asia and the pacific national programmes : update - food and

The designations employed and the presentation of material in thispublication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoeveron the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city orarea or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of itsfrontiers or boundaries

For additional copies of this publication, please write to: RegionalNational Forest Programmes Adviser, FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Athit Road, Bangkok 10200,Thailand

FAO 2000ISBN 974-7946-08-4

Foreword

The publication National Forest Programmes (NFP) UPDA TE 34 is produced as aregular NFP UPDATE. Initially planned as a biennial publication, it is issued as asupplement to the comprehensive information concerning forest and forestry aspectsprovided by FAQ in different formats, including electronic (such as web-sites) and hardcopies.

The publication (English language version only), contains information on the progressof the National Forest Programmes (in the form of regional and country profiles) of 30countries in the Asia-Pacific region. For the time being it was not achievable for thispublication to cover all the countries in the region as recommended by the Commission onSustainable Development (C5b) at its meeting in February 2000 that NFP cover all types offorests.

Due to various reasons such as limited information and time constraints, countryprofiles for some countries could not be presented. However, new country profiles forMaldives, Brunei Darussalam and the United States of America are included in the presentdocument. The information presented in the document is brief, derived from several sources,such as electronic web-sites, project reports, other relevant publications, and the countryreports presented at the l8~ Asia Pacific Forestry Commission meeting held in Australia inMay 2000.

In line with the broad definition of national forest programmes as formulated by theIntergovernmental Panel on Forest at its Fourth Session in 1997, a variety of strategicframeworks are included in this publication, including the Forestry Sector Master Plan(FMP), the Tropical Forestry Action Plan/Programme (TFAP), the National Forestry ActionPlan (NFAP), the Biodiversity Action Plan, the Environmental Action Programme, theForestry Sector Review, the Desertification Control Plan, National Policies for theimplementation of UNCED, etc.

Readers may note that the quality of information varies from country to country; somecould not be updated in this NFP LJPDA TE 34 due to a lack of newly available material,particularly regarding recent changes in forest and forestry development. We are fully awareof this situation, and are counting on all those involved in the forestry sector developmentand national forest programmes process to help us obtain additional information and re-define the format and content for the coming issues. Indeed, we depend on all partners toimprove the information we can collect and disseminate. Please feel free to make anysuggestions you may have for further enhancing this publication.

We are confident that the present edition will be useful, and for those who contributedto making this publication, we would like to express our appreciation and thanks and counton your continued co-operation in the future.

R.B. SinghAssistant Director-General

and Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34 Asia and the Pacific i

Table of contents page

Forewords………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………… iFocal points of the national forest programmes………………..……………….……………..……… iiAcronyms and abbreviations……………………………………..……………………………………...…………… iii

1 Asia and the Pacific………….………..………………………………………………………………………. 12 Australia………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………. 123 Bangladesh……………………………………………………………………………….…………………………… 224 Bhutan…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………… 275 Brunei Darussalam………………………………………………………..……….……………………………. 336 Cambodia……………………………………………..……………………………….………………………………. 397 China P.R……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 478 Fiji………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 559 India………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5910 Indonesia………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6711 Japan……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7612 Korea, Republic of……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8313 Lao PDR…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8914 Malaysia………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9515 Maldives………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10216 Micronesia, Federated States of…………………………………………………………………….. 10417 Mongolia………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10618 Myanmar……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11319 Nepal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12020 New Zealand………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12821 Pakistan…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13822 Palau………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 14423 Papua New Guinea………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14624 Philippines………………………………..……………………………………………………….………………….. 15125 Samoa……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15926 Solomon Islands…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16227 Sri Lanka…………………………………………………….……………………………..…………………………. 16628 Thailand…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 17329 Tonga……………………………………………………………………………….……………………………….…… 18030 United States of America…………………………………………………………………………….…… 18331 Vanuatu…………………………………………..……………………………..……………………………………… 18932 Viet Nam………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………. 195

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34 Asia and the Pacificii

Focal pointsFAO headquarters

James BallForest Programmes Co-ordination and Information UnitFODA, Forestry Department Phone: 05-570-54047Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Fax: 05-570-57052151Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 E-mail:[email protected] Rome, Italy

FAO regional/ sub-regional offices

AfricaSalinas FernandoNational Forest Programmes AdviserRegional Office for Africa (RAFO) Phone: 00233-21244051 (12 lines) ext. 3116PO Box. 1628 Fax: 233-21-244076Accra, Ghana E-mail:

[email protected]

Asia and the Pacific

§ Darmo SuparmoNational Forest Programme AdviserRegional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPO) Phone: 622-2817844 ext. 142Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road Fax: 662-2800445Bangkok 10200, Thailand E-mail; [email protected]

§ Aru MathiasForest Resource Management Officer Phone: 00685-22127Sub-regional Office for the Pacific Islands (SAPD) Fax: 00685-22126Private Mail Bag, Apia, Samoa E-mail: [email protected]

Latin America and the CaribbeanCarlos Marx CarneiroNational Forest Programmes AdviserRegional Office for Latin America Phone: 562-3372100 Ext. 2188and the Caribbean (RLCO) Fax: 562-3372136Avenida Dag Hammarrsjokjold, 3241 E-mail:

[email protected], Santiago, Chile

Near eastClaus Martin EckelmannForestry OfficerRegional Office for the Near East (RNEO) Phone: 00202-331613811, El Eslah El Zerai Str.P.O. Box 2223 Fax: 00202-

7495981Dokki, Cairo, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Country focal points

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34 Asia and the Pacific iii

The country focal points for the national forest programmes are provided at the end of eachcountry profile.

Acronyms and abbreviationsMost abbreviations used in this publication are preceded on first mention by the full name.However, those more frequently repeated are listed below for easy reference. Acronyms forcountry institutions are usually given in their original form for better comprehension

ADB Asian Development BankAIDAB Australian International Development Assistance BureauASEAN Association of South East Asian NationsAusAID Australian AidCIFOR Centre for International Forestry ResearchCIDA Canadian Agency for International DevelopmentCSD Commission on Sustainable Development0C Degree CelsiusDANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDFID Department of International Development, United KingdomEU European Union (formerly European Economic Community)FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United NationsFINNIDA Finnish International Development AgencyGATT General Agreements on Trade and TariffGEF Global Environment Facilityha hectareICRAF International Centre for Research in AgroforestryIDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada)IIED International Institute for Environment and DevelopmentIFF International Forest Forum/ Commission on Sustainable DevelopmentIPF Inter Governmental Panel on ForestITTO International Tropical Timber OrganisationIUCN World Conservation UnionJICA Japan International Co-operation Agencym3 Cubic meterKfW Krediranstalt fur Wiederaufbau (Germany)Km2 Square kilometreNEAP National Environmental Action PlanNFAP National Forestry Action Plan/ ProgrammeNGO Non-Governmental OrganisationODA Overseas Development Administration of the United Kingdom% PercentRAP/RAPA FAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificSDC Swiss Development Co-operationTFAP Tropical Forestry Action Plan/ProgrammeUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentWB World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)WRI World Resource InstituteWWF World Wide Fund for Nature

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Asia and the Pacific 1

Asia and the Pacific

Basic dataLand area (thousand ha) Total forest (thousand ha)

Tropical Asia* 846,839 Tropical Asia 279,766East Asia** 1,148,958 East Asia 181,671Tropical Oceanea** 54,055 Tropical Oceanea 41,903Temperate Oceanea** Sub-total

791,2432,841,095

Temperate Oceanea Sub-total

48,792552,132

Population 1995 (million) Annual change (thousand ha/%)Tropical Asia 1,722.3 Tropical Asia -3,055/ -1.1East Asia 1,424.6 East Asia -113/ -0.1Tropical Oceanea 6.6 Tropical Oceanea -151/ -0.4Temperate Oceanea Sub-total

21.43,174.9

Temperate Oceanea Sub-total

60/ 0.1n.a.

Source of data: FAO-State of the World’s Forest, 1999*= Total sum of south, continental and insular Southeast Asia**= Followed the classification made in the FAO-State of the World’s Forest, 1999

General information

Issues on forest and forestry in the Asia-Pacific Region are different, many, complex,heterogeneous, and wide, including tropics/sub tropics; humid/ savannahs/ desert; lowlands/ mangrove/ mountains; rich/ poor inforest resources; owned by the state andprivate individuals/ groups; very importantsector toward socio-economic development of acountry/ minor contribution to socio-economicdevelopment; some countries are exporters andsome are importers; some countries are at thedeveloped state that they have several socio-economic development alternatives and somebelong to the developing countries and coun-tries in economic transition; some countries areland locked/ small in size; some countries havevery high and others have small populations;some countries have sufficient capacity in theirNational Forest Programmes (NFP) planning andimplementation, including involvement of part-ners and partnership; in terms of biodiversityaspects, some countries contain megadiversity.Each country is unique. Each has its own pecu-liar combination of climate, geology, ecology,

landscape, politics, economics, and social per-spective.

However, there are also similar aspectsfor many countries. Thus, one country’s experi-ences in certain aspects can be relevant toother countries. An in-depth study of the for-estry sector on the status, progress and trendsand outlook, within the framework of theforestry sector outlook study 2010, wascarried out in 1997/98.

Major changes have emerged in for-ests and forestry policies in recent years.There has been a growing concern withnational policy reform towards liberalisation,openness, land use, equal-sharing benefits,empowerment of partners in planning andimplementation, decentralisation, sustainableforest management, law enforcement, detectionand suppression of forest fires, suppression ofillegal logging, and ties to the global economyand the environment and involvement ofpartners. Different international initiativeshave been launched in the effort to implementthe UNCED Agenda 21 in forest and forest-related matters. In regard to sustainableforest management, several efforts have beenlaunched, including certification, the code of

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Asia and the Pacific2

practise for forest harvesting, criteria andindicators for sustainable forest management,reduced impact logging, logging bans in naturalforests. Globalisation efforts have also beentaken place, including liberalisation trade. Inreality, many people in rural areas indeveloping countries, including women,children and people living in and close toforests, are still illiterate, which make itdifficult to socialise the concept, modalitiesand principles of sustainable forestmanagement. In several developing countriesfunds and human resources are limited, andsustainable is becoming dilemma. Sustainableforest management practices that have suc-cessfully been used in several countries arebecoming polemic in some other countries.

Deforestation and forest degradation havebeen continuing in some developing countries,while forest plantations have successfully ex-ceeded the deforestation rate in China, India,and the Republic of Korea. Taking into consid-eration the trees planted in agricultural land(agricultural tree crops) and for other landuses (roadsides, home gardens, etc), the treecrown cover has substantially contributed tothe greening of the earth and as source oftimber, fibre materials, and other productssuch as latex, fruits, barks, fodder, etc. Insome countries, a policy of letting agriculturalland revert back to forestland with compensa-tion and incentives has taken place for examplein Western China.

Preliminary analysis of more than 3000satellite images show that the rate of defor-estation in the tropical countries was at least10% less in the past ten years compared to the1980s. Half of the images show a reduced rateof deforestation and 20% showed an increase.The survey is part of FAO’s Global ForestResource Assessment 2000, which will bedelivered by the end of 2000. The majorcauses of deforestation in the tropics werenumerous the most easily visible being theconversion of forest into agricultural and otherland uses. Over-harvesting of industrial woodand fuel wood, overgrazing, fire, insect, pest

and diseases, storms, and air pollution alsocause forest degradation.

Human intervention was the main factorcausing the change. According to the WorldPopulation Prospects, the Economic and SocialAffairs (ECOSOC) of the United Nations, the1998 Revision, the population in the Region was3,360 million in 1997 (medium variant, exclud-ing Western Asia), and increased to 3,450million in 1999, or by about 90 million withintwo years. In 2050, the population in theRegion will reach 5,268 million, an increase of1,818 million, or almost double of thepopulation of India in 1995 (the second biggestpopulation in the world). In this respect, somepeople are of the view that the carryingcapacity of the forest and agriculture lands inthe Region, particularly in densely populateddeveloping countries, is limited and would notbe adequate to support the demand for foodand agriculture products in the future.

Recent development and new realities havenecessitated major changes in strategic approach,planning, and execution with focused emphasis on aproactive instead of reactive management approach.The call of the day is management by results rather thanmanagement by mere objectives, since too often,attainment of set objectives do not actually yielddesired results.

In the past few years, several countries inthe Asia-Pacific Region, with or withoutsupport from their external partners, haveembarked on reforms of their forest policy.The major criticism of forest policies is intheir implementation and their relevance. Inaddition, several countries have crafted niceand ambitious objectives that do not actuallyyield desired results. Therefore, some coun-tries have adopted a management approach byresults rather than by mere objectives. To beeffective, the management by results should be“SMART” (specific, measurable, attainable,relevant, and time-bounded).

In regard to fulfilling the demand for for-est products, particularly timber, forest andtree plantations have been established inten-sively in several countries in the form ofindustrial/ large scale tree plantations, smallcommunity plantations, mixed-planting between


trees and cash crops, tree plantings along landboundary lines, in schools and office com-pounds, and along road sides. However, pests,diseases, and forest fires will most likelyoccur more frequently and cause more damagein the near future, due to intensive globaltrade (with less precaution in plantquarantine), more mass biomes, climatologicaldisturbances (with long dry seasons), and lowpeople’s awareness.

During the Intergovernmental Panel onForests (IPF) and Intergovernmental Forum onForests (IFF) deliberations (1995-2000), itwas noted that there was no disagreement onthe importance of national forest programmes(NFP) to national forestry sector developmentof all types of forests. The IFF at its fourthsession (IFF-4) held in February 2000, con-cluded that NFP, as defined in the IPF, is aviable framework for addressing forest sectorissues. In regard to international arrangementson forests, IFF-4 recommended establishing anintergovernmental body which may be calledthe United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF)with the objective of promoting the manage-ment, conservation and sustainable developmentof all types of forests and to strengthen long-term political commitment.

In its resumed session on 18 October2000, ECOSOC adopted the Resolution entitled“Report of the forth session of the IFF”. ThisResolution established the United NationsForum on Forests (UNFF) as a subsidiary bodyof ECOSOC. The UNFF provides a high-levelforest policy forum. Among its major functionsare the promotion of the implementation of thealready agreed actions, enhancement of co-ordination of forest related issues, andstrengthening political commitment to sustain-able management of all types of forests. Withinfive years, the UNFF will recommend theparameters of a mandate for developing a legalframework on all types of forests.

Although in the past three decades manycountries in the Region achieved high rates ofeconomic and agricultural growth, some coun-

tries were severely affected by the Asiafinancial and economic crisis with differentdegree of impacts during 1997-2000. ITTOreported that timber trade in Japan, the big-gest importer of timber in the Region, had notrecovered by the end of 1999. However,exports of furniture from China had beenincreasing significantly.

In addition to the economic crisis, during1997-98, forest fires burned across manyregions of the world causing severe economicand environment impacts in a certain sub-regions and countries, effecting eco-tourism,causing loss of biodiversity, destroyingvaluable forests, creating problems intransportation, and having a bad impact onhealth. In response to the series of devastatingforest fires, several meetings to overcome theproblems were convened at international,regional and sub-regional levels.

In regard to partners participation andinvolvement, at a substantial number of talksthrough meetings and workshops, severalconclusions, promises and commitments havebeen achieved, said and agreed. But, few ofthem have been translated into actual actions inthe field. It was reported that the OverseasDevelopment Assistance (ODA) has been de-creasing significantly during the past fewyears. In this respect, the Asia Pacific For-estry Commission, in its 18th Session held inAustralia, 15-19 May 2000, stressed that thenew international body, UNFF, should beaction -oriented and transparent and shouldavoid debate on issues for which decisionshave previously been reached.

National Forest ProgrammesIt was realised that since 1994, there has

been no systematic approach to taking stockand drawing lessons from the implementationon NFPs world wide, although several autoevaluation and stock taking exercise wereconducted on several occasions between 1985-1994. Bearing in mind this situation, FAO, incollaboration with all partners, launched out aworld-wide survey on the status and progressin the implementation of NFPs in November1998. The important results of the survey in-clude the following:


§ Most of the on-going NFP exercises had agood start in the pre-UNCED period.§ Most countries implemented their NFPs by

incorporating them into their five-year, ten-year or long-term national development plans;§ The lack of institutional capacity and ade-

quate human resources is the majorconstraints in the NFP implementation. Thedecision making is hampered by the lack ofdata and information. Institutional capacityin the NFP planning and implementation isstill weak, including participation ofstakeholders, decentralisation, andempowerment of local/ communityorganisations.§ The NFP exercise has been internalised and

sometimes institutionalised. The NFP processhas been blended into the country’s socio-economic planning and programming;§ People’s participation is one of the new

directions in managing the resources toachieve sustainable forest management. Com-munity forestry, joint forest management,lease-hold forestry, and promotion of agro-forestry systems have been introduced in theregion. The involvement of the private sectorand related investment has been significantin some countries; and§ The NFP exercise has been stalled in some

countries due to dependency on externalsupport, low awareness of partners, lack ofinternalisation and institutionalisation of theprocess, and weak institutional capacity.

The “Second Ministerial Meeting onSustainability Issues in Forestry, the Nationaland International Challenges” was held inRome, from 8-9 March 1999. One of thedeclarations stated that the Ministerswelcomed the progress made to date onsustainable forest management, includingFAO’s role in the assessment of forestresources, and the significant achievements atnational, regional and international levels,including the development and implementationof criteria and indicators for sustainableforest management and of national forestprogrammes. At the meeting, the Ministerspledged to bring their political will to bear onimproving forest management in their

respective countries and to promote effectiveinternational co-operation to achievesustainable forest management world-wide.

The International Forestry Advisers Group(IFAG) have carried out intensive discussionsconcerning NFP issues. Its meeting held inFinland on 25-29 August 1999 discussed thefollowing issues: a) the NFP concept; b)financing NFP implementation; c) sectorsupport programme; and d) internationalmodalities to support NFP processes. Detailedinformation could be obtained from thefollowing E-mail: [email protected]

It was reported that several countries havereviewed the NFP exercise and made revisionsin the approaches and strategies, includingAustralia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Nepal, NewZealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines,and Sri Lanka.

The South Pacific countries have also beenactive in the NFP exercise. A session on theCSD/IPF/IFF/NFP process was organisedduring the Sub-Regional Consultation onImplementation of Codes of Logging Practiceand Directions for the Future, held in PortVilla, Vanuatu, 12-17 July 1999. Important rec-ommendations include: co-ordination amongstpartners is important issue in sustainable for-est management, which needs strengthening inmost countries; forestry agencies should take alead role in strengthening co-ordination at thenational level and involve all stakeholders,including industry, landowners, NGOs and rele-vant government agencies.

In addition to the meetings and activitiesmentioned above, several other internationalinitiatives and meetings discussed the NFPapproach, including the fifth Conference ofthe Parties (COP-5) to the Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD) held on 15-26 May2000. The results provide a clearer linkage ofCBD forest work programme to theimplementation of the IPF/IFF Proposals forAction. It was recommended that NFP be usedas a framework to integrate donor support.


There were substantial debates andactivities that discussed the NFP framework atthe international, regional and national levels.Several decisions, agreements, and proposalsfor action have been reached. However, it iswidely recognised that the results ofdiscussions have not sufficiently been trans-lated into achieving real actions in the field.Several people expressed the view that it istime to take actions as expressed in the UNCEDdecisions. Several people also expressed theview that if the cost of meetings on forest andforestry were used for real actions in the fieldin some countries, the deforestation rate inthose countries would have been arrestedseveral years ago. Several people alsoexpressed the view that meetings and talks areimportant process in involving partners and partof the NFP advocacy i.e. to improve partnersawareness; the cost of involvement partners isreally high, though. It should be noted that thedelegates attending the 18th Session of theAsia Pacific Forestry Commission held inAustralia on 15-19 May 2000, also expressedthe same opinion.

Forest firesWildfires have been present in nature

from time immemorial. Since 1960, there havebeen several fire events, which attractedworld attention. In Brazil, wildfires burned 2million ha and destroyed more than 5,000houses and took 110 lives. During the Ice Age,extended periods of minimal rainfall occurredin Southeast Asia, making large areas of theregion vulnerable to fire. More recently therecurring ENSO climatological disturbance hasregularly created conditions that enable large-scale wildfires to occur in the region. It wasreported that wild fires destroyed 2 million haof forest per year on the average in the UnitedStates of America in the last decade.

