
15/3
/200
0)24
/3/1
366
(14/
6/19
87)
Alm
ost d
estr
oyed
exc
ept f
or
som
e pa
rts
of Q
uesa
riye
h
6.B
am B
azaa
r (S
afav
id, Z
and,
Q
ajar
, Pah
lavi
)1.
08In
clud
ed in
V
akil
Ens
embl
e54
4.09
Priv
ate
mul
tiple
ow
ners
hip
4602
27/6
/138
0 (1
7/8/
2001
)C
ompl
etel
y de
stro
yed
7.A
nsar
i Res
iden
ce0.
350.
93Pr
ivat
e95
7027
/5/1
382
8.A
hmad
iyeh
Sch
ool (
Pahl
avi)
0.09
Incl
uded
in
Vak
il E
nsem
ble
Min
. of
Edu
catio
n–
–D
estr
oyed
9.Se
yyed
Abb
as B
ath
0.03
Incl
uded
in
Vak
il E
nsem
ble
Priv
ate
––
Not
des
troy
ed
10.
Em
[amacr ]d
Scho
ol (
1905
–190
7)0.
18In
clud
ed in
Arg
Min
. of
Edu
catio
n95
6827
/5/1
382
(17/
08/2
003)
Des
troy
ed
11E
mam
zade
h Z
eyed
Mau
sole
um
(Sel
juk
11th
-12t
h ce
ntur
y A
D)
1.18
1.62
Ow
qaf
(?)
––
Des
troy
ed b
ut re
ligio
us/p
oliti
cal
sent
imen
ts s
tron
g fo
r re
build
ing
12E
mam
zade
h A
siri
Mau
sole
um
(ori
gina
lly 1
1th
cent
ury,
reb
uilt
in 1
979)
0.43
Incl
uded
in
Vak
il E
nsem
ble
Ow
qaf
(?)
––
Des
troy
ed b
ut r
elig
ious
se
ntim
ents
str
ong
for
rebu
ildin
g
13M
ehdi
zade
h H
ouse
(19
30)
0.07
0.11
Priv
ate
––
Des
troy
edT
otal
81.0
428
8.2
544.
09
Not
e: T
enta
tive
Lan
dsca
pe B
uffe
r Z
one
has
a bo
unda
ry c
over
ing
18,3
68 h
a in
clud
ing
all l
iste
d si
tes.
Sour
ce: P
repa
red
from
dat
a pr
ovid
ed in
the
Nom
inat
ion
file
for
Bam
and
its
Cul
tura
l Lan
dsca
pe (
1208
bis)
and
Rec
over
y of
Bam
’s C
ultu
ral H
erita
ge R
esea
rch
Bas
e, I
ran
Cul
tura
l Her
itage
, Han
dicr
afts
and
Tour
ism
Org
aniz
atio
n.
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Bam and its cultural landscape 613
In section 4c (p. 32), protective measures and means of implementing them, there is areference to the recommendations of the April 2004 workshop instead of a precise listing ofpoints. Because the workshop was conducted hurriedly after the earthquake, and not intendedto produce a management plan but only to accelerate research for the preparation of detailedaction plans, and because the management plan has rendered the recommendations of theworkshop subject to national laws [55], it is ineffective.
In Section 4f. ‘Agreed Plans related to property’ are still in their inception stage withreferences only to emergency measures. Without a new coordinated Master Plan, withstrategies for achieving the objectives of conservation and an accompanying managementplan, and a tourism plan or regional plan, it will be difficult for the Bam Research Base,as the implementing arm of the ICHHTO for the World Heritage Site, to exercise itsauthority.
‘The sources of finance anticipated’ are a development budget of $1250, annual opera-tional budget of $15,000, income budget of $10,000 (for printing and publications for sale),besides the Japan Trust Fund and the Italian Trust Funds of $500,000 mentioned above.Japan has also given $1,360,000 for equipment supply.
Thirteen projects have been submitted to the World Bank for loans amounting to $15million for a study for establishment of a permanent cultural base in Bam, study for presenta-tion of the history of Bam, restoration, installation of access paths and for studies for conser-vation of Bam’s cultural and natural heritage assets. The amount appears to be too high forthe kind of study projects proposed, for a World Bank Loan. Only the project for installationof paths appears to be worthwhile.
In 5b (p. 38), Environmental pressures, ignores the current issues: air pollution resultingfrom construction, water pollution due to dumping of debris, land erosion (ditto).