The underlying causes of wildfires areseveral, including availability of dry fuel tofeed a conflagration, a source of ignition toset the fire, and a transport mechanism such aswind. Most fires are set off by human andnatural factors, including lightning. The

foremost cause of forest fires in SoutheastAsia in 1997/98 was land clearing practice.

A meeting was convened at FAO Romeattended by representatives from 33 countriesand 13 international organisations, on 28-30October 1998. The objectives of the meetingwere to: a) identify, analyse, and discuss thepublic policies that contribute to forest fires;b) collate information from institutions dealingwith forest fires; c) produce recommendationson planning and policies for fire prevention,control, mitigation, rehabilitation measures; d)provide a strong message to member countriesthrough FAO (as neutral forum) on policyissues related to fire; and e) suggest actions tobe taken by countries through a statement tothe forestry ministers who will meet in Rome inMarch 1999. The meeting concluded that nosingle formula could cover the wide range ofecological, socio-economic, and cultural condi-tions that exist between and within regions,nor the different objectives that differentsocieties will decide. But there are certainbroad principles common to all situations andobjectives.

In regard to policy aspects, the meetingproduced the following general recommenda-tions: policies on land use are required that donot further contribute to deforestation; apolicy on forest fires should be formulated asan integral component of land use policies,flexibility in implementing, reviewing, andrevising fire related policy; clear andmeasurable policy objectives andimplementation strategies are needed; allstakeholders should be involved in developing afire policy, reconsideration of policies thattend to increase of forest fires, incentives andsubsidies to promote fire prevention.

In the wake of the 1997 forest fire, theASEAN member countries discussed the trans-boundary atmospheric pollution. One of theimportant results was the approval for imple-mentation of the Regional Haze Action Plan(RHAP) in December 1997.

The objectives of RHAP are to: a) preventforest fires through better management


policies and enforcement; b) establishoperational mechanisms to monitor land andforest fires; and c) strengthen regional landand forest fire-fighting capacity, along withother mitigation measures. Specific countrieshave been designated to spearhead theactivities in line with the RHAP programmes(prevention, mitigation, and monitoring) i.e.Malaysia takes the lead in prevention,Indonesia in mitigation, and Singapore inmonitoring of fire and haze events. Aconsiderable amount of donor assistance isforthcoming for this crucial initiative. Totranslate the Plan into action, an operational-ised RHAP was approved for implementation inSeptember 1999.

Subsequent to the efforts to overcome theissues on forest fires, an International Crosssectoral Forum on Forest Fire Management(FFM) in South East Asia was convened inJakarta, Indonesia, on 7-8 December 1998.The Government of Indonesia, ITTO, andJICA sponsored the Forum. The Forumdiscussed prevention, control, rehabilitationand trans-boundary issues of the tropicalforest fire. The goals of the Forum were,among others, to: a) gather informationconcerning the causes of forest fires and theirimpacts, b) review existing land use conditionsand consider land use management reforms, c)integrate the current efforts to overcome theimpacts caused by forest fires, d) developtechnology for forest fire prevention andmanagement, e) improve regional efforts toanticipate and address the trans-boundaryimpacts of forest fires, f) develop guidelinesfor the drawing up of a national action planfor the management of forest fires and theirassociated impacts.

Important areas that the Forum concludedaction was needed to fill the gaps or tostrengthen the existing capability are asfollows: capacity building, pilot demonstration(model forest for IFFM, fire suppressiontraining, participatory methodologies), com-munity participation (through incentives, incomeearning activities, involvement in productionenterprises), rehabilitation of burned areas

(through sanitary operations, salvage fellingand replanting), rationalisation of shiftingcultivation (incorporating agroforestry, skilldevelopment, crafts), optimising the size offorest concessionaires (to ensure scientificmanagement), formulation of national forestfire plans, establishment of regional andinternational co-operation on trans-boundaryissues related to forest fires.

In addition to the above, one of theimportant subject matters discussed at theSecond Ministerial Meeting on SustainabilityIssues in Forestry, Rome, 8-9 March 1999 wasforest fires. In this matter, the meeting calledon FAO and other international organisations,donor agencies and interested countries towork together to address the underlying causesof forest fires, to improve the co-ordination oftheir efforts to prevent and combat forestfires, and to rehabilitate affected areas with aview to providing assistance requested bygovernments.

Investment in forestryThe NFP exercise has attracted investment

in forestry sector development in somecountries. In some countries, funds exceededthe needs for some programmes of the NFPexercise. In other countries, country capacityis the main issue in the NFP implementation.However, some NFP exercises were heavilycriticised for its project listing instead of asprocess toward the achievement of sustainableforest management. According to the NFPreports, priority of investment in forestry hasbeen given to several programmes/ activities,including protection (watershed, biodiversity,natural unique ecosystem), institutional capac-ity (policy, organisational, research, and man-power development), resource development,production, utilisation and trade. In somecountries, due to constraints in financialresources and lack of the private sectorinvolvement in the forestry sector development,investment on production, utilisation and tradehad been minimal. In other countries, loanshave been used for conservation of forestresources, including watershed andbiodiversity conservation, and protected area


development. The amount of loans amounted toabout 60-70 % of the investment in the for-estry sector development in some countries.

Since forestry development is long-termprocess in nature, a number of observationswere raised by some partners, includingwhether overseas loans for forestry sectordevelopment are profitable and sound, particu-larly concerning investment for conservation(excluding utilisation), institutional develop-ment, and protected areas development. Due tobad performance, some partners raised alsocriticism on using overseas loan for plantationdevelopment.

From the point of view of the privatesector, the context for decisions of investmentis based on market prices and onconsiderations of risk, uncertainty, profits,and losses. Debates on the value of forest havebeen taking place, including the value of forestto produce direct benefits such as timber.Recently, indirect benefits and non-woodproducts have been given substantially impor-tant value. Details concerning valuing foresthave been provided in the FAO Forestry PaperNo. 127 entitled ”Valuing Forest: context,issues and guidelines”. The willingness ofconsumers to pay the real value of forestproducts, including certified timber, is anotherfactor that should be taken into considerationfor forestry investment. It should be notedthat timber and forest products could be easilysubstituted in several uses by plastics, alumin-ium, and steel, and also by lesser knownspecies and new products.

The economic crisis that occurred in Asiastarted in Thailand in 1997. The impacts weremild in some countries, but had serious negativeimpacts in several other countries. It was re-ported that the crisis has been graduallyovercome in some countries lately. Due toinflation, including the lower exchange rate,investments using overseas loans have beenreduced substantially. Mobilisation of localmarket funds has been used as an alternative

source of funds in some countries, includinggreen lottery.

The crisis has indirectly affected theforestry sector development in some developedcountries, including Australia, New Zealand,and Japan. In late 1999, it was reported thatthe forestry sector development in somecountries has been improving, includingincreasing timber production in New Zealand.ITTO reported that timber trade in Japan, thebiggest importer of tropical timber in theRegion, was not recovering at the end of 1999.The plywood market had hit bottom and thedemand was sluggish. The overall trend ofconsumption of tropical timber in Japan haddecreased in the past few years, i.e. logsconsumption was 22.897 million m3 in 1995 andreached 13.556 million m3 in 1999, and sawntimber consumption was 24.493 million in 1995and decreased to 18.000 m3 million in 1999.The overall trend of timber consumption inJapan is presented in Table 1.

A similar situation occurred in PNG asreported by the Papua New Guinea ForestIndustries Association. In PNG, 41 timberoperations ceased with the downturn of woodprices in the world market in September 1999.In contrast, ITTO reported that exports offurniture from China have been increasingsignificantly. Its export was US$ 1.297 billionin 1996, and reached US$ 2.193 billion in1998.


Table 1: Timber consumption in Japan (1,000 m3)

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999All typesLogs 22,897 22,469 15,631 13,556 13,556

Sawn 24,493 23,884 21,709 18,625 18,000Veneer 242 242 173 116 116Plywood 3,896 4,626 4,257 3,267 3,176Tropical timberLogs 6,536 6,172 5,854 3,427 3,577Sawn 2,178 1,875 1,701 1,260 1,241Veneer 297 259 243 127 123Plywood 7,443 8,287 7,765 5,283 6,636

Source: ITTO

For more detailed information concerningtropical timber trade, visit the ITTO web-siteat: http://www.itto.or.jp/market/recent/mns120199.

It seems that investment in the forestrysector in some countries, which had a the lowerpriority in the past, will continue in the nearfuture, unless the advocacy efforts concerningthe important role of the forestry sectordevelopment to the sustainable developmentsuccessfully give positive results. In fact, therevenue generated from the forestry sectorhad been invested in other sectors, and inrelatively very small amount of the revenue hadbeen invested back to the forestry sector.

It was reported that forestry in India hascontinuously suffered net disinvestment (i.e.loss due to deforestation and forest degrada-tion being in excess of the investment inresource creation and enhancement). In somecountries that have more alternative income andjob opportunities, investment in the forestrysector will see a steady growth, includinginvestment in protection and conservationprogrammes.

With respect to involving partners ininvestment, some countries have adopted dif-ferent approaches toward a wider involvementof local communities by adopting severalapproaches such as: joint forest management,social forestry, community forestry, leaseholdforestry (including leasehold forestry for thepoor), forest land allocation and utilisation byformers, community-based forest management,social benefit-oriented forestry.

However, the approaches were mostlysocial instead of commercial. It was reportedthat the internal rate of return (IRR) of aninvestment for fuel wood plantations was 1.0-1.5% in the Republic of Korea if the cost oflabour was included. It is most likely that theinvestment by farmers and poor farmers insocial forestry activities (in marginal land,poor soil, and inaccessible areas) as mentionedabove would be similar to those in the Republicof Korea.

Several people expressed the view that toalleviate the poverty, commercialisation of thesocial forestry should be emphasised. Severalstudies show that the major food crops in somedeveloping countries in the Asia Pacific Region,which are planted in fertile soil, accessibleareas, and better market, are not profitable.However, it should be noted that ecologicalimpacts should be included in judginginvestment in the forest and forestry sectordevelopment.

In regard to mobilisation and co-ordination of partners, several countries haveadopted different approaches. However, apartnership arrangement as defined byIPF/IFF has been used as reference byseveral countries. Examples of the partnershipapproach at country level can be found in thecountry profiles for Indonesia, Lao PDR,Nepal, and Vietnam; and for theintergovernmental and sub-regional levels inthe ASEAN RHAP.


ProcessingSome timber and non-wood producer

countries have successfully enhanced theirprimary wood processing industries over thepast few years. These industries have beencreating jobs and providing more income,including for rural people compared toexporting raw materials. In some countries,foreign exchange earnings from processedtimber exports that are badly needed todevelop the country have been increasing. Dueto the decreasing raw material supply, the newestablished primary timber processing washalted in some countries, including inIndonesia.

To create more job opportunities andincome generation, more producer countries inthe Region have been crafting and implementingpolicy on in-country further processing oftimber and non-wood forest products.

The revenue derived from manufacturingmouldings is approximately double (per m3) therevenue derived from lumber. Secondaryprocessing that has been selected includesfurniture (including knock down furniture),mouldings, pulp and paper, and woodcarvings.

In regard to the wood panel industry, thetrend have been toward producing specialgrades and properties, including moistureresistance, fire retardant, exterior grades,and laminating to make the panel attractive toconsumers. Many issues hamper thedevelopment of secondary processing,including design, quality of processing, skilledmanpower, knowledge of marketing and trade,competition, packaging and transportation, andbanning the use of tropical timber products incertain countries.

Concern about the environmental impact offorest industries has been increasing in severalcountries. In some countries, pulp and paperproductions are facing stricter environmentalregulations regarding effluent discharge. Inthis regard, a pulp and paper factory wasclosed down in Indonesia in 1999 and somepulp and paper factories that are notenvironmentally friendly were closed down in

China PR several years ago. Since the pulp andpaper factory is the main market for the fastgrowing species plantations in the surroundingareas, the closing down of this factory directlyaffected the reforestation and tree plantationactivities, including people’s participation intree plantings. To ensure sustainable forestmanagement, the development of this type offactory should be well planned and an environ-mental impact assessment should be carried outscientifically and rigorously.

Regional/Sub-regional programmes/projects

In regard to the management of pro-grammes/ projects, FAO is in the process ofimplementing new management arrangements,which will be put in place by end of 2001. Thefollowing are the on-going regional FAO exe-cuted programmes/ projects in the Asia-PacificRegion in 2000 (all of the offices are locatedat the FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific):

1. GCP/RAS/173/EC - Information andanalysis for sustainable forestmanagement: linking national andinternational efforts in South Asiaand Southeast Asia

The idea behind the project is to provideavailable and accurate information on forestresources and their utilisation as a precondi-tion for sustainable forest management basedon economically, environmentally, and sociallybalanced forest policies. The present coverageand quality of forestry information in the re-gion is insufficient for national forest policydecisions and those data are inadequate toserve as a basis for private sector investments.

The total budget will be US$ 1,842,280,of which EC contribution amounts to US$977,320, with project duration of three years.The project will have three main components: a) problem oriented data collection and updat-ing of information; b) pilot studies concerninggathering new data not earlier commonly


collected, and training and capacity building tobe carried out in a number of selected coun-tries; and c) forest policy review based onreliable and updated information as a founda-tion to formulate appropriate forest policies.

The specific objectives of the project areto strengthen national capacity to collect, com-pile and disseminate reliable and up-to-dateinformation on forestry, to analyse the forestsector, and to make that information availableto the policy decision makers.

The expected results of the projects areas follows:§ For all target countries, an improved and

more in-depth coverage of forestry data andmore reliable problem oriented data neededfor sustainable forest management;§ For the selected pilot countries, a proven,

cost effective methodology to collect andanalyse forestry data for sustainable forestmanagement, which is essential but not yetcommonly available at the national level, andto carry out policy/ institutional analysis foreach of the selected countries;§ For the forestry departments, local staff and

forestry officers, improved institutional andtechnical capacity obtained through theproject’s activities;§ For the highest levels of policy makers,

improved analytical tools to review andformulate appropriate forestry policies forsustainable forest management;§ For EC, FAO, international communities and

the general public, access to data, informa-tion, and analysis of the forestry sector inthe target countries.

The CTA of the project is Thomas Enters,Phone 281-7844 ext. 220, E-mail:[email protected].

2. GCP/RAS/177/JPN - Regional projecton assistance for the implementation of themodel forest approach for sustainableforest management

The idea behind the model forest is toprovide a forum where all stakeholders(including government agencies) can meet to

discuss their concerns and agree on possiblecourses of action. The concept of the modelforest is not about ownership, but it is amechanism which opens the decision makingprocess to all stakeholders. One of the primarytasks of the model forest will be to develop,implement, and monitor mechanisms to effectpartnerships among the stakeholders that willenable their many and diverse needs, prioritiesand values to be heard and considered.

The project aims to assist China, Myanmar,the Philippines, and Thailand strengthen na-tional and community level capacities in thedevelopment and implementation of field levelmodel forests. The field level model forest willincorporate partnerships among stakeholders,the best practices for sustainable forest man-agement, taking into account the multiple usesand functions of forests, the many diversedemands placed on the forests and forestlands by various stakeholders, the need tobalance economic, social and environmentalconsiderations, and the special needs andpriorities of each country. Particular emphasiswill be given to the development of mechanismsfor the effective participation of allstakeholders, including local and forestdependent communities, in the planning andimplementation of model forests, thesustainability of the activities, monitoredthrough the development and implementation oflocal level criteria and indicators for SFM, thereplicability of the model forests to otherparts of the country, providing continuosfeedback on policy, and identifying andassessing new or additional technology andresources to further implement SFM activities.

The Government of Japan provides fundingsupport to cover the salary of the experts,travel and per diem cost. The project durationwill be for 30 months starting in early 2000.The total budget of the project will be US$1,580,145.

Tang Hon Tat is the CTA of the project,Phone 281-7844 ext. 220, E-mail:[email protected]


3. GCP/RAS/163/NET - Forestryresearch support for Asia-Pacific(FORSPA)This project was initiated in 1991 to en-

hance the forestry research capability in theRegion. Its main objectives are to enhancecollective self reliance of forest research in-stitutions through networking, to promotetechnology transfer through effective dissemi-nation of research results to users, and toincrease the access to updated and comprehen-sive information services. Dissemination ofinformation is the main concern of FORSPA.Officially this project will terminate in theyear 2000. However, it will continue forseveral months in 2001 utilising unspent funds.Extension of the programme is still underconsideration by the concerned governments.

The CTA of the project is AppanahSimmathiri, Phone 281-7844 ext. 136, E-mail:[email protected]

4. GCP/RAS/1545/NET - Regional woodenergy development programme inAsia (RWEDP)This project was launched in 1985. It

covered a broad range of subjects, includingwood fuel flows, production, processing andconversion, helping key personnel of Energyand Forest Departments, NGOs and researchinstitutions to initiate and strengthen their ownactivities in wood energy related issues. Thedevelopment objective of the programme is tocontribute to a sustainable production of woodfuels, their efficient processing and marketing,and their rational use for the benefit ofhouseholds, industries and other enterprises.The programme also helps develop thecapability of member countries in generatingand assessing wood energy related data andusing this information for the development andimplementation of wood energy policies andstrategies. Officially, it will terminate in theyear 2000; however, it will continue severalmonths in 2001 utilising unspent funds. Mostlikely, the Programme will be extended, butwill be smaller in size and scope.

The CTA of the project is Auke Koopmans,Phone: 281-7844 ext. 259, E-mail:[email protected]

Terminated ProjectsThe following were the FAO executed

programmes/projects that terminated in 1999:

§ Watershed Management in Tropics and UpperHimalayas;§ Support to the Reorientation of Forestry

Policies and Institutions of Countries of Asiain Reform to Market Economy; and§ South Pacific Forest and Trees Support

Programme (SPC/UNDP/AusAID/FAO) (note:the management of the Programme has beentransferred to the sub-regional institution).

InformationInformation concerning the forestry

sector development in some countries in theAsia Pacific Region, including NFP, has beeninstalled in some web-sites. FAO has estab-lished a web-site with the web-site code asfollows: http://www.fao.org/forestry/.

This web-site provides information con-cerning the following: a) general forests andforestry; b) country profile, in brief, whichcovers several fields of information, includinggeographic information, forest resources (landcover, natural resources, total forest cover andprotected areas), products, and trade.

In addition, FAO Regional Office Bangkokhas also established a web site. In regard toforest and forestry visit http://www/fao.org.th/Technical_Groups/Forestry/forestry.htm.

*****

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE 34, Australia12

Australia

Country dataTotal land area 1999 (million ha) * 768Total forest area 1997 (thousand ha)/ % of total land area ** 156,877 / 20%Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 155,835Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha) / annual change % not availablePopulation total 1998 (million) 18.8Rural population 1998 *** 2.8 (or 15%)GDP per person total 1998 in AS$ *** 29,566

Source of data : * FAO - State of the World’s Forest, 1999** National Forest Inventory (1997)***Australian Bureau of Statistics figures

General informationAustralia, as a Federation, has a division of

power between the Commonwealth Government,State and Territory governments (“StateGovernments”), and Local governments. Stategovernments have control over most land inAustralia and, together with Local governments,regulate land use.

The Australian economy increased by 4.4% in1998-1999, but this rate is expected to comedown to 4% in 1999-2000. Australia remains anet importer of forest products in value terms.In 1998-99, Australia imported forest productsvalued at $A3.26 billion, accounting for 3% oftotal merchandise imports. Imports for sawntimber, paper and paperboard accounted for67% of the total value of forest product imports(54% paper and paperboard products and 13%sawn timber, mostly coniferous). Most sawntimber imported into Australia comes from NewZealand, Canada, and the United States ofAmerica, with radiata pine, Douglas fir andwestern red cedar forming the bulk of sawnwood imports. Malaysia is the main source ofimported hardwood sawn timber.

After three years of rises, the value ofexports of forest products from Australia fell

by 2% to $A1.3 billion in 1998-99. Thisrepresents 1.5% of Australia’s total merchandiseexports. The main reasons for the drop were afall in wood chip exports to Japan from therecord level of exports in 1997-98 and in thevolume of paper and paperboard exports to Asia.Partly offsetting these losses, exports of otherforest products to several Asian countriesincreased significantly in 1998-99 to levelsabove export volumes prior to the downturn inthese markets in the first half of 1998.

Forest resourcesMost of Australia, particularly the interior, is

arid; however, there is still a large forest area(about 20% of the continent). Areas suitablefor forest growth are largely confined to thetropical north of Australia, the East Coast(including Tasmania), South Australia and southwestern Western Australia. The vast majority ofthe Australian forest resource is natural forestdominated by eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp) mixedwith acacia (Acacia spp), cypress pine (Callitrisspp), and paper bark (Melaleuca spp).

The total forest area of close to 157 millionha is made up of almost 156 million ha of nativeforests. The native forests can be divided intothree classes by the density of crown covernamely woodlands (72% of the total forest

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE 34, Australia 13

area), open forests (25%) and closed forests(3%).

Approximately 27% of native forests areprivately owned and 72% are publicly owned(1% unclear due to a shortcoming in thedatabases). However, about 42% of the nativeforest estate are on public land held underlease by the private sector, predominantly thepastoral industry. Taking private and leaseholdnative forests together, almost 70% are on landmanaged by the private sector. The remaining30% are public forests, as defined in theNational Forest Policy Statement (NFPS), andare fairly equally divided across the threetenure types of conservation reserves (11%),multiple-use forest (9%) and other crown land(10%).

Criteria and indicatorsAustralia, as one of the twelve member

countries of the Montreal Process, is makingprogress with the implementation of criteria andindicators (C&I) for the conservation andsustainable management of forests.

At the international level, Australia continuesto contribute to the work of the MontrealProcess Working Group and its TechnicalAdvisory Committee as well as to otherinternational C&I initiatives. At the domesticlevel, Australia has developed a framework ofregional (sub-national) level criteria andindicators. This framework is Australia's firstattempt at national agreement on a range ofindicators that applies to all forests. Theinternationally agreed upon Montreal Processnational level C&I have been used as a startingpoint in developing the framework. Theframework is intended to provide a basis foridentification of indicators for monitoringprogress towards sustainable forest managementat the regional (sub-national) level. Theframework provides Australia with a co-ordinated approach to collection of data for

forests, which ensures consistent reporting andavoids duplication.

The framework will also allow theaggregation of data from the regional level toState and national levels in a transparent andcredible way in both RFA and non-RFA regions.A number of research and developmentpriorities have been identified and theCommonwealth Government is funding severalprojects to support the further development andimplementation of the regional indicators.

There has been agreement in Australia that it is notpossible, practical or cost effective, to fully implementand monitor all indicators in the regional framework atthis point in time. A first report will be produced in late2000 on those indicators that can be measuredimmediately for most forests. To date all signed RFAshave included references to identification ofsustainability indicators based on the regionalframework.

Several key challenges exist for Australia,including collection of data from non-commercial forests on public land and from thelarge majority of privately managed forests.Despite these challenges, Australia considersthat significant progress has been made inrecent years, particularly, there is better co-ordination across activities at both theState/Territory and national levels andrecognition that duplication needs to be avoided.

Policy, legislative and institutionalThe principal national policy documents

establishing priority actions for the managementand use of Australian forests are:§ the National Forest Policy Statement (NFPS)

(1992);§ the Wood and Paper Industry Strategy

(WAPIS) (1995);§ the Vision 2020 Strategy document (Vision

2020) (1998);§ the Environment Protection and Biodiversity

Conservation Act 1999;.


§ the Nationally Agreed Criteria for theEstablishment of a Comprehensive, Adequateand Representative Reserve System for Forestsin Australia (known as the JANIS Criteria1997); and§ an Action Agenda for the Forest and Wood

Products Industry is being developed by theindustry and governments, with a view toimplementation in second half of 2000.

In addition, there are a range of policiesand programmes at State and CommonwealthGovernment levels aimed at sustainably managingAustralia’s forest resources. These also includeprogrammes promoting farm forestry andrevegetation and the removal of governmentimpediments to further investment in growingand processing forest products. There arenumerous State and Territory Acts (legislation)covering conservation issues that haveimplications for forestry, including land useplanning, and flora and fauna protection. Thereare also Acts or legislation that cover theestablishment and administration of NationalParks, and regulate water rights and use.

The new Environment Protection and BiodiversityConservation Act 1999 is scheduled to come into force inJuly 2000. This Act represents the most fundamentalreform of Australia's environmental law in 25 years andfocuses Commonwealth involvement in developmentassessment and approval in six key areas of nationalenvironmental significance. They are the Commonwealthmarine environment, World Heritage properties, Ramsarwetlands of international importance, national threatenedspecies and ecological communities, migratory speciesand nuclear actions.

Forest operations in regions subject toRegional Forest Agreements are excluded fromthe operation of the above Act as the RFAsthemselves contain agreement on ecologicallysustainable forest management prescriptions andthey have been fully assessed under existingenvironment legislation.

From the institutional point of view, fivebroad forms of land tenure exist, as follows:

§ Conservation reserves: publicly owned forestsreserved for conservation, including nationalparks and flora reserves;§ Multiple-use forests: publicly owned forests

set aside for timber production, includingState forests and timber reserves;§ Leasehold land: publicly owned forests on land

leased from the crown;§ Other crown land: forest of crown land not

covered by the previous three categories; and§ Private forests, includes native forests and

plantations owned privately.

These broad forms of land tenure providethe basis for assigning the respective forest anddepartmental tasks, responsibilities andinstitutional models of the managing agencies ineach State and Territory.

Policy statementIn 1992, the Commonwealth and State

Governments developed a common policy positionon forests, known as the National Forest PolicyStatement (NFPS). The NFPS is the primarymeans by which the objectives of the NationalStrategy for the Conservation of Australia’sBiodiversity will be accomplished in forestecosystems. The NFPS sets out objectivesconcerning conservation, wood production andtimber industries development, use of privatenative forests, development of plantations,water supply and catchment area management,tourism development, employment, workforceeducation, public awareness and involvement,research and development, and the furtherdevelopment of intergovernmental arrangementsand the decision making process.

Under the National Forest Policy, theGovernment has agreed to maintain an extensiveand permanent native forest estate, and tomanage that estate in an ecologically sustainablemanner so as to conserve the full range ofvalues that forests can provide for current andfuture generations. Within the framework of the


NFPS, specific policies have been developed inrelation to nature conservation and wildernessreserves, ecologically sustainable managementand codes of practice, data collection andanalysis, and the protection of forest fromdiseases, weeds, pests, pathogens, andwildfires.

Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs)The key national goal in the NFPS is to

ensure the community obtains a balanced returnfrom all forest uses. This objective is beingpursued through the development of RegionalForest Agreements (RFAs) followingcomprehensive assessments of forests for theirconservation, heritage, economic and socialvalues in a region.

The RFA process aims to provide certaintyfor forest-based industries, conservation andthe community through the following:• the establishment of a Comprehensive,

Adequate and Representative (CAR) reservesystem under nationally agreed criteria;

• ecologically sustainable forest management(ESFM) across the whole of the forest estate;and

• an internationally-competitive forest industry.

Once agreements are signed, they are inplace for 20 years, subject to five-yearlyreviews. A Forest Industry StructuralAdjustment Package (FISAP), to assist nativeforest industry businesses and workers toadjust to variations in access to native forestresources and facilitate increased value-addingoperations and downstream processing, wasestablished to assist in retraining and relocatingworkers and to assist businesses exiting theindustry.

The implementation of nationally agreedreserve criteria under this process will ensurethe establishment of a world class reservesystem. Broadly, these are as follows:

§ 15% of the pre-European forest types(increasing further for rare, vulnerable andendangered ecosystems);§ 60% of existing old growth forests (increasing

for rare old growth); and§ 90% of high quality wilderness forests.

Since our last update i.e. NFP UPDATE 33,six further Regional Forest Agreements havebeen completed bringing the number of RFAs inplace to nine. The six new RFAs include that forWestern Australia, the Eden region, the UpperNorth-east & Lower North-east regions of NewSouth Wales and the North-East region, Westand Gippsland of Victoria. The RFAs havedelivered major gains for the environment andprovided increased certainty for native forestindustry and regional economies.

The Western Australia RFA increased theregion’s formal reserves by 151,000 ha to bringthe total area of reserves to 1.04 million ha. Thisincludes 67% of all remaining old-growthforests, with old-growth karri (Eucalyptusdiversicolor) reserved by 71% and old-growthjarrah (E. marginata) by 70%.

The RFAs completed so far in New SouthWales have established a Comprehensive,Adequate and Representative (CAR) ReserveSystem of about 2.4 million hectares, more than60% of the total public land for these RFAs,with the one for the Southern region still to becompleted. The completion of the five RFAs inthe State of Victoria have seen the followingoutcomes:§ established a Comprehensive, Adequate and

Representative (CAR) Reserve System of about2.86 million ha, more than 50% of the totalpublic land in the five regions;§ increased reserves by 36.5%;§ identified 1.08 million ha of old-growth forest

in the first comprehensive old-growthassessment;§ protected 68% of the regions’ old-growth

forest;


§ ensured protection either in reserves orthrough recovery plans and action statementsof all Victoria’s endangered fauna species,including Leadbeater’s possum, the Baw Bawfrog, the Powerful and Sooty Owls, the Spot-tailed Quoll and Long-footed Potoroo andSpotted Tree Frog;§ provided an additional $A20 million to fund

industry development initiatives in regionalVictoria; and§ involved the first social assessment of how the

people and communities of Victoria use andvalue their forests, with in-depth consultationin 30 regional communities.

Australian forestry standardAustralia is developing an Australian

Forestry Standard for the certification offorest management activities as part of a moveto certification and labelling of Australiantimber produced from sustainably managedforests. There is some concern about theproliferation of Certification and LabellingSchemes in the international arena because ofthe potential to lead to consumer confusion andmarket failure. The Australian Government iskeen to explore the views of Governments on theway forward, particularly in the context of therole of Governments in pursuing a credible,international framework for comparability be-tween schemes.

Wood and paper industry strategy(WAPIS)

In December 1995, the Commonwealthlaunched a four-year Wood and Paper IndustryStrategy (WAPIS), aimed at developing thewood and paper industries, while protectingforests for future generations. Its focus is onindustrial development, value adding, and newinvestment. WAPIS activities promote greaterinvestment, research and downstream processingin Australian forest industries, expansion offarm forestry and the plantation sector, a

skilled and flexible workforce and improvedregional job opportunities. Improved informationon plantation areas and wood flows was one ofthe key achievements of this Strategy, a majorcontribution to which was the NationalPlantation Inventory, completed in 1997.

Plantations 2020 visionThe Plantations 2020 Vision is a framework

of actions designed to achieve an internationallycompetitive plantation growing and processingindustry which is commercially focused, marketdriven and market oriented. The target of thePlantations 2020 Vision is to treble theeffective area of Australia’s plantation estate,from 1 million hectares to 3 million hectares,between 1996 and 2020. Recent trends indicatethat the current expansion in plantations is ontrack to meet this target. The focus is onboosting the availability of suitable land, gettingthe commercial incentives right, establishing acommercial plantations culture and improvinginformation flows.

In September 1999 Australia had 1.33million ha of plantations. 71% of these aresoftwood plantations (mainly radiata pine) andthe remaining 29% are made up of nativehardwood species.

Aside from building an internationallycompetitive and environmentally sustainableplantation sector, other expected benefits ofthe Plantations 2020 Vision include reductionsin Australia’s net greenhouse gas emissions, aturnaround in the trade deficit for wood andwood products, rural development (includingcreation of up to 40 000 jobs), and improvedland management outcomes.

In line with the increasing production ofsoftwood, the hardwood saw millers have begundiversifying their mills into kiln-dried timber forfurniture, flooring, mouldings, and other value-added products. As a result of increased domes-tic production, sawn timber imports are ex-


pected to decline, and may see a surplus in thenext five years. A similar trend is projected forwood panel products, including particleboardand plywood.

Farm forestry programmeThe aim of the Farm Forestry Programme is

to encourage the incorporation of commercialtree growing and management into farmingsystems for the purpose of wood and non-woodproduction, increasing agricultural productivityand sustainable natural resource management.The program has four objectives:• promote farm forestry on cleared agricultural

land for a range of benefits, including woodand non-wood products, increased agriculturalproduction and environmental benefits;

• promote commercial wood production oncleared agricultural land as an integral part ofprofitable wood-based industries;

• promote development of new tree-cropproducts and industries with an emphasis onnative species; and

• promote sustainable management and use ofprivate native forest and woodland.

The main activities supported by the farmforestry program include planning and co-ordination; extension, education and training;research and development; monitoring andevaluation; demonstrations, trials and investiga-tions.

Forest tourismAustralian Governments have invested

considerable resources in tourism activity inforests. State and Commonwealth Governmentshave provided tourist facilities in forests withthe aim of making tourist experiences inforested areas more interesting andeducational, while minimising impacts on theenvironment.

Australia’s flora, fauna, and landscapes area major attraction for international visitors toAustralia, 50% of whom visit National / State

Parks/ reserves / caves. Overseas tourists rep-resent approximately 7% of the visitors toNational Parks.

IPF/IFF proposals for actionA preliminary assessment in 1998 and a

recent assessment in 1999 indicated thatAustralia has made good progress with theimplementation of the proposals for actionemanating from the completion of theIntergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) andthe Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF)process.

In some cases the actions will be ongoingfor a number of years (such as Regional ForestAgreements) and in a few cases some furtherconsideration may need to be given to ensureAustralia’s programs fully meet the intent of theIPF proposals.

Support towards sustainable forestmanagement

Australia has considerable expertise in sus-tainable forest management techniques, and wellregarded private consultancy firms working inforestry as well as good research and geneticimprovement programs in the public and privatespheres. Australia has Forestry schools in theAustralian Capital Territory, New South Wales,Queensland and Victoria, which provide under-graduate and postgraduate training toAustralian and international students. Wellqualified Australian foresters, with tertiaryqualifications and experience in forestry,supervise forest management and harvesting inAustralia. All harvesting on public lands andsome private lands is covered by comprehensivecodes of forest practice.

The Australian aid program's support to theforestry sector provided by AusAID totalledaround $A14 million in 1998/99. Most of thisamount (about $A10million) comprisedexpenditure on bilateral projects, with another$A3 million being expended on forest-related


research through the Australian Centre forInternational Agricultural Research (ACIAR).

The program also covers the provision ofseed funding for projects of Regional signifi-cance in the International Tropical TimberOrganisation (ITTO), as well as the provision ofone-off funding for initiatives such as thedevelopment of the Code of Practice for ForestHarvesting in Asia-Pacific, and more recentlydrafting the Strategy for the Implementation ofthis Code.

Research, extension and trainingAs a key initiative under the National Forest

Policy Statement, the Federal Governmentestablished the Forest and Wood Products Re-search and Development Corporation (FWPRDC)in partnership with industry with the purpose ofpromoting effective research and development,which advances an internationally competitive,sustainable and environmentally responsibleforest and wood products industry in Australia.

The Corporation invests in research for theforest and wood products industry andfacilitates the dissemination, adoption andcommercialisation of the results of research anddevelopment activities in which the Corporationinvests. The Corporation achieves these goalsthrough the following:§ Integration of forestry activities in farming

operations as a way of achieving landrehabilitation and enhancing forest industries,regional development, and increasing farmingincomes;§ Encouraging tree planting for environmental

and development purposes through communityprogrammes;§ Continuing to work toward greater efficiency

and sustainability of the agriculture andforestry sectors, and to develop a moreproductive relationship between these twosectors;§ Increasing work on criteria and indicators for

SFM in regions within Australia; and

§ Integration of data at the national level toallow for meaningful analysis and interpreta-tion given.§ the great diversity in forest ecosystems, the

extensive nature of the forest estate anddifferent data sets used by varying govern-ment agencies.

The Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research (ACIAR) is an AustralianGovernment authority that operates within theMinistry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. It wasestablished in June 1982 to assist andencourage Australia's agricultural scientists touse their skills for the benefit of developingcountries, and at the same time, work to resolveAustralia's own agricultural problems. ACIAR'sForestry Program has four components:§ domestication of trees and shrubs;§ development of low-cost technologies to im-

prove establishment and productivity of se-lected trees;§ strengthening of institutional capability; and§ development and improvement of a forestry

information network.The Commonwealth Scientific and Indus-

trial Research Organisation (CSIRO) wasformed in 1949. Its Forestry and ForestProducts Division has a lead role in Researchand Development at the federal level.

The global competitive performance ofAustralia's Forestry, Wood and PaperIndustries Sector over the next 20 years will beunderpinned by R & D. It will facilitateresource development and sustainable manage-ment, improved wood and fibre performance,increased efficiency and environmental per-formance of wood and paper processing andincreased value adding in wood and paperproducts.

CSIRO Forestry and Forest ProductsDivision has extensive experience and capabilitythrough its expertise with Australian Tree SeedCentre; Entomological Services; Pulp and Paper


Testing; Scanning Electron Microscopy, DigitalImaging and Analysis Facility; Soil and PlantNutrient Analysis; and Wood Identification.

CSIRO Division of Forestry and Forestproducts current research areas include:• Forestry operations – their environmental and

economic performance;• Papermaking and paper quality;• Risk management;• Sustainable plantation forests;• Sustainably managed native forests;• Value enhancement in the forests; and• Value-added wood products.

FWPRDC, ACIAR, CSIRO are the mainresearch bodies at the federal level. State andTerritory Governments also have such or-ganisations working on forestry research issues.

Role of major groups and social aspectsThese issues form an integral part of the

RFA process, which aims to achieve a balancebetween conservation, economic and socialinterests in forests. It also helps to ensure co-ordinated action in a federal system where alllevels of government have constitutional powersrelevant to the NFPs goals. Community groups,industry organisations, unions, and otherstakeholders are actively involved incontributing to forest resource use decisionmaking and management issues in Australia. Forexample, stakeholder consultation has been alarge part of the RFA processes as well asAustralia’s activities under the IPF / IFF.

Collaboration with partners andinternational conventions

Australia works to promote sustainableforest management and conservation through thevarious international agreements andconventions that impact on the management anduse of forests to which it is a party. Inparticular, Australia endeavours to:§ promote the sustainable use and conservation

of the world’s forests through implementation

of the agreed upon wide-ranging actions ofIPF/IFF;§ foster mutually supportive trade and environ-

ment outcomes that do not provide perverseincentives for forest use;§ promote concrete actions to conserve and

maintain biodiversity through the work pro-gramme of the Convention on Biological Diver-sity;§ ensure that forest dependent species listed

under the Convention on the InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Faunaand Flora (CITES) are not commerciallytraded internationally contrary to the Con-vention;§ protect and conserve the forested areas in

Australia inscribed under the Convention forthe Protection of the World Cultural andNatural Heritage, namely the Kakadu NationalPark, the Tasmanian Wilderness Area, the WetTropics of Queensland and the CentralEastern Rainforest Reserves; and§ prevent forest degradation in Australia’s

dryland regions through the ratification andimplementation of the Convention to CombatDesertification.

The possible contribution of carbon sinks tosustainable forest management and conservationis being widely discussed by the forestcommunity even though the internationalnegotiations on this issue have not yet con-cluded. In terms of the Climate ChangeConvention and the Kyoto Protocol, Australiawishes to promote a greater understanding ofthe potential role that carbon sinks could play insustainable forest management and conservation.At the same time we also seek to identify needsand opportunities to promote forest reformactions that could contribute to a stableenvironment for and to operationalise futuresinks investment.

Other matter


Information concerning government policies andprogrammes on forests are available on theInternet at:

http://www.affa.gov.au/affa/subjects/forestry.html

Australia hosted the 18th session of Asia PacificForestry Commission (APFC) held in Noosaville,Queensland, 15-19 May 2000. A number ofobservers from intergovernmentalorganisations and international Non-governmental organisations, and participantsfrom 25 member nations attended the Session.In 2000, there were 29 members of theCommission, in which United Kingdom is theObserver member.

Focal pointRob RawsonO.i.C First Assistant Secretary,Fisheries and Forestry Industries DivisionAgriculture, Fisheries and Forestry AustraliaGPO Box 858, Canberra ACT 2601 AustraliaPhone: 61-2-6272-5931Fax: 61-2-6272-4875E-mail: [email protected]

*****

Everyone has a will to win,but very few have the will to prepare the win.