Figure 1. Delineation of the World Heritage Site boundary and its zones.(Source: Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization)
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Differences in diurnal temperature and lack of humidity as a factor in erosion are alleged tobe problems.
In short, the management plan does not help to implement the declaration and recommen-dations of the workshop. It has missed out the key elements of the landscape in regard to siteidentification and has not developed points on conservation. The plan is in stark contrast withthe recommendations and reports in annex 2 of the management plan (p. 70), Complexity ofthe task, where the complexity, scale, cost and duration of the site has been compared to AbuSimbel and Angkor Wat [56].
b) The impact of the earthquake
Although reference to the earthquake has been removed for the purpose of Bam’s nominationas a World Heritage Cultural Landscape, in reality it has been the most determining factor in
Figure 2. Revised Core Zone – Bam and its Cultural Landscape.
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Bam and its cultural landscape 615
its nomination and will continue to be in its conservation for the future. The sheer logistics ofthe emergency measures in the two years after the earthquake have been monumental (seeabove).
Iran is one of the most earthquake prone countries in the world. With two major seismicbelts, the entire country faces moderate to high risks. In the 20th century alone 20 large earth-quakes claimed more than 140,000 lives, destroyed many villages and cities, and causedextensive economic damage to the country. Therefore, emergency preparedness, risk reduc-tion policies and practices, capacity building for smoother transition from relief to reconstruc-tion and better inter-agency coordination for all stages of disaster management – preparedness,relief and reconstruction will be a national priority in coming times to avoid catastrophes suchas Bam’s [13].
In a city whose primary heritage is mud architecture, earthquakes will remain a primaryconcern both in the conservation of its heritage as well as in reconstruction. The earthquakewas also largely responsible for the deterioration of the urban quality of Bam and the lowquality of its housing reconstruction due to the haste for restoring normality. Perhaps morethan the physical damage which can be restored, the damage to Bam’s socio-economic struc-ture has been far deeper. Out-migration of the more affluent population and the influx ofunskilled poor migrants from the surrounding provinces, especially the marginalized prov-ince of Sistan-va Baluchistan, seeking work and opportunities for income generation in theprevailing chaos, have disrupted the social fabric of Bam in that crime has increased in therecent years [6].
Intense construction activity and the absence of an environmental safeguard system haveled to extensive dumping of debris in the surrounding landscape causing land erosion andgroundwater pollution. Construction materials are dumped on the roadside blocking access,debris and construction material are also blocking water channels and qanats. The navigationof heavy transportation in the city for construction has left oil and grease spills on roads,besides making noise and threatening safety [6].
The emergency shelters constructed after the earthquake have stayed even after four years,and are not only an eyesore, but also areas for crime and illegal activities. Their removal is ofimmediate importance [6].
Iran’s experience in reconstruction of cities is fairly wide with emergency handling andreconstruction of Buein Zahra (1962), Tabas (1978), Manjil and Rudbar (1990) and thevillages of Borujerd and Doroud in 2005. Besides, cities affected by the war with Iraq, suchas Khorramshahr and Abadan have also been reconstructed. None of these disasters was asbig as the Bam earthquake. Emergency preparedness is one of the priorities of Iran, andlessons learnt from Bam are valuable.
c) Special institutional arrangements and related issues
It is noteworthy that the Cultural Heritage Organization was part of the Bam Guidance andPolicy Task Force, which was instituted for the reconstruction of Bam, represented at thehighest level then, by the Minister of Culture and Islamic Guidance. Nevertheless, the specialInstitutional arrangements which were made for Bam’s reconstruction were often in conflictwith the normal institutional procedures and cause for delays [57].
More than 20 defined urban design projects, including the city structure, main arteries,panorama and vistas, public spaces and parks, nodes and boundaries were evaluated by thetechnical committee of the Architecture Council, with the Building and Housing ResearchCentre as the coordinator.
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More than 40 architectural consultancies, the National Association of EngineeringConsultants, academic institutions and leading architectural practices were involved in thedesign of Bam’s reconstruction.
The over-institutionalization of the planning and construction process, led to overlaps indecision-making, causing delay and indecision, leading to loss of quality. Lack of clear lead-ership, responsibility and accountability, placed reliance on collective decision-making,which effectively meant that no-one was finally responsible. In an interesting development,the Bam Council of Architecture was offered assistance by the Agha Khan Foundation forplanning and designing Bam’s reconstruction. The offer was received with much enthusiasmand the mechanisms for cooperation were being worked out as reported in 2007, but nothingappears to have emerged so far [52].