(Wince Lombardi)

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Bangladesh 21

Bangladesh

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha)* 14,757Total forest area (thousand ha) / % of total land* 2,580/

17.4%Population 1999 (millions)* 127Rural population 1995 (%)** 81.7%GNP per person 1995 (US$)** 289

Source of data: * Country Report, APFC 18th Session, 2000 **FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999

General information

Bangladesh is located at the lowest part ofthe Ganges-Brahmaputrap-Meghna (GBM) riversystems with a long coastal belt along the Bayof Bengal. The country is endowed withdiversified species of flora and fauna.Agriculture is the major economic activity.There are three broad physiographic regions inthe country: a) flood plains, consistinggenerally of level alluvium, occupying about80% of the country; b) terraces, comprisingslightly uplifted blocks, accounting for 8%;and c) hills, which occupy about 12% of theland area.

The high population density and meagreand stressed resources have compounded theenvironmental problem, which is difficult toresolve. Nearly half of the population is livingunder the poverty line. In addition, the incomegap is high and the distribution is unequal.Thus, the social environment is seriouslyunsustainable.

Bangladesh generally enjoy a sub-tropicalmonsoon climate. In winter, the temperaturevaries from minimum 7-12 oC to a maximum of23-31 oC; in summer the maximum temperatureis 36 oC (occasionally it may go up to 40 oC).

The arable land covers an area of 9.4million ha, or 75% of the total land area; out ofthis, about 97%, or 9.1 million ha, are regularlycultivated. According to Government statistics,

livestock and fisheries are marginally moreimportant than forestry.

In agricultural production, Bangladesh hasnot been able to achieve the expected eco-nomic level due to the low level of technology,poor infrastructure and low labour productiv-ity. Growth in the industrial sector has alsobeen poor, with 80% of the industries being ofthe cottage type. In recent years, a garmentindustry has developed, mainly for export.

About 60% of the rural population areclassified as functionally land less and 70% ofthe landholdings are small. In addition, over80% of the poor population, estimated at over50 million, are concentrated in the rural areas.Encroachment is increasing in forest andmarginal lands and about 50% of the forest-lands are being cultivated or occupied.

Forest resources and land useThe forestry sector accounts for only

about 3% of the country's gross domesticproduct (GDP) and 2% of the labour force.However, these figures do not reflect the realimportance of the sector. The GDP figure doesnot count the large quantities of fuel wood,fodder, small timber and poles, thatchinggrass, medicinal herbs, and the organised illicitfelling. The low contribution of the forestrysector to the GDP is also explained by severalother factors, e.g. value added from woodprocessing is counted under the industry

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Bangladesh22

sector, rather than the forestry sector. Inaddition, the contribution of forest resourcesin protecting watershed and irrigationstructures, reclaiming land from the sea,protecting coastal areas from storm damage,and in maintaining and upgrading theenvironmental quality, has not been quantified.

According to the country report submittedto the 18th Asia Pacific Forestry Commission,held in Australia, during May 2000, the totalforest area was about 17,4% of the total landarea. Details of the present forest, includingvillage forests, social forestry plantations,garden, etc., are presented in Table 1 below .

Table 1: Forest area in Bangladesh

Kind of forest Area(mill ha)

1. Forest managed by FD* 1.53* Hill forest 0.675* Natural mangrove forests 0.601* Mangrove plantations 0.134* Plain land sal forests 0.1232. Unclassified State Forests 0.673. Village forests 0.274. Social forestry plantation 0.045. Plantation in tea & rubbergarden

0.07

Total 2.58Note: * FD = Forestry Department of the Ministry of

Environment and Forests

There are 12 established protected areasunder the jurisdiction of the FD, but most ofthese are degraded due to illegal logging, landclearing, and poaching. The areas are poorlyprotected due to inadequate staff, poorfacilities, and the lack of management plans. Inaddition, there are three wildlife sanctuariesin the Sundarbans (mangrove area) that wereestablished to protect the habitat of tigers andother wildlife as an integral part of forestmanagement. However, these sanctuaries alsosuffered in the past from neglect andinadequate staff and infrastructure facilities.

Ecologically, there are four main types offorests in Bangladesh as follows:§ Tropical wet evergreen forests

These forests usually occur in hills and moistshady areas in Rangamati, Bandarban,Khagrachari, Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar and

Sylhet. They are rich in floristic composition.A few semi-evergreens of deciduous speciesmay occur, but they do not essentially changethe evergreen characters of the forest. Theforest is rich in epiphytes, orchids, andwoody climbers, particularly in shady moistplaces.§ Tropical semi-evergreen forests

These forests occur in Cox’s Bazar,Chittagong, Rangamati, Khagrachari,Bandarban, and Sylhet in less dry and hotterlocalities.§ Tropical moist deciduous forests

These forest occur in Dhaka, Mymensingh,Tangail, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Naogaon andComilla. The principal species is Sal (Shorearobusta)§ Mangrove forest (tidal forests).

The natural mangrove forests is theSunderban in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhiradistricts. Sunderbans constitutes the world’slargest contiguous mangrove forest ecosystem.The total area of the Sunderban forest isabout 0.601 million ha. Besides natural man-groves in Sunderbans, there are a number ofman-made mangrove forests along the coast ofthe Bay of Bengal. The total area of mangroveplantations in the country is 135,992 ha. Thesecoastal mangrove forests play an important rolein the reclamation of land, protection ofcoastal habitats from cyclones and tidalsurges, and to uplift the socio-economicconditions of coastal people. The country isknown to be the pioneer of innovative coastalafforestation technology in the world, whichwas started in the late sixties. These forestshave had been established in Barguna,Patuakhali, Bhola, Laksmipur, Noakhali, Feni,Chittagong and Cox’ Bazar Districts.

For the last few years, specific end useoriented plantations have been raised inChittagong, Syllet, Cox’s Bazar, Chittaging HillTracts, the coastal regions and northerndistricts. These include fuel wood, pole andindustrial plantations. Different species ofboth local and exotic trees have been identi-


fied and planted in different end-use orientedplantations.

In the Sundarban Forest Division, forestshave been harvested according to a selectionsystem where exploitable sizes were fixed andtrees above certain diameters were extracted.The clear felling system is applied for themanagement of plain land Sal forests, witheither coppice or artificial regeneration. How-ever, because of serious degradation of theforests, a moratorium on the felling of trees inthe Sal forests has been in force since 1972.At present, the degraded Sal forests aremanaged on the basis of participatory concept.

In order to conserve the natural forests, amoratorium on logging has been imposed since1989 in all natural forests and will continueuntil the year 2005.

In line with the 1992 Earth Summit, theGovernment is committed to the in-situconservation of biological diversity. Protectedareas play a prime role in the country’s nationalplan for biodiversity conservation. TheBangladesh Wildlife (Preservation Amendment)Act of 1974 provides the basic framework orguidelines for the conservation of wild animals.The same Act has provisions for the establish-ment and management of three categories ofprotected areas, i.e. national park, wildlifesanctuary and game reserve. At present thereare seven wildlife sanctuaries, five nationalparks, and one game reserve. It is noted thatthe protected areas are home to about 500species of wild vascular plants and around 840species of wild animals.

To promote and implement a system ofbiodiversity conservation and sustainablemanagement, and to strengthen the environmentcapability, the Forest Department has set up anEnvironmental Management wing under theoverall supervision of a Deputy ChiefConservator of Forest.

At present, all the management plans forthe protected areas have been finalised. Theyhave been divided into several managementzones and buffer zones. The plans took intoconsideration the type of conservationmanagement system compatible to the

ecosystem, the biophysical attributes, theclimatic features, the socio-economic setting,present wildlife management practices, and theissues/ problems and management considera-tions of the protected areas.

FAO web-site, i.e. www.fao.org/forestry(click forestry, subject, forest resourcesassessment, and publications), provides detailsinformation concerning forest resources inBangladesh.

Production and processing

Annual wood production is estimated atabout 9.5 million m3, of which 80% is used forfuel, and the remainder is converted to sawnwood. About 80% of the production comesfrom private sources, mainly homestead woodlots. In recent years, the annual productionfrom State forests averaged 440,000 m3 oftimber, 800,000 m3 of fuel wood and 90million pieces of bamboo, representing onlyabout 20% of the total wood production.Annual per capita wood consumption is about0.1 m3, one of the lowest in the world. WithBangladesh's population projected to increaseto 145 million by the year 2000, theconsumption per capita is likely to declinefurther.

Biomass fuels, including fuel wood,agricultural residues and dung, dominateenergy consumption in rural areas. Other fuelsaccount for only a small fraction of the totalrural fuel consumption. Wood is not available inmost rural areas, as a result of which the ruralpopulation depends on agricultural residuesand dung for 90% of their fuel needs.

The primary processing industries in thesector include approximately 1,600 sawmills, 4pulp and paper mills, 13 board mills, 2 timbertreatment plants and 22 match factories. Theprivately owned factories include 8 boardmills, 18 match factories, and 1,632 sawmills.The industries suffer from a shortage of rawmaterials, old and outdated equipment, andlack of trained personnel.


InstitutionsThe MOEF has overall responsibility for

the development of the forestry sector. It hasjurisdiction over the FD, the Department ofEnvironment (DE), the Bangladesh ForestResearch Institute (BFRI), and BangladeshForest Industries Development Corporation(BFIDC). The FD is the primary Governmentagency responsible for the day-to-day manage-ment of forest resources. Its field operationsconsist of six Circles concerned withterritorial forestry and 37 Forest Divisionsunder the Circles. The Divisions are furtherdivided into Forest Ranges and Beats.

The field staffs are responsible for theestablishment and maintenance of plantations,supervision of State forestlands, provision ofindustrial wood supplies, and extension andpublic relations at the local level. The FD isalso responsible for training all technicalforestry staff through its forest colleges andschools in Chittagong, Sylhet, and Rajshahi,while the Institute of Forestry at theChittagong University provides professionalforestry education. BFRI is located inChittagong. It has two research branches forforest management and forest products and ageneral services branch.

In addition to the above project, FAO/UNDP and the Forest Department completedthe Project BGD/84/056: Integrated ResourceDevelopment of the Sundarbands ReservedForests. The objectives of the project were asfollows: to produce a plan for integratedresource management designed to enhance thesupply of wood and non-wood products, toconserve and manage aquatic and terrestrialwildlife resources, to study the potential formobilising and assisting people to participate inincome and employment generating activities inthe area (with particular focus ondisadvantaged groups), to develop the tourismand recreational potential, and to enhance theprotective role of forests against cyclones, soilerosion and total surges. The report of theproject consists of three volumes: The past andcurrent situation and future management;Appendices giving further details; and Maps

prepared from GIS and Hydraulics data bases.The documents have been used by theGovernment as references for furtherimplementation.

Master Plan for Forestry DevelopmentIn response to the request from the

Government for sustainable development of theforest resources and to arrest deforestation,the Asian Development Bank, UNDP, and FAOprovided support for the preparation of theMaster Plan for the Forestry Development(MFD). The exercise begun in June 1989 andthe planning document was available inSeptember 1993. It envisages bringing 25% ofthe land area under tree cover by the year2005 through, among others things, people'sparticipation.

The aims of the MFD were to:§ identify policy issues and recommend policy

and institutional sector reforms, which willlead to more rational development and use offorest resources;§ incorporate environmental concerns into

forest management practices;§ develop a framework which will promote

balanced and sustainable land-use practices,focusing on the basic needs of the ruralpopulation; and§ prepare programmes and projects intended to

reverse the deterioration of the forestresource base, improve the supply of forestproducts, and contribute to better land-usepractices.

The MFD identified the following majorissues:§ the lack of Government attention to the

sector, as a result of which policies, legisla-tion, research, forest institutions and man-agement practices are inappropriate andredundant;§ the current exploitation of State forests

beyond the land's natural productivecapacity, rapid deterioration of forestresources and land degradation occurringfrom misuse, and forest resources largelyremaining unproductive;


§ the increasing population and landlessness,and the resultant tremendous pressure ofland fragmentation and land-use conflictswhich continue to erode resources in thesector;§ the continuing pressure on forest reserves

and homestead forests which results inreduced tree cover, encroachment, unsus-tainable exploitation levels, permanent lossof biodiversity with extinction of wildlife,and a growing list of threatened species offlora and fauna; and§ the forest products supply/demand imbal-

ances and the lack of community consultationand participation which is undermining de-velopment efforts in the sector.

The MFD presents a comprehensive 20-year plan (1993-2013) to preserve and developthe nation's forest resources and addressesthe critical issues confronting the sector. Itrecommends a new strategy and changes inforest policy, legislation, land tenure,marketing technology, and industrial process-ing.

The principal strategy includes:§ enhancing environmental preservation and

conservation;§ introducing rational forest land use;§ increasing public participation and benefits

from resource management;§ expanding the resource base;§ improving management practices; and§ undertaking efficient resource utilisation.

The document was submitted to theNational Economic Council - the ExecutiveCommittee of the Planning Commission in theMinistry of Finance and was endorsed in July1995 for integration into the five yeardevelopment plan (1996-2000).

As the first step in the implementation ofthe MFD, the Government approved a newforest policy. The Ministry of Environment andForests published the new policy in November1995. To have legal and institutional reformsneeded for the development of the forestrysector and to be in line with the new forestpolicy and the MFD, FAO provided aTCP/BGD/4553 project aimed to help with the

preparation of investment and technical assis-tance projects related to institutional and legalreform within the framework of the new policy.

The TCP project was operational fromSeptember 1996 through 8 May 1998. The FAOproject TCP/BGD/4533 recommended that theFD be reoriented toward sustainable forestdevelopment with the emphasis on people’sparticipation. The Government is stillconsidering the recommendation and thus thetime bound plan as recommended by the TCPproject could not be followed. The recom-mendations and outcomes of the projectinclude the following:

§ All staff should be paid from the RevenueBudget and the cost of reorganisation of theForest Department should be met from therevenue budget and not from the developmentbudget;§ The Government should cease to be project

driven and return to managing its own longterm programmes. Loans for capital develop-ment should only be sought if recurrentexpenses can be met from the revenuebudget;§ Inclusion of a Publicity Cell in the new set-up

of the Forest Department;§ A Monitoring and Evaluation cell in the

Headquarters of the Forest Department andin both wings will be established;§ The staffing of Forest Management and

Wildlife Conservation and Social Forestrywings will be 50:50 of the existing strength;§ All reforms should be completed according to

a time bound plan. It was decided that theinstitutional reforms will be completed within12 months from May 1998;§ The requirement of the Government to

produce forest inventories, managementplans, Forest Department annual reports andfive year reports has been accepted.

The National EnvironmentalManagement Plan (NEMAP)

At the end of 1994, UNDP (supported bythe World Bank) took the initiative in thepreparation of a national environmental


management plan (NEMAP). Participatorymanagement of both natural forest andplantations is the main recommendation tocombat deforestation. The approach wasbased on an extensive survey. Two questionswere asked of the people surveyed: "What areyour main environmental concerns?" and "Whatsolutions/actions do you propose? ".

A conservation strategy is underpreparation with the support of NORAD(Norwegian Aid). It is concerned with thebiodiversity of the remaining forests (inparticular the mangroves).

A number of policy decisions have beenformulated and declared including:§ a moratorium on all exploitation of

Government forests until the year 2000;§ a ban on the use of fuel wood for brick

making (which consumes about 23% of fuelwood);

§ the amendment in 1990 of the Forest Act,substantially increasing the Act's penalprovisions.§ launching a participatory forestry programme

on non-government forest land, as well as amassive forest extension programme;§ the establishment of a new Social Forestry

Department.

Aside from forestry, the Government hascontinuously accorded high priority to theenvironment. Three committees have been setup: the commissions on legislation andinstitutions are led by the secretary of MOEF,while the commission for donors' co-ordinationis led by the planning commission.

Focal pointM. JalilChief Conservator of ForestMinistry of Environment and ForestsDhaka, BangladeshFax: (8802) 869210 Forest DepartmentTlx: 672908 MOSP BJ

*****

Kindness is a language the deaf can hearand the blind can see.

(Shiv Khera – You can win)

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Bhutan

27

BhutanCountry dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 4,700Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land 2,756/ 58.6Natural forest 1995 2,748Change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (thousandha/%)

-47/ -9 (-0.3)

Population 1997 (millions)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 1.9/ 2.8%Rural population 1997(%) 93.5%

Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forests 1999

General informationThe Kingdom of Bhutan is a land-locked

country situated in the eastern Himalayas andis one of the ecological wonders of the world.The terrain is among the most rugged andmountainous in the world. The climate isextremely varied, ranging from sub-tropical inthe lower southern foothills, to temperate inthe central belt, to permanent ice and tundraconditions in the north. Water resources areabundant in Bhutan and provide many possibili-ties for hydropower generation. As local re-quirements are still quite modest, the majorshare of the energy produced will be exported,representing a large part of Bhutan’s totalexport revenue.

The economy of Bhutan is predominantlyrural. The area suitable for agricultureproduction is limited, mainly by the very steepterrain and the altitude. Most rural householdsown livestock, which are grazed in the forestareas and pastures. The majority, about 85%,of the population derive a living from agricul-ture and other traditional activities in the ruralsector. National fuel wood requirements arevery high due to the lack of alternative energysources. The production of fuel wood can meetabout 83% of the total energy demand.

The flora and fauna of Bhutan are diverse;72% of the country is covered by forests offir, mixed coniferous, temperate, chir pine,and

broadleaf species. The declared nature parksand reserves cover 26% of the country’s landarea. Much of the flora has remained undis-turbed, so Bhutan most likely has the richestflora in the Himalayan region. The Governmentis determined to conserve the flora and has seta national policy to maintain at least 60% ofthe land permanently under forest cover.Moreover, a number of rare animals can still befound since the flora has remainedundisturbed. Rare animals such as the goldenlangur, takin, and blue sheep are found widely.Tigers, leopards, snow leopards, red panda,gaur, serow, Himalayan black bears, brownbears, wild pigs, musk deer, and other types ofdeer are commonly found in many parts of thecountry.

Bhutan’s potential for developing Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) is quiteconsiderable. Several commodities are classi-fied under NWFPs, including: fodder, bamboo,medicinal plants, natural dyes, pine resin,lemon grass, and forest foods. But, severalconstraints hinder this development, including:

§ little is known about the resources, manage-ment strategies, best harvesting practices,and marketing opportunities;§ professionals are too few, there is limited

knowledge of practical management and theprospects for future development; and§ a weak institutional base.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Bhutan28

Policy and planningAll the forests in the country are state

owned and have been declared as GovernmentReserved Forests by the Forest and NatureConservation Act 1969. The forests have beenclassified into three categories namely:Government Reserved Forest, Community For-est, and Private Forest. Community Forests hadbeen handed over to the people for manage-ment purposes, while the land, minerals, andwildlife are still owned by the Government;meaning that the trees and the plants belong tothe communities residing in and around theforests. In regard to management, the reservedforest is divided into protected areas fornational parks, sanctuaries and naturereserves, and forest management units forharvesting of timber.

The country has set aside 26% of the landarea as national parks, sanctuaries and re-served areas for special wildlife habitats.There are four national parks, four wildlifesanctuaries and one nature reserve. On 2November 1999, the Government declared382,800 ha of forest areas as a Bhutan’s “Giftto the Earth”. These areas are set aside asbiological corridors for the movement ofwildlife or as safe passages from one locationto another without any disturbance from humanactivities. The areas selected as corridors aremostly unsuitable for human habitation and use.Therefore, there will be negligible impact onthe local population.

The country has 0.33 million ha ofdegraded areas. Plantation activities are car-ried out on these lands and in logged overareas. It was reported that there were 43,974acres of plantations, including the communityplantations, plantations by the industries, andplantations in logged over areas.

An approved Forest Management Planshould be obtained prior to forestry operationsin the reserved forest. At present, there are 13forest management units covering an area of88,788 ha. In addition, three working schemeshave been prepared. The total annual allowablecut of these units and schemes is 133,251 m3standing volume. The total timber harvested

was 52,574.18 m3 in 1999. These units hadbeen inventoried and their growing stock hadbeen assessed. The management plan of theunit is crafted for a period of 10 years. Forsustainability of the resources, timber produc-tion of each unit area should be less than itsannual allowable cut. All the management unitshave forest roads constructed for timbertransportation.

The Forest Master Plan exercise began inJune 1989 and the strategic plan document wasavailable in October 1991. The Master Planproposes eight programmes as follows:

§ conservation;§ forest management;§ non-wood products;§ human resources development;§ watershed management§ social forestry;§ institutional development; and§ industries development

The total financial requirements for theimplementation of the forestry programmes forthe period 1992/93 - 1996/97 was US$ 64.4million. The Ministry of Agriculture hasincorporated the Master Plan process into theformulation of a Forestry Programme Frame-work (FPF). The elements of the forestrysector strategy of this FPF are:§ Sustainable forestry development resources

and self-sufficiency in wood products;§ Contribution to improvements in income, living

and nutritional standards; and§ Environmental conservation, emphasising inte-

grated and comprehensive management ofwatersheds.

The structure of the forestry programmeelements and strategic issues is as follows:§ Supporting programme elements composed of

Strategic planning; Human resource develop-ment; Land use planning; Monitoring andevaluation; Policy and legislation; andInstitutional development.§ Functional programme elements composed of

Forest resource information; Managementplanning; Environmental conservation and


29

natural area protection; Forestry research;and Forestry extension.§ Operational programme elements composed of

Nature conservation and natural areaprotection; Sustainable forest managementand utilisation for multiple uses; andForestry for community development.

The important achievement of the ForestryMaster Plan was the formulation of a ForestryProgramme Framework (FPF). The FPF servesas a conceptual and logical means of relatingthe goals and priorities of the forestry sub-sector to identify programme elements. It linkstogether on-going donor assisted projects andGovernment activities that contribute towardsachieving the 8th Fiscal Year Plan nationalgoals. It is felt that the framework will help inorganising the government’s planning effortsand provide a means of monitoring andassessing progress.

In addition, donor support to forestrydevelopment and the allocation of Governmentfunds have been considered substantial.Support was given in the following areas:§ Land use planning;§ Industrial forestry development;§ Natural resources training;§ Nature conservation and wildlife;§ Institutional strengthening§ Forest management;§ Integrated forestry development;§ Afforestation;§ Human resource development; and§ Forest management/ conservation

Moreover, an environment and biodiversityconservation project has been in placesupported by the Global Environment Facility(GEF), WWF, and Austria. A project proposalto provide support for country capacity forforestry development has been formulated.This project should assist the Government inthe co-ordination, evaluation, and planning ofdonor assisted support in terms of strategicplanning, policy, legislation, and institutionaldevelopment.

Recently, the Third Forestry DevelopmentProject became operational. The long-term aimof the project is to promote national andregional conservation and management of theforest resources to benefit national, regional,and local well being of the people of Bhutan,consistent with the 1991 Forest Policy. In theshort- and medium-terms, it is designed to:§ address critical issues arising from the

deterioration of forest resources in a fragilemountain ecosystem resulting from exogenouspressures to meet the increasing needs of thehuman and livestock population for variouscategories of forest produce, and§ develop and test a pragmatic approach to

sustainable forestry development which canbe applied nation-wide within the concept ofan approved Renewable Natural Resourcessector strategy.

Fiscal Year Plan (FYP) on forestry

Since embarking on its socio-economicdevelopment planning, the Government has keptthe policy to ensure that the process ofdevelopment of all aspects should be consistentwith maintaining the environmental and culturalintegrity of the country. In this regard, HisMajesty the King Jigme Singye Wangchuckstated that:

“Throughout the centuries, the Bhutanese havetreasured their natural environment and have lookedupon it as the source of all life. This traditionalreverence for nature has delivered us into thetwentieth century with our environment still richlyintact. We wish to continue living in harmony withnature and to pass on this rich heritage to ourfuture generations”.

Under the Seventh Fiscal Year Plan(7FYP), aimed at sustainable economicdevelopment and commencing in mid-1992, theGovernment adopted a programme ofdevelopment planning. The renewable naturalresources sector, which includes agriculture,animal husbandry and forestry, was givenpriority under the 7FYP.


The major objectives of forestry develop-ment under the 7FYP include:§ integration and co-ordination of land use;§ transfer of control of forest used by local

populations in order to arrest thedegradation process in certain criticalregions;§ assign priority to providing the basic needs

of the rural population;§ assign priority to natural forest management;§ increase co-ordination of environmental con-

servation activities.It was reported that in the 7FYP,

significant progress towards the developmentof a forest policy and strategy that balancesrequirements for conservation with the needsof local communities was made. In line with thedecentralisation policy, implementation ofalmost all activities has been decentralised tothe Dzongkhags. Therefore, the sectoral reviewof the 7FYP was mainly based on theimplementation at Dzongkhag level. During the7FYP, 5,000 acres of new and 15,000 acres ofmaintenance plantations were achieved. Thisindicated that substantial funds were allocatedfor the forestry sub-sector. Other importantachievements include the preparation andimplementation of a Management Plan incollaboration with the Bhutan Logging Corpora-tion, and more than 500,000 trees plantedthrough the Social Forestry Programmes.

In the 8FYP, starting in 1996, the theme isa mustering of efforts towards achieving self-reliance as expressed by His Majesty the King:

“National self-reliance in the Bhutanese contextmeans ultimately to be able to stand on one’s ownfeet, have the power of decision in one’s own hands,and not be dependent on others”.

The development of hydropower andindustries is considered to be an importantdevelopment strategy for enhancing the goal ofself-reliance and sustainability. Hydropower isone of the major renewable resources of thecountry, which is still not yet harnessed to anygreat extent in the economic development. Thelargest resources share has been allocated tothis sector in the 8FYP.

In the 8FYP, an effective programme ofimpact monitoring and evaluation will beestablished, the results of which will feedback into programme review and design. Theland use activities will be broadened, withwork focusing on land policy analysis, farmingsystems analysis, and the strengthening ofplanning capacities at the Dzongkhag level.

In the 8FYP, forest management activitieswill focus on three major programme areas asfollows:

1. Sustainable forest management.This programme will involve the following

main activities:§ Forest protection, covering both protection

of forests against encroachment and illegalfelling, fire protection measures, and surveil-lance and preventive measures against pestsand diseases;§ sustainable management for multiple use,

involving strengthening forest managementand placing it on a more scientific basis; and§ commercial forest operations, bringing com-

mercial logging operations under forestmanagement concessions, ensuring betterlinkages between forest logging operationsand forest management, and considerablyreducing budgetary demands on the govern-ment.

2. Nature conservation and protected areadevelopment

During the 7FYP, management plans wereprepared for the Royal Manas National Park,the Jigme Dorji National Park, and the BlackMountain National Park. During the 8FYP,management plans will be completed for fourareas: Bomdelling, Thrumshingla, Khaling, andSakteng. Priority will be given to protectedareas in the south that include endangeredspecies such as tiger, one-horned Indianrhinoceros and elephant, and where wildlifepopulations are most threatened.

3. Social forestry and extensionThis programme aims to address the

demands of the rural population for forestproducts and involving rural communities in the


31

management of forest resources. The pro-gramme has three main aspects:§ designation of community forest areas to be

managed by village forest management units;§ community afforestation/ reforestation ini-

tiatives in degraded areas; and§ agro-forestry and private forestry on pri-

vately owned agricultural land.

To ensure the sustainable management ofthe state forests and protected areas, the8FYP has set-up a forestry strategy throughwhich the costs to the government are mini-mised. Therefore, revenues from forestutilisation will be recycled to finance forestconservation and management, while the costsof managing the protected areas are increas-ingly being covered from the Bhutan TrustFund. The Trust Fund was established in 1991as an innovative financing mechanism, whichwill help the Bhutanese to carry outconservation activities on continuous basis. Atthe beginning of 1996, six donors contributedUS$ 17.4 million to the Trust Fund, i.e. GEF,Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, WWF,and Finland.

In addition, Bhutan and the Netherlandshave identified certain areas, namely environ-mental management, energy, climate change,biodiversity, sustainable agriculture, culture,and tourism, as most embodying the concept ofreciprocity.

The objective of the forestry researchprogramme in the 8FYP is to enhance theproductive and regenerative capacity of forestresources by safeguarding against anydegradation of forest and water resources andloss of biodiversity. The research policyemphasises the following:§ contributing policy advice;§ managing linkages both with those outside the

research system and with the farmingcommunity;§ co-ordination with other agencies involved in

research, or the introduction of new technol-ogy;§ managing and making available information;

§ avoiding inappropriate or harmful introduc-tions of technology.

Policy, regulation and institutionsA revision of the Forest Act is under

consideration by the Government. This revisionwill ensure consistency and reflect linkagesbetween the draft Forest Policy, draft ForestAct, and draft Social Forestry Rules.

Bhutan was a participatory country in theGender Analysis and Forestry Training ofTrainers Programme of 1992-93, and two staffmembers of the Ministry of Agriculture par-ticipated. A focal point on gender issues wasestablished in the Ministry of Agriculture andthe training of planning staff in obtainingbetter information for planning is envisioned.

With support from the FAO project:Strengthening Re-Afforestation Programmes inAsia (STRAP), a workshop was held on 12-14December 1995 to finalise a national re-afforestation strategy, in which involvement ofthe private sector, including industry andcommunities, was recommended as one of thestrategies to solve the problems of limitedfinancial and human resources, and the costeffectiveness of re-afforestation.

The Bhutan Forest Act of 1969 wasreplaced by the approved Forest and NatureConservation Act of 1995 during the 73rd

session of the National Assembly. A review hasbeen commissioned to redress the rapidlyemerging policy issues associated with landdistribution, tenure and controls. Given thedramatic increase in orchards and plantationcrops, with subsequent encroachment ontorestricted forest lands and the displacement ofpoorer farmers onto marginal lands, the LandAct has been revised to include orchards aswell as wetlands, dry lands, and shiftingcultivation sites within the 25 acre ceiling.

Forest fireThe most important issue in forestry is

forest fires. The area damaged by forest firesfrom 1992-2000 was 94,928.18 ha. In 1999,


112 cases of forest fires were recordeddestroying 11,600 ha of forests with an esti-mated value loss of US$ 3,363,636.

The Government has seriously consideredthis problem. Overseas assistance for remedialmeasures and advice concerning the types ofequipment has been requested. The terrain is sorugged so that it is difficult and sometimesimpossible to reach the fire spots.

Harvesting and marketingThe forest management units have been

fully mechanised. The two sets of cablecranes, namely gravity cable crane and allterrain cable crane, are presently used forlong distance cable logging with a capacity oflifting 2.5 tones. No manual logging ispermitted inside the forest management units.The power chainsaws have replaced thetraditional axes.

In some forest road constructions, excava-tors have replaced bulldozers for constructingenvironmentally friendly roads. The used ofbulldozers will also be replaced by excavatorsfor road construction within the forestmanagement units.

The new policy to enforce the ban on theexport of logs came into force in 1999. Thepolicy was adopted to ensure the developmentof the local based industries and to create jobopportunities for the Bhutanese people. Thispolicy is also directed toward reducing forestharvesting, thereby contributing to conserva-tion.

Non-wood forest products that have beenharvested and provide substantial income andemployment include lemon grass oil, medicinalplants and mushrooms. These products havemarkets within and outside the country. Themost commonly known mushroom with a highprice is the “Sangay Shamu” or Matsutaki(Tricholoma masutaki) and is widely harvestedfrom the forests. A total of 9,028 kg of rawmushrooms and 300 kg of processed mushroomswere exported in 1999. The Mushroom Centreat Thimphu teaches the collectors about the

sustainable harvesting of the mush-room. Thismushroom has not been cultivated to day.

Collaboration with partnersMany donor agencies have assisted the

country in the forestry sector development.They include the following:a). The Third Forestry Development Projectassisted by World Bank/ SDC, duration of1994-2002, costing US$ 6.8 million;b). Bhutan – German Sustainable RNR Develop-ment Programme; supported by Germany;duration of 1997-2000; costing US$ 2.6million.c). Integrated Forestry Management; assistedby Austria; duration 1999-2001; costing US$2.3 million.d). Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Park;supported by UNDP/GEF; duration 1997-2001;costing US$1.6 million.e). Royal Manas National Park, supported byWWF; costing US$ 0.9 million.f). Biodiversity Conservation; supported by theNetherlands; duration 1997-2002; costing US$1.7 million.g). Wang Watershed Development; supportedby EU; costing US$ 8.4 million.h). Institutional Development Initiative; sup-ported by IDF; duration 2000-2002; costingUS$ 0.5 million.

Focal pointSangay ThinleyJoint Secretary,Forestry Service DivisionMinistry of AgricultureP.O.Box 130Thimphu, BhutanTel (975) 22395 / 23055Fax (975) 22395Telex 221 MAGFOTPU BT

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Brunei Darussalam

33

Brunei Darussalam

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha in 1998) 576Total forest area 1998 (thousand ha)/ % of total area ** 448/78Natural forest 1998 (thousand ha)** 434Total change in forest cover 1995-98 (thousand ha)/ Annual change(%)**

-23/-0.36

Population in 1998 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1990-98 (%)* 0.3/3Rural population 1998 in %* 33.9GNP per person total 1998 in US$ 14,935

Source of data: * Brunei Darussalam Statistical Yearbook ** Information submitted to FAO – input for FRA 2000

General informationBrunei Darussalam is situated on the north-

west coast of the island of Borneo with acoastline of about 130 km. The country isendowed with extensive forests. Even thoughthe proportion of forest cover of the country islarge, the forest resource available for thedevelopment of timber industry is limited, asthe actual area of the country is exceedinglysmall.

Brunei Darussalam has a tropical climatewith high humidity and rainfall. The averagedaily temperature is about 28°C and the annualrainfall ranges from 2,790 mm in lowland areasto more than 3,810 mm in many parts of theinterior, particularly from November to March.

Economically, Brunei Darussalam is stillheavily dependent on the production of crudeoil and natural gas. The country is known to bethe third largest oil producer in Southeast Asiawith a production of 163,000 barrels per day.It is also the fourth largest producer ofliquefied natural gas in the world. Apart fromcrude oil and natural gas revenues, rents,royalties, taxes and investment dividends alsosupport the country’s economy.

Due to the non-renewable nature of oil andgas, measures have been taken to diversify theeconomy by encouraging development in otherfields through a series of Five-Year National

Development Plans (NDP). The current Plan,covering the period 1996-2000, is the 7th in theseries and primarily aims at giving an all-around enhancement to all facets of life of thepeople, with emphasis on economic dive-rsification through the development of export-oriented and non-oil based industries. For thiscurrent plan the Government has allocated atotal of B$ 7.2 billion for the implementationof various development projects andprogrammes, with social services taking thebiggest share at B$ 1.98 billion. The rest isdivided amongst the following: public utilities,B$ 1.58 billion; transport and communications,B$ 1.40 billion; industry and commerce, B$907.66 million; public buildings, B$ 623.83million; security, B$ 528.10 million; and miscel-laneous, B$ 173.30 million.

Forest resourcesBrunei's forests are classified into two

types: 1) gazetted forest reserves, which coveran area of about 235,520 ha, or approximately40% of the total land area; and 2) State-landForests. The management of the forest re-serves is under the jurisdiction of the ForestryDepartment, one of the arms of the Ministry ofIndustry and Primary Resources. Most of theforest reserves are made up of primary forest,which is divided into 6 categories, namely: 1)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Brunei Darussalam34

mangrove, 2) freshwater swamp, 3) peatswamp, 4) kerangas or tropical heath, 5) mixeddipterocarp, and 6) montane. The rest aremixtures, i.e. plantation and secondary forests.

The forests are managed on an optimal,sustainable and ecologically sound basis. Themain economic forestry objectives are asfollows: attaining long-term self-sufficiency intimber production and the supply of otheressential forest products; promoting down-stream processing for high value-addedproducts; tapping forest biodiversity forindustrial biotechnology; boosting ecotourism;and developing a competitive forestry niche inthe international market. All of these aregeared toward maximising the contribution ofthe forestry sector in the Government'snational economic diversification programme.

But more importantly, the forests aremanaged for their inherent protection andconservation values. These include theprotection of the natural life-support systems,maintenance of environmental amenities,promotion of scientific endeavours and natureeducation, and perpetuation of the nationalpatrimony.

Policy and strategyThe preamble of the 1989 National

Forestry Policy of Brunei states as follows:

“In pursuance of national development objectives andconsistent with global strategies on biogeocology inwhich the forests play a vital role, the governmentcommits itself to conserve, develop, and manage itsforest resources for the preservation and improvementof the quality of life; the promotion of social, political,and economic well-being of the people, andtechnological progress of the country; and for bringingabout environmental amenity and ecological equilibriumover a time continuum”.

Within this policy context, the ForestryDepartment, in facing the new challenges andopportunities in the new millennium, hasredirected its focus in carrying out its long-term development goals. The recentdevelopments and new realities havenecessitated major changes in strategicapproach, planning, and execution withdirected emphasis on a proactive instead of

reactive style. In doing so, the ForestryDepartment has spelled out its specific visionand mission as a set of objectives that need tobe achieved.

Hence, the vision of the Forestry Depart-ment in going into the next millennium isexcellent regarding tropical forestry. Itsmission is to manage the forests of the countryin an efficient and effective manner towardsattaining this vision. Specifically, the ForestryDepartment is committed to:

1. dedicating at least 55% of the total landarea as permanent forest estates or forestreserves;.2. rational natural resource allocation andsustainable multiple-use forest utilisation;3. developing a 3-pronged National ForestryStrategic Plan, consisting of EnvironmentalForestry, Industrial Forestry, and Excellencein Tropical Forestry;4. streamlining the organisation of forest ad-ministration;5. formulating and executing a forestdevelopment programme for industrial forestinvolving silvicultural management of naturaland man-made forests and dynamic forest man-agement regimes;6. formulating and undertaking a programmeof rehabilitation of degraded lands in thecountry;7. formulating and implementing a conserva-tion programme for environmental forests,involving preservation of ecosystems, establish-ment of resource conservation, documentationcentres, etc.;8. developing and implementing a management,exploitation, and development plan for theproduction forests and remaining forests onstate lands;9. formulating and carrying out adevelopment plan for recreational forests andnational parks, including remote eco-tourismand scientific undertaking; 10. formulating and putting into action aprogramme of forestry extension and educa-tion;11. formulating and enforcing a nationalforest protection plan;

National Forest Progreammes – UPDATE No. 34, Brunei Darussalam

35

12. formulating and executing a programme ongeneration and transfer of forest technology;and13. establishing international linkages andputting Brunei on the map of global forestry.

In order to implement the forestrystrategic plan, the following policies, withrespect to the management and utilisation offorest resources and the development of theforest-based industries of the country, havebeen enunciated:1. Local citizen participation in privatecompaniesPrivate companies intending to get involvedwith forest industries and related activitiesmust have local citizen participation, to theextent of at least 51% of equity.2. No export of logsIn order to achieve sustainability of forests,including sufficient supply of forest productsfor future domestic requirements, the Govern-ment has not allowed any export of logs. Thispolicy is apart from the cut in the logging rate.To offset shortfalls in log supply, the Govern-ment has permitted saw millers to import theirlog input or sawn timber needs.3. Import of raw materials for localprocessing encouraged

Aside from the import of sawlogs for thesawmills, the Government has also encouragedthe import of other raw or semi-processedmaterials for processing in the country. This isexpected to further spur the development ofthe forest-based industry. These include pre-worked or pre-fabricated components, e.g. forfurniture making.4. Export of value-added products

encouragedA further step to the above is the Govern-

ment-initiated stimulation for export offinished products, particularly high value-added items resulting from downstream proc-essing.

In anticipation of the state of forestry inthe 21st century and bearing in mind thestrengths, weaknesses, opportunities andthreats, the Forest Department has crafted a“5-star excellent strategy” as follows:

Star 1: Forest for Posterity and ProsperityPerpetuate our forests; they are our heritageand the key to our prosperity.

Strategy/Objectives:§ manage and protect at least 55% of the

country’s total land area as permanent forestreserves;§ complete the Brunei National Herbarium and

make it fully operational (target: 30,000specimens);§ establish the Brunei Tropical Biodiversity

Centre and later, the Royal Brunei BotanicGardens;§ publish the flora and fauna of Brunei.