The main thing is to restore the vitality and vibrancy of Bam as a living community; toensure that the interests and the quality of life of local residents and businesses are protectedand enhanced. This is the real challenge in the conservation of Bam’s Cultural Landscape.Although national and international support is vital, Bam’s future as thriving city can beachieved only when the local community is re-empowered to continue to change and adapt.
The strengths of Bam and the opportunities open for its recovery
The main strength of Bam is its social integrity. Parallel to the actions being taken by theauthorities, the citizens of Bam began to organize assistance for themselves. Local NGOshave sprang up, some assisted by NGOs from Kerman, or in the early days of the earthquakeby international NGOs. International assistance in rebuilding the citadel has been forthcom-ing with Italian [53] and German [54] teams assisting in reconstruction and restoration.Bam’s location in a much larger cultural landscape, near Kerman, Mahan, Rayan, Jopar, andShahdad in the Lut Desert to the north, and Jiroft and its archaeological site to the south, allwithin a 200 km radius has enormous resource potential for tourism. It could be as fruitful asthe historic trail through the centres of northwest Russia (the Golden Necklace). The accessinfrastructure is currently weak, but the completion of the Bam international airport and theupgrading of the road to Kerman will resolve the problem. Tourism development can giveBam a local economy more like that in the rest of Iran. It is not clear whether social structurescan absorb all these changes. The situation is not conducive to large-scale investments inhigh-end tourism, but planned development of small and medium businesses, with supportfrom the government can go a long way in establishing tourism in Bam. One great opportu-nity for Bam is the establishment of the Research Foundation in mud construction. This canmake full use of the citadel as a large laboratory.
Bam’s socio-economic revival depends on the return of normality. The near completedestruction of Bam is an opportunity for improving its infrastructure facilities and services. Itis also an opportunity for developing a quality modern town in juxtaposition with the old,both side by side, in harmony, in keeping with the local habits of adaptation for at least2000 years. Whether this process of change can be accomplished within 15 years remains aquestion.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the support received from Dr M. Brett-Crowther, editorof IJES; and the vast amount of information placed at her disposal by Dr E. Mokhtary,
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director of the Bam Research Base of the Iran Cultural Heritage Handicrafts and TourismOrganization.
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Journal on Architecture, Urban Design and Conservation. No. 1, December, Special Issue – Experience inBam’s Reconstruction (publisher by Seyed Mohsen Shafiee).
[51] UNESCO Warning on Iran treasure. Available online at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4212561.stm.
[52] Britain will return 118 stolen Jiroft Artifacts, Culture and Archaeology News, March 2005. Available online at:http://www.cais-soas.com/News/2005/march2005/05-03.htm.
[53] Sivand Dam, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivand_Dam.[54] Qanats of Bam – A Multidisciplinary Approach, International Workshop, Bam – Kerman Province, 2–3 June
2005, sponsored by UN Tehran Cluster Office, ICHHTO, UNDP, UNESCO Japan, Funds-in-Trust.
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[55] See p. 30 of the management plan quoted above ‘the points mentioned in the International Workshop on Bam(April 20, 2004) shall also be respected as long as they are not in contradiction of national laws or those of theIranian Cultural Heritage Organization’.
[56] Annex 2, p. 70, The Bam Citadel and its Related Sites; Iran Cultural Heritage Organization, Nomination ofProperties for inclusion on the World Heritage List, World Heritage Convention, UNESCO, Bam, May 2004(1208bis, revision 2007).
[57] http://www.iran-daily.com/1383/2179/html/focus.htm#34590.[58] Evaluation of Effectiveness of the Bam Architecture Council, Secretariat of the Bam Council of Architecture
and Urban Design, 2006, Farayand-e-Meimari (Persian), Monthly Journal on Architecture, Urban Design andConservation. No. 1, December, Special Issue – Experience in Bam’s Reconstruction (published by SeyedMohsen Shafiee).
[59] Luigia Binda, Carlo Blasi, Paola Condoleo, Guido Licciardi, Luigi Marino, Claudio Modena, VincenzoPetrini; page 104, Report on the intervention to Bam (November) 2006; Web Journal: http://webjournal.unior.it, (1)2007; ISSN 1827 -8868. Also News, 1 November 2007, www.cais-soas.com.
[60] http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=55449§ionid=351020105.
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