Star 2: Forest for Sustainable ProductionMake and keep our forest resources productivein a sustainable, optimal and environmentallyfriendly way.

Strategies/Objectives:§ revise and effectively enforce forestry laws

and regulations;§ develop and maintain a natural production

forest stock as a strategic reserve;§ increase the productivity of natural pro-

duction forests through inventory andsilvicultural treatments (long-term target –50,000 ha);§ develop timber plantations (long-term target –

30,000 ha) in order to supply the domesticwood requirements of the country on asustainable basis;§ develop rattan and bamboo plantations (tar-

get 10,000 ha and 1,000 ha respectively);§ prevent and control forest fires.Star 3: Forest for Economic StrengthMaximise the contribution of the forestrysector in our national economic diversificationprogramme

Strategies/Objectives:§ rationalise the primary forest industries;§ facilitate and support the development of

downstream, value-added, export, and non-traditional industries (e.g. biotechnology,eco-tourism);§ develop private forestry industries;§ facilitate and increase the forestry sector's

contribution to the GDP.


Star 4: Forest for Public Involvement andEnjoymentProvide recreational opportunities and fosternature education for our people.

Strategies/ Objectives:§ complete the establishment of the national

park, designated ecoparks and forestrecreation parks;§ efficient implementation of the social and

community forestry projects;§ undertake an effective forestry extension

and education programme.

Star 5: Forest for International PrestigeAchieve “world-class” stature for BruneiDarussalam in the field of tropical forestry.

In addition to the above, the ForestryDepartment has entered a new era facing thenew challenges in a rapidly changing world.The emphasis focuses on a pro-active insteadof reactive management approach. The call ofthe day is management of results rather thanmanagement by mere objectives (sinceattainment of set objectives does not actuallyyield desired results). Management resultsshould be specific, measurable, attainable,relevant, and time-bounded (SMART).

Planning and forest managementThe rapid development of the forestry

sector in Brunei Darussalam commenced underthe 5th National Development Plan (NDP) of1986-1990. Within this period, the NationalForestry Policy was adopted in 1989, followedby the Forestry Strategic Plan. Severalprojects were initiated, including establishmentof the forest nursery, recreational parks, anda pilot timber plantation in Sg. Liang.

During the 6th NDP (1991-1995), moreprojects were implemented. These includedexpansion or development of the forestrynursery, recreational parks, wood preservation,timber plantations, rattan plantations, herbar-ium, ex-situ conservation centre, inventory ofnatural rattan resources, wood-working work-shop, pilot bamboo plantations, forest roadnetwork, Ulu Temburong National Park, andwaste land rehabilitation. Under the 7th NDP

(1996-2000), the Forestry Department hasadopted a result-oriented approach to projectplanning and implementation. The budgetallocated to support projects in the 7th NDP ismore than double that of the 6th NDP, i.e.$40.3 million in the 6th and $105.2 million inthe 7th NDP.

As stated in the 1986 National MasterPlan, the land is apportioned as follows:gazetted forest reserves - 40%; proposedforest reserves - 15%; other conservation areas- 2%; agriculture farms - 2%; uncommittedstate land - 37%; resettlement areas - 1%;urban and residential zones - 2%; and graveland white sand deposits - 1%.

The tropical forests of Brunei are dividedinto five functional categories: a) protectionforest (for critical watersheds and ecologicalpreserves); b) conservation forest (for naturalhabitats, wildlife sanctuaries, as well as forspecific areas of scientific and educationvalues); c) recreation forest (for outdoorrecreation); d) national park (for largeecological and biological representationpromoting nature research, education, eco-tourism and cultural preservation; and e)production forest (for supply of timber andother essential forest products).

The Forestry Department, established in1933, was one of the pioneer governmentagencies in Brunei. The Forest Act was firstpromulgated in 1934. In the early years,forestry administration was concerned mainlywith the collection of revenue; a minimal volumeof timber and non-wood forest products washarvested, including latex of jelutong fordomestic and export purposes. In the past fewyears, most of the development activities havebeen focused on the rational exploitation andmanagement of the commercial natural forest,particularly the mixed dipterocarp forests.

Previously, the silviculture system that wasadopted for the mixed dipterocarp forest wasthe Malayan Uniform System (MUS), patternedafter the practice in Peninsular Malaysia. However, the local site conditions aredistinctly different from those in Peninsular

National Forest Progreammes – UPDATE No. 34, Brunei Darussalam

37

Malaysia. In hilly dipterocarps, the trees arenot evenly distributed. There is sparse andpoorly distributed regeneration with lowtolerance to heavy damage to soil and residualstands during harvesting. The condition oflogged over dipterocarps in Andulau and LadanHill forest reserves, to which MUS had beenapplied, is poor and unproductive even after 30years. Due to these results, the BruneiSelective Felling System (BSFS), which isequivalent to selective felling practised inMalaysia, Indonesia and in the Philippines, wasintroduced in 1986. However, the BSFS adoptsa longer cutting cycle of 60-70 years.

The peat swamp and mangrove forests haveno established or prescribed silviculturesystem as yet. In view of the importance ofmangrove forests for the fishery andaquaculture industries, their conservation willbe given a higher priority. Because of this, thePulau Selirong mangrove forest ecopark, thatwas once a production forest, has been re-classified as a conservation ecotourism re-serve.

In regard to the heath forest (kerangas),due to their unique characteristics and therapid developments taken place surroundingthis forest ecosystem, conservation of thisforest is also accorded high importance. Onemeasure has been to rehabilitate degradedareas with the same species i.e. Agathisboornensis.

To support forest management anddevelopment strategies, the operations andresearch facilities at the Brunei ForestryCentre at Sungai Liang are being upgraded intoa dynamic field operations and R&D centre.Technical and support personnel are beingtrained to carry out its functions moreefficiently and effectively.

Advantages of the planThere are a number of advantages that can

be cited to favour effective implementation ofthe Plan, such as:1. Large portion of forest cover

The predominant forest cover of thecountry provides great potential for forestryto be developed as a major primary resource.With proper planning, efficient management ofits forest resources, and appropriate researchsupport, the forestry sector can play a vitalrole in the country’s programme for economicdiversification.2. Availability of financial resources

The financial crisis that has adverselyaffected the region appears to be abating.With the increasing trend in the price of oil –up to B$ 26 per barrel lately, the economy ofthe country will soon again rise up to its formerhealthy level. Hence, the strong financialposition of the country can adequately supportthe development of the forestry sector in thefuture. This normally requires substantialinvestments that would extend for a period oftime before significant returns can beobtained. Thus, steady and adequate financialsupport from the government is essential toensure the success of the plan.

3. Low logging rateThere is less pressure for large-scale

exploitation of the forest resources of Brunei.In fact, a logging cut policy has been imposedsince 1990. The logging rate from the naturalproduction forest has been reduced from200,000 m3 to 100,000 m3 annually. This hascontributed significantly to the conservation ofthe country’s forest resources.

4. Favourable social and political situation inthe country

Common problems in forest protection suchas shifting cultivation and illegal logging, whichhave been identified as major culprits offorest destruction in most tropical countries,are minimal if not negligible in the country.This can be attributed to the fact that socio-economic, as well as political problems, whichare perennial problems, particularly in thedeveloping countries, are non-existent inBrunei Darussalam.5. Accessibility of operations

The country’s forest operation areas arelimited and easily accessible, which can ensurea high standard of planning and effective


execution of such plans. There are only 24sawmills operating in the country with theirconcession areas within 15-25 km from themills. Supervision and monitoring of theiroperations can be satisfactorily done withappropriate staff allocation.6. Parallel technical information available as

a baseThere is a wealth of technical information

on tropical forest management available,including in its neighbouring ASEAN countries,which Brunei Darussalam can easily access.However, the country should study it withcaution and note not only their successes andstrengths, but their weaknesses and failures aswell.7. Resources/strategic planning study

Brunei Darussalam has undertaken a na-tional forest resource and strategic planningstudy that will provide valuable reference andguidance in the preparation of a detailedstrategic plan.8. Vast biological potential existing in BruneiDarussalamThe high diversity and richness of BruneiDarussalam’s forests equals a vast storehouseof genetic materials that can be conserved andinvestigated for their potential socio-economicvalues. Examples include the many wildrelatives of useful crop plants and fruit treesthat may be suitable in the agriculturalindustries for crop improvement, a rich varietyof rattans that could be exploited, andpotentially valuable medicinal and ornamentalplant species. The intrinsic richness and well-preserved condition of Brunei Darussalam’sforests are attractive to scientists,conservationists and tourists alike, and favourthe development of research centres andnatural areas of international repute.

ConstraintsAlthough there are a number of advantages

that can be cited to favour effectiveimplementation of the plan, there are also somelimitations and constraints, which have to beresolved, including the following:1. Shortage of trained manpower

The local timber industry will continue to relyon expatriates for expertise, including non-skilled labour, until such time when locals areencouraged and trained to assume the job.2. High Labour costThe cost of labour is considerably high andmakes forestry endeavour expensive and thusless economical.3. Relatively small forest/country areaThe forest resource would just be ideal andadequate enough to sustain the local demand, ifmanaged wisely. Any attempt to introducelarge-scale exploitation of the forest resourcecould endanger the future of the entireforestry industry and influence the fragileenvironmental balance of the country.

Focal point

Hj. Abdul Rahman H.CDirector, Forestry DepartmentMinistry of Industry and Primary ResourcesBandar Seri Begawan BB 33910Brunei DarussalamE-mail: [email protected]: 02-381687 ext. 2222 : 02-381013Fax: 02-381012

*****

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No 34, Cambodia 39

Cambodia

Country dataTotal land area 1966 (thousand ha) 17 652Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land area 9,830/ 55.7Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 9,823Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%) -819/ -1.6Population total 1997 (millions)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 10.5/ 2.2Rural population 1997 (%) 78.43GNP per person 1995 in US$ 270

Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest, 1999The State of Forestry in Cambodia, 18th APFC, 2000

General informationThe rural economy is dominant in Cambodia,

where 85% of the people are engaged inagriculture for their livelihood. They alsopursue with supplementary economic activities.Those living adjacent to forests, cut trees,collect fuel wood, and non-wood forestproducts as part of their customary rights.During droughts and flooding, these activitiesare vital for securing the survival of thesepeople. The country exports rice, rubber, timberand non-wood forest products, and preciousstones. The agricultural sector employs 80% ofthe country’s labour force and accounts forsome 50% of the GNP. Fuel, machinery andspare parts are the main import commodities.

Within the natural resources sector,forestry remains one of the most importantsectors contributing to the socio-economicdevelopment of the country. Cambodia’s forestsalso attract international tourists, particularlyin the Sien Reap region where Angkor Wat andthe surrounding temples are located.

The Government has taken a number ofpolicy and legal reforms to address problems inthe forestry sector in the past several years,particularly concerning legal and illegal forestharvesting. The Prime Minister issued

a declaration in 1999 regarding the followingmatters: a) declaring the Department ofForestry and Wildlife (DFW) of the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the soleagency responsible for the forest estate; b)cracking down on illegal logging; c) ordering themilitary and police to assist the DFW to combatillegal logging; d) banning conversion of forestland, making a review of all concessions andformulation and adoption of a new forest law.

The important results of the above policyand legal reforms include cancellation of 12concession agreements, reduction of illegallogging, the closure of hundreds of illegal saw-mills, seizure of equipment and illegally har-vested logs and wildlife. The Government, withassistance from donors, established some forestcrime monitoring units and began reviewing andchecking the contractual compliance of theconcessionaires.

Forest resourcesThe forest type varies considerably from

province to province. The forests in the westand north west are mostly evergreen, whilethose in the north-east are mainly deciduousforests. The southern and central regions haveless forest cover, and thus the wood supply,particularly for fuel, is not adequate to meetthe people’s needs.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No, 34 Cambodia40

Under the National Programme to Reha-bilitate and Develop Cambodia and the FirstSocio-Economic Development Plan, a transitionin land allocation to private companies andgroup emerged in the early 1990s. Emphasis wasgiven to commercially-based development byleasing large land areas to investors. This wasthe interpretation of a market-oriented economyat that period.

During 1990-98, 6.5 million ha, or 60% ofthe forestlands, were officially allocated toforest concessions. There were other types ofland concessions granted by the Governmentsuch as: agriculture concessions for the privatesector development of rubber, cashew and oilpalm plantations.

Since 1999, the Royal Government ofCambodia has cancelled 9 forest concessionagreements covering an area of 2 million ha. Atpresent, the total forest concession areas coveran area of 4.7 million ha, or 44% of the totalforests in the country.

According to the recent survey undertakenby the GTZ Forest Cover Monitoring Project,which was based on the 1996/97 satelliteimagery, the forest cover was 10.6 million ha, or58% of the total area, and large areas offorests were degraded and no longer amenableto sustainable forest management. The forestsare increasingly at risk because of theexpanding demand for agriculture lands, timberand fuel wood. The trend is accelerated by theincrease of population.

Due to the climate conditions, naturalregeneration is uncertain. Artificial regenera-tion had been carried out from 1915 through1972 in some poor forest areas on small scalei.e. 300 – 400 ha per year using the followingspecies: Hopea odorata, Dipterocarpus, Tectonagrandis, Pinus merkusii, and other fast-growingspecies for fuel wood such as Peltophorumferugineum and Combretum quadrangulare.

Since 1985, the Department of Forestryand Wildlife (DFW) has planted an additional2,000 ha of plantations. Presently, there are atotal 7,494 ha of tree plantations. Fires havedamaged some of these plantations.

In addition, DFW is co-operating with JICAto establish a Reforestation and Training Centreand a training and experimental forest. Thepurpose of this project is to provide training instand inventory, tree measurement, andestablish a tree nursery and conduct severalforest plantation trials. DFW is alsoparticipating in the Indochina Tree SeedProject funded by DANIDA (Denmark) for aperiod of 3 years. Some forestry officers havebeen trained in seed collection and breedingtechniques.

Policy and legislationThe National Forest Policy Statement and

Guidelines have been revised several times toreflect the interests and needs of differentgroups. The document clearly states the com-mitment of the Government to sustainable forestmanagement assessment and optimal allocationof land resources and the importance of localcommunities in the protection and managementof forest resources.

The strategy of implementing the NationalForest Policy is based on the following:§ Allocating appropriate forest lands as per-

manent forest estates;§ Maintaining sustainable management for

prosperity with particular reference to con-servation of biodiversity, soil, and water;§ Assuring the traditional resource use rights

and privileges of communities;§ Enhancing the contribution of forestry for the

welfare of the population;§ Strengthening the national economy with

special attention given to equity and economicdevelopment consistent with the governmentpolicy;§ Promoting a greater participation of local

communities and the private sector in forestprotection, management and improvement;§ Supporting a community forestry programme.

In 1995, FAO offered technical support todraft new forestry legislation. Several missionswere fielded, and a draft provisional documentwas prepared and submitted to the Ministry ofAgriculture. In July 1996, an Inter-MinisterialNational Committee for Forestry Policy was


established, under the auspices of the country’stwo Co-Premiers. This committee is managed bya Permanent Secretariat under an ExecutiveSecretary, who is responsible to the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry, Hunting, and Fisheries.The Director of the Forestry and WildlifeDepartment is appointed as the ExecutiveSecretary.

The National Committee is responsible fordevising, monitoring, and assessing forestrypolicy. This Committee co-ordinates dialoguebetween the Government and international aidagencies, enlists and supervises technicalassistance, draws up investment programmes forthe sector, and presents action reports tonational authorities and donors. The Committeeis also responsible for proposing any necessarymeasures or plans of action regarding thecountry’s forestry policy.

On 16 January 1997, a Consultative Groupmeeting (as the follow-up to the ConsultativeGroup Meeting held in Tokyo, July 1996) wasorganised by the Council for Development ofCambodia. The main issues discussed includedthe following issues: the budgetary and taxreforms; the forestry sector; the administrativereform programme; the election legislation andorganisation; and the project of reintegration ofarmy defectors. Concerning forest and forestryrelated matters the meeting noted severalimportant issues including:

§ The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC)remains strongly committed to putting in place,as soon as possible, an effective control andmonitoring system for forest exploitation andthe trade in processed wood products over thewhole country;§ An independent monitoring system is being

established (SGS - a Switzerland firm wasselected in December 1996, but withdrew inJanuary 1997);§ The export of logs and sawn timber was

entirely prohibited after 31 December 1996;§ The RGC decided to form a National

Committee to manage and execute forestmanagement policy, which was called theSteering Committee on Forest Policy Reform.The long-term objective of the Committee is to

manage efficiently and effectively thenational forest resources in environmentallyand economically sustainable ways. TheCommittee has a mandate to conceive, follow-up, and evaluate the forestry policy;§ Since 1 January 1995, all tenders of annual

permits have been suspended;§ The RGC is a member of ITTO;§ In 1995, the RGC requested the group of

WB/FAO/UNDP to assess the forest policyand to propose recommendations. The re-portof the study, published in April 1996,confirmed the objectives and the strategiesdefined by the RGC, including:

∗ Limit the forest exploitation to the levelof its annual increment, which wasestimated at 300,000 to 350,000 m3per year;

∗ Improve the revenue of the nationalbudget by the full collection of allrelated taxes from wood;

∗ Intensify the actions against illegalcutting and exportation;

∗ Develop measures in favour ofenvironmental protection and con-servation of biodiversity.

Both Houses of the Parliament approved theForestry Law. The Law provides the legalfoundation for, among others: a) establishingthe role and power of Government agencies inforestry administration and enforcement; b)forestland classification, including theestablishment of a permanent forest estate; c)the rights and obligations of all parties involvedin forest exploitation; d) conservation andprotection of forests and wildlife; and e)forestry crime and penalties.

A Sub-Decree on “Forest Concession Man-agement” was adopted on 7 February 2000 bythe head of the Royal Government of Cambodiaafter intensive consultation with NGOs,concessionaires, and experts from WB, ADB andFAO/UNDP. The Sub-Decree provides rightsand privileges to local communities and relatedgovernment institutions and the private sector toparticipate in the process of granting a newforest concession, establishing forestconcession management plans, and the


monitoring of harvesting operations. The Sub-Decree also stipulates that a permanentconsultative communal committee has to beestablished as a mechanism to facilitatediscussions and comments on all issues involvingconcessionaires and local communities livingnear and inside forest concessionaire area. TheSub-Decree lays the foundation for improvedindustry performance by establishing acompetitive bidding process for the futureconcession management and planning.

The Minister of Agriculture, Forestry andFisheries officially declared the Code of Prac-tice for Forest Harvesting on 26 July 1999. Thedocument was prepared under a loan from theWorld Bank and with assistance from aconsulting firm.

The Minister of Agriculture, Forestry, andFisheries decided to reassess all the concessioncontracts to better adapt the felling permits.The concession holder has the obligation topresent a forest inventory, a master plan, and anenvironmental impact assessment.

With assistance from ADB, the Governmentundertook a comprehensive review of all 20concessionaires. The review commenced in

July 1999 and was finished in April 2000. Itconcluded that without dramatic and immediatechanges the current system could not ensure theimplementation of the sustainable managementof the forest resources.

To curtail illegal logging and otherbreaches of laws, a forest crime monitoring andreporting project has been established to buildthe capacity and infrastructure for propermonitoring and reporting of violations.UNDP/FAO and the WB provided technicalassistance and the United Kingdom andAustralia provided funds for the first year’soperation. The Government has created a FocalPoint for monitoring and reports. TheGovernment endorsed the use of the GlobalWitness for independent monitoring to ensurethe achievement of the project’s goals andobjectives. The systems are comprised of threemajor elements, as follows: a) prevention, b)detection, and c) suppression.

Community forestryThe important role and contribution of the

community forestry programmes and activitiestoward rural development have been fullyrecognised by the Government. The Governmenthas received support from several internationalinstitutions for community forestry developmentin some provinces, including ADB, FAO/UNDP,GTZ, and IDRC/ RECOFT. From the results ofthese supports, the Government was able toformulate a guideline for community forestry,which is intended to provide practical strategiesand operational guidance to community forestryprogrammes and activities.

However, the implementation of thecommunity programme throughout the countrywould require huge financial resources, forwhich the Government could not consider takingloans as an alternative for funding. Therefore,the size and scope of the community forestryprogrammes will solely depended on donorassistance.

Planning and programmingIn 1992, a Provisional Authority of the

United Nations in Cambodia was establishedwith the task of paving the way to free electionsand providing the new government with as muchinformation as possible concerning the country’ssituation in all economic and social developmentsectors, as well as prospects of internationalco-operation. A seminar concerning the best useof Cambodian forests within a sustainabledevelopment framework was organised on 12-14July 1993, and concluded the following:1. Protection and development of the forest

heritageThe basis of any policy ensuring sustainable

development of the forest heritage for the sakeof future generations lies in forest protection.Protection and conservation are the keystonesfor maintenance of the environmental, social,cultural, and economic value of forests.

The rapid degradation of Cambodia’s for-ests is mainly caused by a growing demand forfuel wood and increasing illegal cutting of trees


for other uses from natural forests. Forestprotection entails reformation of forestrylegislation, improving manpower skills, aproperly equipped forestry service, andincreasing people’s participation and in-volvement.

People’s participation must be officiallyrecognised and encouraged through appropriateincentives, so that it will be ensured throughoutthe process, from the initial drafting of plansand programmes, through to theirimplementation. Priority should be given to theneed for immediate measures to protect the mostthreatened forest ecosystems, especially theTonle Sap flood forests, the Kirirom Plateaupine (Pinus merkusii) forests, and mangrovesaround the Angkor archaeological area.

2. Sustainable managementSound and sustainable management of

forest resources requires a well-trained andprofessional forestry service, and a strongsense of duty and responsibility to the country’spresent and future generations.

To ensure that the forest exploitation isproperly conducted, a plan must be drawn upspecifying the annual allowable cut, includingpost-harvest forest operations.

Some immediate political, administrative,and technical measures should be implemented,particularly the following:§ illegal cutting should be abolished;§ an inventory of all wood-processing facilities,

and the closure of those illegally established;§ harvesting areas should be defined;§ medium- and long-term harvesting zones ad-

ministered by a properly established policyshould be defined;§ precise rules for the allocation of cutting

rights and industrial processing should beestablished;§ the people’s role in both operations and

benefits in forest management should bespecified.

3. Enforcement of forestry policyThe log export ban declared by the CNS on

22 September 1992 and the adoption of quotas

for exports of processed-wood in February1993 were positively judged as conservationmeasures.

The participants strongly recommended thatthese conservation measures be maintained solong as the Cambodian forestry service does nothave clear guidelines regarding theimplementation of the forest legislation andregulations, land-use plans for productionforests, and the means to implement suchguidelines. If the rules are to be strictlyapplied, collaboration and co-operation with therelevant services involved in forestry sectordevelopment are essential.

4. International co-operation

To achieve the forestry sector developmentgoals, international assistance and support areneeded and various actions are under way.Financial support will be essential in theimmediate future. Although the Cambodiangovernment is responsible for choosingpriorities for action and identifying which areasneed technical and financial assistance, theseminar appealed to international and bilateraldevelopment aid agencies to provide immediatetechnical and financial support to initiate anational strategic planning process.

A July 1994 seminar recommended that astrategic planning process within the CambodianNational Forestry Programme process should beadopted. Within the process, the followingactions were recommended to be carried out assoon as possible:§ Revision and refinement of forestry legisla-

tion in order to ensure the protection of thenatural heritage for its social, cultural, andeconomic development for today and thefuture generations;§ Formulation of a national forestry policy

based on the principles of social justice,sustainable development, people’s participa-tion, and transparency;§ Adoption of a forest land-use plan, as part of

a more comprehensive land-use plan coveringall sectors (agriculture, fisheries, industry,energy, etc.), including protected areas(natural parks, biological reserves, watershed


protection forests, etc.), recreational forests,and production forests;§ Formulation of short- and medium-term action

plans including defining the objectives ofprogrammes and projects based on thenational forestry policy;§ Reorganisation of the forestry service to

ensure its capability to implement the nationalforestry policy;§ Renewal and intensification of forestry

education in order to produce qualified fieldstaff having a sense of public service, andskilled senior staff;§ Resumption of applied forestry research

through rehabilitation of various trial facili-ties, and dissemination of technical results;§ Rationalisation of timber industries develop-

ment for the benefit of the people of thecountry as a whole;§ Development of schemes to improve the quality

of urban life through planting trees,especially along the road sides and otherareas;§ Encouragement of participatory rural de-

velopment so that agricultural production canbe intensified, taking into account varioussocio-economic factors, particularly poverty,population growth, lack of education, andpoor infrastructure;§ Development of community forestry, which

includes agriculture, livestock, aquaculture,and fisheries;§ Women’s participation in the process of

formulating and implementing projects;§ Awareness campaigns and grassroots educa-

tion on the important role of forests and thevalue of the natural heritage, and whyeveryone should commit to safeguard it;§ Explore appropriate technical and financial

assistance support from international andbilateral aid agencies.

The NFAP Basic Principles and OperationalGuidelines document was translated into theKhmer language in June 1994, and the FirstNational Seminar on the Cambodian NationalForestry Programme was organised in August1994. Ninety people attended the Seminar,including representatives from the Ministry of

Agriculture, Ministry of Environment, Ministryof Social Welfare and Labour, Ministry ofWomen’s Affairs, Ministry of the Interior andDefence, and representatives from severalinternational organisations and NGOs.

The Government approved an NFAP ProjectDocument (of two-year duration) at the end of1994, but in early 1995 UNDP decided torestrict its action to preliminary assistance ingetting the process under way.

In October 1995, following consultationsbetween FAO, UNDP, and the World Bank, itwas decided that a joint policy evaluationmission should study the forest conditions andtimber harvesting operations, and analyse howforestry concessions were fielded. This policyanalysis was carried out in November 1995, andthe provisional report was submitted to thegovernment in early 1996. The final report wasready in June 1996. The report recommendedseveral policy options for forestry concessions,harvesting, and timber exports, and proposedfour immediate actions:§ Identification of possible forms of legislation

on forestry concessions;§ Definition of criteria and procedures for

analysing harvesting proposals;§ Development and use of survey techniques to

establish initial inventories prior to theissuance of a concession licence;§ Inception of a comprehensive strategic

planning process laid down by theIntergovernmental Panel on Forests of theCommission for Sustainable Developmentcovering the development of (a) a forestrypolicy, (b) implementation strategies for thepolicy, and (c) investment programmes.

ConservationWildlife in Cambodia is increasingly

threatened by loss of habitat caused byincreasing population pressure, deforestation,hunting, trade and landmines. Deforestation andforest degradation are threatening manyvaluable plants and wildlife species withextinction. Removal of a few commercial speciesin the appropriately selective cutting


implementation will impoverish genetic re-sources.

The Prime Minister officially opened theZoological Park and the Wildlife Rescue Centrecovering an area of 1,200 ha. The Park hasconserved 500 wildlife, including 86 species ofbirds, mammals and reptiles.

A Royal Decree designating a conservationreserve for Sarus Crane habitat covering anarea of 12,650 ha at Trapaing Thmar, PhnomSrok district, Banteay Meanchey province wasissued on 22 February 2000. In addition, theDepartment of Forestry and Wildlife discoveredthe central Cardamom-mountains to be a nationaltreasure due to the richness in diversity ofplants and animals, including elephants, tigers,and wild Siamese crocodiles. These mountainsare now considered to be one of Indochina’smost important areas for biodiversityconservation.

Utilisation and marketingThe Government cancelled all permits to set

up sawmills in order to eliminate the use ofillegal wood supplies. This was carried out afterthe issuance of Declaration No. 1 concerning“Measures to Management of Forests and theElimination of Illegal Forest Activities” of 25January 1999. However, the forestconcessionaires have been authorised to installveneer, sawmill and furniture plants and theyhave the right to export their products.

Fuel wood is the biggest wood product, andis the principal source of fuel in the country. Itwas estimated that 6 million m3 of fuel woodare collected every year to meet the need forcooking and industrial kilns.

Timber and timber products, which aremainly dipterocarps, are exported to Singapore,Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Japan, Lao PDR,United States of America, China, India, KoreaPR, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, andRussia. The export of logs was prohibited in1997 and since then the local processing of logshas been promoted. Table 1 shows the trend ofexports of timber and timber products of thecountry. The Table shows that the government

policy on promoting local processing andprohibiting exports of logs took effect in 1997.

All the edaphic forests and about 2.8 million haof other forests, which are part of the NationalProtected Areas System (established in 1993and comprised of 23 parks), were allocated forbiodiversity preservation. A total of 3,568,000ha (19.7% of the country’s land area) is underlegal protection.

Theoretically, the timber stock availablefor commercial harvesting (above 40 cm indiameter) varies from 30 m3/ha in deciduousforests, to 80 m3/ha in evergreen forests.However, for sustainable selective harvesting,the volume available for commercial harvestingis only 10 m3 in deciduous forests and 20 m3/hain evergreen forests.


Local consumption of wood and forest productsis high. The total annual consumption for fuelwood is about 6 million m3, and for constructiontimber it varies from 1.0 to 1.5 million m3.

Table 1: Export of Timber 1993-1999 in m3Year Logs Sawn timber Veneer Plywood1993 80,835 150,8391994 300,635 295,5551995 459,085 99,4491996 161,673 69,042 28,4891997 71,662 188,66

71998 55,983 179,90

916,418

1999 9,828 68,320 14,865

Collaboration with Partners andInternational Agreements

Several international institutions andNGOs have been providing support to theforestry sector development in Cambodia.International institutions and donors includeWB, UNDP, UNCHR, FAO, ITTO, ADB, GTZ,EU, JICA, AusAID, SIDA, DANIDA, DFID-UK.Those from NGOs include CARE, CONCERN,IUCN, WWF, APAFRI. These NGOs assist thecountry mostly in the field of communityparticipation in planning, management andmonitoring in the rural development, protectedareas and forest resource development.

The country receives support from theIndochina Seed Tree Project executed inCambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam with assistancefrom DANIDA (Danish International AidAgency). In addition, the country also receivessupport from a regional project entitled“Sustainable Management of Natural Resourcesin the Lower Mekong Basin” funded byGermany and implemented by the Mekong RiverCommission and GTZ. The main aim of theproject is to support upland farming and hilltribe minorities and build a network ofinformation exchange of successful land useconcepts via the internet.

The Royal Government of Cambodia issignatory to several international conventions,including wetland protection under RAMSAR;monitoring and protection of endangered plantand animal species under CITES; the Conven-tion on Combating Desertification; and Biodi-versity Convention. DFW will be signing anagreement with a University representing theUS Cancer Research Institute under theMinistry of Health concerning the right of theUniversity to collect plant material andinformation on traditional medicine forscreening of a cancer reducing chemical com-pound.

Focal pointTy SokhunDirector General of Forestry and WildlifeMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries40 Norodom BLVD, Phnom PehnThe Royal Government of CambodiaTel: 855-12-855777Fax: 855-23-212201E-mail: [email protected]

*****

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, China P.R. 47

China People’s RepublicCountry dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 932, 740Total forest 1995 (thousand ha)/ percentage of total land area (%) 133,323/`14.

3Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 99,523Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/annual change%)

-433/-0.1

Population total 1997 (millions)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000(%)

1,249.9/ 0.9

Rural population 1997 (%) 68.2GNP per person 1995 in US$ 620

Source of data: The FAO State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationIn the winter of 1978, the Chinese

Government adopted a new policy for reformand opening up to the outside world to promotesocial and economic development. Some of thesystems developed prior to reform were, infact, useful. Under the Soviet economic model,China established a good agricultural base,formed a commune system that provided a goodsocial infrastructure, and successfullydeveloped certain heavy industries. However,the Soviet model also generated seriouseconomic distortions, such as low incomeswithin the agricultural sector and the declineof the private sector.

In consideration of China’s uniquely largepopulation and landmass, the underlying ap-proach to reform employed in China was agradualist one. The reform process in Chinabegan in the agricultural sector, where threequarters of the population earn their living. Asthe first step in the reform process, thecountry liberalised the price of agriculturalproducts. By 1989, 60% of the prices wereliberalised, allowing a more efficientallocation of resources, At present, 97 % ofthe prices have been liberalised. In 1984, apolicy of “invigorating enterprises” wasadopted and the focus of reform shifted fromrural to urban areas. In 1992, a socialistmarket economy was developed that requiresgreater decentralisation and the consolidationof the contract system.

However, despite the success of thereform process, the country faced some fail-ures and constraints, including: a) the disparity

between the rich and the poor and among the

regions has been widening over the past 20years, which recently prompted the governmentto launch the western development programme;b) the reforms have not responded to socialconcerns in a timely manner; c) the countryexport-based growth and high domestic savingsrate has led to idle money in the economy; d)there is a lack of institutions that supportentrepreneurs; e) the country is facing anuncertain and changing value system; f) thereis a gap between economic reform and politicalreform; g) natural resources management andenvironmental/ industrial pollution areemerging as big challenges in the country.

Progress has been made in the implementa-tion of the reform policy with the total value ofimports and exports exceeding US$ 200 billionand China’s foreign exchange reserves wastotalling over US$ 100 billion in 1996.

China is a major agricultural country. Thedevelopment of agriculture, the rural areas andthe wellbeing of the rural population are ofcrucial importance to the country’s socialistmodernisation drive, the success of China’sreform, development, and stability. Ruralprosperity is essential to making the wholecountry prosperous.

The country has been highly committed tosustainable development. Therefore, theGovernment attaches great importance to theprotection and development of the ecologicalenvironment. Environmental protection is now

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, China P.R.48

designated as one of the fundamental policiesof the State, which is closely associated withthe survival and development of the nation.

The Chinese Government attaches greatimportance to forestry development. Affor-estation and territory greening have beendefined as the common duty of the society as awhole. Key ecological programmes such as theThree-North Shelterbelt DevelopmentProgramme, the Programme for ShelterbeltDevelopment along the Middle and UpperReaches of the Yangtze river, the CoastalShelterbelt Development Programme, and theTaihang Mountain Afforestation Programmehave been carried out with remarkableachievements in the ecological and socialbenefits.

Soon after UNCED, the Chinese Govern-ment put forward ten policy measures topromote environmental protection and devel-opment. With support and assistance fromUNDP, China’s Agenda 21 and its Priorityprogrammes were formulated. In addition, theforest-related aspects have been formulatedby the Ministry of Forestry, including: theForestry Action Plan for China’s Agenda 21(FAPCA), China Biodiversity ConservationAction Plan, China Wetland Conservation ActionPlan, and China National Action Plan toImplement the United Nations Convention toCombat Desertification.

China Agenda 21 will be one of the keydocuments guiding the formulation of China’smid-term and long-term forestry developmentplans. The implementation of the FAPCA willenable forestry development to proceed alongthe lines of global environmental conservationand promote the shift from conventional tomodern forestry. The goals of the FAPCA arethe following:1. By 2010: lay the foundation for the estab-lishment of a relatively complete forestryecological system and a fully developed for-estry industrial system;2. By the mid-21st century: establish arelatively complete forestry ecological systemand a fully developed forestry industrialsystem; establish a modern administrativesystem and social service system for forestry.

To achieve the above goals, enhancing theawareness of and capabilities for sustainableforest development has been given highpriority. The means to accomplish this are asfollows:

§ Educate the decision-makers and advisors ofthe forestry sector at all levels to enhancetheir awareness of sustainable forestrydevelopment;§ Raise public awareness about the paramount

significance of sustainable forestry devel-opment through extensive publicity to facili-tate social involvement and public participa-tion;§ Work out the assessment criteria and

indicators for sustainable forestry develop-ment;§ Set up a forest resource management system

that combines market mechanisms and macro-government control;§ Develop and improve the policy and legal

framework for sustainable forestry devel-opment;§ Set up a forest disaster pre-warning system

to enhance disaster prevention and emer-gency handling capabilities;§ Rationalise and improve the plan for an

educational and scientific research system inthe forestry sector; and§ Establish a multi-source investment frame-

work in the forestry sector.

In March 1998, it was announced that theMinistry of Forestry had been renamed as theState Forestry Administration. The change willreorient the task of the institution. It was alsoannounced that the State ForestryAdministration would tighten control overlogging quotas. This will be in line with theforest policy on preservation of forest re-sources and protecting the environment. Thepolicy was announced at the beginning of 1998entitled: “Protecting Natural Forest Pro-gramme”. The Administration will put forward ascheme to tighten annual checks over theimplementation of logging quotas.

Being a large developing country, with apopulation of 1.2 billion, China is still con-fronted with serious problems in its ecologicalenvironment, including water pollution/ soilerosion, desertification, water resourceshortages, frequent natural disasters likefloods, droughts and winds. The most seriouschallenge for China’s forest is the pressurefrom its enormous population and the state ofits increasing trend.

Due to the heterogeneity and the size ofChina, the Government decided that theNational Forestry Programmes (NFP) should be


implemented in stages at the district level. Thefirst strategic planning process was thereforeinitiated in Simao District, Province of Yunnan(Simao Forestry Action Programme/ SFAP). TheSFAP planning exercise was completed in 1995.

The SFAP exercise has been extended toQinzhou and Fancheng Districts of GuangxiAutonomous Region (Qinfang Forestry ActionProgramme/ QFAP). The QFAP planning exer-cise began in the second half of 1996. TheIssues Paper was produced in the middle of1997. The in-depth study of the forestrysector was carried out in the third quarter of1997. The QFAP strategic plan document wasfinalised in early 1999.

In addition, the Development Strategy ofWestern China was crafted in June 2000, inwhich the forestry sector development strategyis one of the sub-systems of the Strat-egy.

Forest resourcesIn 1981, the late Mr. Deng Xiaoping

launched a grand campaign for compulsory treeplanting that has had a positive response fromthe whole population of the country. As aresult, afforestation has become a commonpractice for the improvement of the ecologicalenvironment. Over the past 18 years, 30 billiontrees had been planted.

The total forest area was approximately133.3 million ha, or less than 14.3% forestcover in 1995. The available forest area was0.11 ha/head or 11.7% of the world averagemaking it a “low forest cover country” accord-ing to these criteria. However, the country hasfor a long time had a high rate of reforestationof about 4-5 million ha annually. Tree plantingby the rural population accounts for 90% ofthe reforestation.

With regard to resources development,putting water and soil erosion under controland improving the ecological environment, theten key ecological programmes have beenapproved and implemented. By the end of 1998,an accumulated 37.71 million ha of forests hadbeen established.

In addition, several small-scale ecologicalprogrammes, such as the Nature Reserves orForest Parks Programme will be implemented atlocal levels to supplement the ten keyprogrammes. These will be the foundation forconserving biodiversity and improving the livingcondition of the people.

In regard to afforestation, the Governmenthas launched several programmes, including thefollowing:§ National compulsory tree planting programme.

The programme has helped strengthen thepeople’s awareness of the importance ofafforestation and environmental protection.In 1994 alone, 2.52 billion trees wereplanted.§ Development of a fast growing and high

yielding timber base. At present 3.4 millionha of plantations have been established. It isplanned that 20 million ha of fast growingtimber plantations will be established overthe next 30 years. It is expected that 43.8million m3 of timber will be produced by2010.§ The three-north shelterbelt development

programme, known as “China’s Green GreatWall”. A total of 35.08 million ha of planta-tions are expected to be established by theyear 2050. By 1994, 13 million ha of planta-tions had been established, 11 million ha offarmlands had been protected by shelter-belts, and 8.93 million ha of pasturelandshad been conserved and reclaimed.§ Programme on soil and water conservation

forest along the upper and middle reaches ofYangtze river. The first master plan wasapproved in 1989. About 5.46 million ha ofplantations had been established by 1994.§ The coastal shelterbelt development pro-

gramme. The programme commence in 1991.About 324,000 ha were afforested by 1994.About 6.17 million ha of farmlands are undereffective protection.§ Plain farmland shelterbelt development pro-

gramme. The farmland areas under shelter-belt protection reached 33.33 million ha by1994.§ The national programme to combat deser-

tification. A total of 3,670 million ha ofsandy land, sand fixation plantations, andaerial seeded forests were reclaimed anddeveloped by 1994.§ The Taihang mountain afforestation pro-

gramme. By 1994, about 1.28 million ha offorests had been established and 245,000 haof barren lands were afforested.§ The state-owned state farm. About 8.0

million ha of plantations were established by1994.§ The collectively owned forest farms at

township and village levels. By 1994, 16.66million ha of forest farms were established.


The trees planted included fruit trees. Dueto its high value, the forest farms havebecome “green banks” in rural areas.§ Establishment of plantations in state forest

area. By 1994, 9.6 million ha of regenerationareas had been completed, while 4.4 millionha of new plantations had also been estab-lished. In addition, 40 high quality seedorchards and 50 standardised nurserieswere established.

The country has a great deal of experiencein combating desertification through sand dunefixation, shelterbelts and wind-breaks and hasdeveloped a number of techniques. In addition,biomass (including wood and charcoal)represents almost 30% of the country’s totalenergy consumption. Annual fuel woodconsumption is valued at more than US$ 9billion. The main users are households,commerce and traditional industries. Localshortages still exist.

Forest policy and planningThe State Forest Administration is re-

sponsible for matters concerning the forestrysector. The recent main issues includerestructuring (downsizing) of the forestryinstitutions with about 50% reduction in staffsize, and a logging ban on commercial loggingin some areas. The logging ban has had atremendous impact on the revenue collected; insome areas the revenues dropped up to 70%.

The key part of the forest development inthe 21st Century will be the proper balancebetween the ecological function and economicfunction of forest. From the point of view ofthe ecological environment as the fundamentalbasis for economic development, the countrywill readjust its approaches for economicdevelopment to the implementation of sustain-able development. In regard to the guidelinesin forestry, the country will continue tohighlight the improvement of the ecologicalenvironment as its top goal and primary task.For the implementation of diversified forestmanagement, the country will adopt both theforest ecological system and the forest indus-trial system.

Development strategy for Western

ChinaIt was noted that the economic develop-

ment achievement in the west region, whichcovers 56% of China’s territory and accountfor 50% of the verified mineral resourcedeposits, has not enjoyed the same degree ofsuccess as the eastern region. It was estimatedthat an average of 2,460 km2 of land issubject to desertification annually in China.Disastrous sandstorms hit several major citiesin 2000. It was decided that more investmentshould go to the west region to undertake anumber of water conservation, transportation,and environmental protection projects. Thepriority has been given to improving foodsecurity, increasing the rural population’s in-come, and strengthening the agriculturalsustainable development.

Taking into consideration the rich re-sources, sparse population, and fragile eco-logical condition, and bearing in mind theexperiences gained during the socio-economicdevelopment in the last two decade, theGovernment has formulated an economicdevelopment strategy for the western Chinathat focuses on the following: a) infrastructuredevelopment; b) ecosystem protection; c)economic localisation and agricultural restruc-ture; and d) introduction of new technologyand education development.

In the process of implementing thedevelopment strategy, special efforts would bedevoted to several aspects, including agri-culture, forestry, water conservation, and en-vironment a protection.

In regard to agriculture, special effortswould be focussed on the following: a) de-veloping regional characterised agriculture,such as high quality cotton production base,sugar production base, fruit production base,vegetable production base, flower productionbase, medicinal herb production base, andtobacco production base; b) increasing grainand cotton production; c) reinforcing con-struction of grassland and eco-agriculture, inwhich there will be a programme to “bartergrain for trees and grass” for the reversion offarmlands to forestry and grassland, in which


5.15 million ha of farmland that have sufferedfrom erosion will be revert back into forestsand grasslands.

In regard to forestry, emphasis would begiven to ecological improvement. The Govern-ment has adopted the following policies andprogrammes:§ prohibiting logging in and building shelter

belts along the upper and middle reaches ofthe Yangtse and Yellow Rivers, the closure ofhills and forests, and individual contractsfor reforestation and development of privateforest ownership;§ establishing 6.48 million ha of forests and

grasslands in the barren hills and on thewastelands, in addition to 5.15 million ha torevert back to forestry under the agricul-tural programme;

§ establishing a forest ecology constructionand control mode; 100 forest ecology con-structions to guide afforestation have beenestablished;§ creating conservation parks of 65.8 million

ha in the middle and upper stream of theYangtze and Pearl rivers; US$ 14.2 billionwill be invested in 10 years;§ introducing alternative energy sources in the

degraded areas to replace the traditionalfuel wood.

In compliance with the actual situation andthe state of its forest development, and inorder to meet the State Strategy for Sus-tainable Development and Grand Developmentof the Western Part of the country, the futureforest development will be focused on thefollowing 4 strategies:

1) The Middle and Upper Reaches of theYellow River and the Upper Reaches of theYangtze River

In line with the principle of “returningbarren farmlands to forest (pasture)” theoverall guideline is to enclosure some mountainsfor afforestation, and ban natural forestharvesting, which will be accompanied byreturning barren farmland to forest and theafforestation of barren hills. The focus of theprogramme is as follows: a ban on forest

harvesting of the existing natural forests,followed by intensive conservation; regainingthe vegetation coverage for all the barren hillsand lands that are suitable for afforestation;well scheduled steps in returning the hillyfarmlands to forest.2) The sand threatened arid lands in North-western China, the Northern part of NorthChina and the Western part of North-easternChina

These areas will be used for the publicwelfare-oriented ecological forests. The tar-get is to stop the expansion of deserts. Theapproaches are: tree planting and pasturedevelopment and shelter belts; launching largescale projects in desertified areas; and theoases with human communities in the desertswill be expanded.3) The key State-owned forest district inNorth-eastern China and the Inner Mongolia

At present, these areas are the largestbases for timber production in China. Forestdevelopment in these areas is closely associ-ated with the sustainable development of theentire region in North eastern China and NorthChina. However, over-harvesting in the past hasseriously affected the quality of forests withthe supplies of large diameter trees almostexhausted. The major problems faced are toreduce the volume of forest harvesting, to re-allocate the people laid-off from forestindustries, and to regenerate the resources.

Forests will be under intensive manage-ment, and a harvesting ban will be applied. Forsome areas with more favourable situations andless liable the water/ soil erosion, acommercial forest approach will be adopted.

4) The provinces or regions other than theprovinces or regions mentioned in the firstthree

Most parts of these regions, in terms of thegeneral economy, have relatively developed andbetter situations for forest development. Thefocus of development and reformation in theseregions is to carry out feasibility studies fordiversified forest management, and sitedesignations for ecological forests and for


commercial timber forests.

Simao Forestry Action Programme(SFAP), Yunnan Province

Simao District is located in the southwest ofYunnan Province. Most of the land is moun-tainous with steep slopes. The climate is a southsub-tropical to warm-temperate, de-pending onthe altitude which ranges from 500 to over2000 meters. The forests cover an area of2,628.7 million ha, or 59.2% of the total landarea. In 1995, the total population of SimaoDistrict was 2.264 million, 60.4% of whichrepresents minority nationalities.

The main economic activity is agriculture,mostly subsistence, with a range of productsincluding: rice, maize, wheat, buckwheat, andsweet potato. Tree crops play a very im-portantrole for cash income. Tea is the most importantplantation, followed by fruit crops such asquince, pear, peach, mango, and pa-paya.

Various sources of energy are utilised, suchas hydropower, petrol, coal, solar, and fuelwood. Fuel wood represents 86% of the totalenergy consumption. Forests and wastelandsprovide fuel wood, poles for housing and agri-culture, grazing places, and various non-woodforest products (e.g. mushrooms, shellac, andbamboo shoots).

All arable land, including land for treecrops such as bamboo and fruit trees, isallocated to households for a period of fiftyyears under the Rural Households Responsibil-ity System. The first allocation was made in1980 on the basis of equal area per capitawithin natural villages.

Forests, ponds, canals, and wastelandsbelong to the collective under the villagecommittees, which have authority overallocation and management. However, in mostvillages of Simao, the entire forest area iscontracted to individual households on a percapita basis for management. In exchange fortaking care of the trees, the households areallowed to collect branches for fuel wood aswell as non- wood forest products. Timbercannot be cut without permission from the

Township. If a family needs timber to build anew house, it may ask the village committee forpermission to cut the necessary trees. Timberfrom the collective forest is seldom used togenerate revenue and accumulate funds for thecommunity.

Forest resources are deteriorating anddecreasing. Forest resource depletion atpresent is about 4 million m3 per year, morethan one-third of the annual increament. Thegrowing stock is decreasing at about 0.5%annually. About 63.2% of the timber producedis used for fuel wood.

The SFAP exercise began in December1992, technically supervised by the ChineseAcademy of Forestry. FAO provided seed-money and backstopped the exercise. GTZprovided support for the overseas study toursand printing of the SFAP document, which wasfinalised in February 1995.

The SFAP exercise identified 11 programmeareas as the following:§ watershed management;§ rural energy;§ social forestry;§ tending and utilisation technology;§ plantation base;§ forest protection§ protection of biodiversity;§ science, technology, and education;§ forestry management;§ utilisation of non-wood products;§ forestry information.

The SFAP document was submitted by theForestry Department of Yunnan Provincethrough appropriate channels to the Nether-lands Embassy in Beijing in September 1995. Atthe end of 1995, discussions were held inBeijing. The Netherlands Government pledgedto provide financial support of US$ 15 millionto a programme for tropical forest conserva-tion. In addition, an ITTO mission was fieldedin early 1997, and the mission has identified aproject to be funded by ITTO.

Qing Fang Forestry Action Programme(QFAP)


In line with the strategy that the NFAP inChina will be implemented in stages, the QFAP(covering Qinzhou and Fengcheng Districts)exercise in Guangxi Autonomous Region waslaunched as an extension of the SFAP exercisein Yunnan Province.

Qinzhou and Fangcheng are located in thesouthern part of Guangxi Autonomous Region.The geographical features are high in the northand low in the south. The total area is 167.8thousand ha. The climate belongs to the northtropical climate with plenty of sunshine andrainfall (more than 1,800 mm annually). Thearea is home for plants such as cinnamomum,anise, and litchi.

By the end of 1996, the population was3.746 million and the GDP was RMB 12.459billion yuan. There are 910,100 ha offorestland in total. The Fangcheng and Qinz-hou harbours are open to international naviga-tion. The roads can reach all the towns and90% of the administrative villages.

The QFAP exercise began in the thirdquarter of 1996. The QFAP team was set upwith the Deputy Mayor as the group leader andthe Director of the Forestry Bureau as the viceleader. The exercise is technically supervisedby the Institute of Forestry ScientechInformation, Chinese Academy of Forestry.FAO provided seed money and backstopped theexercise. The QFAP Issues Paper was finalisedin mid-1997. The principal issues in theforestry sector development are the following:1. Decreasing forest resources, degradation ofstands, and dwindling of unit-area yield. Themajor causes are:§ over cutting of fuel wood;§ harvesting surpassing the annual allowable

cut;§ shifting cultivation;§ forest fires;§ deforestation caused by mining, forest

conversion into agriculture, and other uses;§ unsatisfactory management of the resources.2. Serious deterioration of biological environ-ment. The overall symptoms are:§ soil erosion;§ environmental pollution;

§ low efficiency of forest water conservationability;§ windbreak and sand dune fixations;§ reduction of plants and wild animals;§ migration of birds and consequent reduction

of enemy of pests; and§ frequent occurrences of disasters.3. Diminishing of biodiversity. The majorcauses include wild animal hunting and de-stroying protected species.4. Slow development of fuel wood forests.5. Unsound proportional structure of forestresources, which include§ unbalanced structure of forest categories;§ unbalanced structure of forest species (at

the moment pine accounts for 80% of thetimber growing area and growing stock);§ unbalanced mode of forest resource man-

agement.6. Imperfect coastal shelterbelt system.7. Improper co-ordination between forest

cultivation and industrial development.8. Insufficient input for forest protection and

forest fire control.9. Unsound system for science and education.10. Some minorities still live in poverty.11. Lags behind the managerial system.

The QFAP planning exercise was finalisedin 1999 and the QFAP document was printed inSeptember 1999. The exercise identified 12programmes as follows: environmental pro-tection and community forestry development;the development of North Bay coastal shel-terbelts; harnessing of the river valley; pro-tection of tropical forest biodiversity; ruralenergy development; plantations development;development of tropical cash tree crops;processing of non wood forest products; forestprotection; forest tourism; establishment oftropical forestry information centre; anddevelopment of science and technology andeducation. The Government is seeking supportfrom international partners for the QFAPimplementation.

Forest conservationThe Government is highly concerned about

wild flora and fauna protection. As of 1998,


633 Nature Reserves have been established,covering an area of 61.5 million ha, or 6.41% ofthe total land area of the country. In addition,810 Forest Parks have also been established,covering an area of 7.2 million ha, or about0.75% of the total land area of the country.

Marketing and tradeThe marketing and trade of forest pro-

ducts, particularly timber in China PR, was notaffected by the economic and financial crisis

in Asia. In contrast, imports of logs and sawntimber have been increasing in the past fewyears, partly because of a dwindling supply ofdomestic timber in line with the implementationof the policy on natural forest protectionprogramme, which imposes restrictions onharvesting in natural forests of key wa-tersheds, and partly because of a better socio-economic development in the country andcompetition in wood product exports. Most ofthe timber imports were coming from Russia.

In regard to exports, China has suc-cessfully increased it’s furniture exports by69.1% within two years from US$ 1.297 billionin 1996 to US$ 2.193 billion in 1998. In 1999,its furniture exports surpassed US$ 2.7billion. Many issues hamper the development ofsecondary processing, including design, qualityof processing, skilled manpower, knowledge ofmarketing and trade, competition, packagingand transportation, and banning the use oftropical timber in certain countries.

Focal pointsQu GuilinDirector General, Department of InternationalCo-operation, State Forestry AdministrationNo. 18, Hepingli East Street, Beijing 100714Tel: 86-10-6241-3184Fax: 86-10-6421-3184E-mail: [email protected]

*****

If you don’t climb the high mountain, you can’t view the plain(Chinese proverb)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Fiji 55

Fiji

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 1,827Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ percentage of total land area(%) 835/ 45.7Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 757Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%) -18/-4 (-0.4)Population total 1997 (millions)/Annual rate of change 1995-2000 0.8/ 1.6Rural population 1997 (%) 58.7GNP per person 1995 in US$ 2,440

Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999

General information

Fiji is made up of 300 islands, one-third ofwhich are permanently inhabited. Most eco-nomic activities are concentrated on the twolargest islands, Vita Levu and Vanua Levu,which together account for 87% of the entireland area and 90% of the total population. Theislands are largely volcanic of varyinggoelogical age and of reasonably fertile soilswith fairly steep dissected topography in theforest areas.

Arable land (13% of the land area andexpanding) is mainly used for the planting ofsugar cane, rice, cocoa, ginger and other crops.Over 80% of the land is covered by forests,tree crops and pastures. Gold production hasexpanded dramatically and is now the secondlargest export commodity. The tourism industryoffers the most immediate prospect forinvestment. Forestry is currently in transitionfrom plantation management to pulp chips andsawn timber exports, and is expected to be-come an industry in the next ten years.

The forestry sector is described as a“growth sector” in the economy. The sector atpresent ranks fifth in terms of foreignexchange earnings and provides directemployment to 3000 people. The forestryactivities, which are mostly located in ruralareas, can be seen as pioneering rural develop-

ment by providing the necessary infrastructurefor subsequent development.

Fiji has been self-sufficient in most timberproducts through the utilisation of its indige-nous forest resources for more than ten years.A programme of resource development throughlarge scale plantation of pine and hardwoodwas implemented after 1960. The afforestationhas brought some 50,000 ha of deforestedland back into production.

The Forestry Department continues to bepart of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries,and Forests, under the Agricultural Landlordand Tenant Act, following the March 1994General Election, and is supported by sixservice divisions i.e. Silviculture Research,Timber Utilisation Research, ManagementServices, Logging School, and Environment andMechanical Services Division. The ForestryDepartment has a plantation programme targetof 4,500 ha per year with an end target of 80-85 thousand ha of hardwood plantations by theend of the century. Pine plantations have beenundertaken by the Fiji Pine Limited company.

Forest resources, policy, planning andland use

The indigenous forest is largely tropicalmoist forest plus a small area of about 42,000ha of mangrove forests. Extensive areas of thedrier parts of the two larger islands (mainlywestern) and many of the smaller islands havesuffered severe deforestation. Therefore, the

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34 Fiji56

indigenous forest cover is actually much morethan 50% in the wetter parts of the country.84% of all Fijian forests are in communalownership.

The recent GTZ re-inventory of theindigenous forests indicates a total volume of20,0 million m3 is available in the productionforests. About 75% of the production forestshave average stocking of 45 m3 of commercialspecies per ha.

Fiji Pine Limited, which is a 99.8%government-owned company, has achieved atotal stocked area of 40,730 ha of Pinuscaribaea. In addition, Viti Levu plantations ofabout 27,200 ha provide approximately300,000 tonnes of logs per year to sustain theTropic Wood Mill, which produces sawn timberand chips. Currently, Fiji has a total hardwoodplantation estate of about 50,000 ha, of which37,300 ha are planted with mahagony.

A provisional GTZ re-inventory indicatedthat indigenous forests occupy 857,577 ha,and estimated that unexploited forests total253,000 ha. Eighty-nine percent of theunexploited production forests and 84% of allFijian Forests are in communal ownership.

By the end of 1995, 44,978 ha had beenplanted (mostly mahagony), and there are plansto extend the planting area to 52,000 ha by theyear 2006. Plantations have been established intwo major areas in Western Viti Levu and inVanua Levu. The current planting rate is 3,000ha per annum.

Through out the 1970s and early 1980s,several attempts were made to establish aNational Body that could effectively deal withco-ordination and proper use of land resourcesin Fiji. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Forests (MAFGF) played a major role inthe formation of committees whose objectivesincluded land development, land use planningand co-ordination.

In 1993, the National EnvironmentStrategy of Fiji recognised that Fiji needed aNational Land Use Plan that was based on thecapacity of the land, to assist in determining

appropriate land use resource allocation forthe sustainable development of Fiji’s NaturalResources. In 1995, the Cabinet approved theconcept of a comprehensive and integrated newSustainable Bill, which would revise andconsolidate existing environmental and re-source management legislation and create newlegal framework for integrated resource man-agement.

In 1996, a proposal for Land Use Planningrequesting FAO assistance was approved. In1997, the Pacific German Regional ForestryProject co-ordinated an Agro-forestry PolicyWorking Group comprising extension officers,researchers and farmers. The group discussedand prepared a two-part draft AgroforestryPolicy Paper for Fiji. After further discussionsand review of the draft policy, the grouprealised that there was a vital need for anatural land use plan and policy as an umbrellato ensure adoption of the Agro-forestry policy.A national land use policy was deemednecessary to advance the sustainabledevelopment of Fiji’s land and water resources.

The National Forests Action Plan preparedin 1989 under the Tropical Forestry ActionProgramme framework, was a classic invest-ment plan. The exercise led to the identifica-tion of 29 projects, which were presented todonors in May 1990.

Although the NFAP document has not beenformally approved by the Government, it hasreceived tacit approval and is now beingimplemented: 25 of the 29 project proposalshave been implemented or are currently underexecution, either individually or groupedtogether. The preparation of project proposalsmainly aimed at institutional building (e.g.:reviews of the royalty and pulpwood system,forestry legislation) has been completed or isunder way. A project for the establishment ofa national park system is being planned for1998. Background work is under way.

HarvestingThe major factor determining alloca-

tion of timber cutting rights in Fiji, as else-

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Fiji 57

where in the South Pacific Islands, is thepattern of land ownership. The bulk of theland, including productive forest land, isowned by Fijian communal groups called“mataqali”. Fijian mataqali do not have anycorporate authority to deal in land, and allnegotiations for the use of the indigenoustimber growing on their land have to beconducted through the Native Lands TrustBoard (NLTB). To harvest timber on nativeland, a Forestry Right Licence is requiredunder law.

There are four categories of tenure fortimber cutting rights in the natural forests:§ Timber concessions (15-30 years period);§ Long-term licences (10 years);§ Annual licences; and§ Other licences and prepayment licences

(usually for land clearing). The Government has continued to promotethe development of sustainable forest manage-ment, both through domestic policy developmentand at international fora. Fiji has signed andratified the International Convention onBiological Diversity and the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change. Recently, theGovernment became a member of ITTO. The Sustainable Forest Management Modeldeveloped in collaboration with the GTZPacific-German Forestry Project on a 300 hablock forest, is now being tried out at anoperational level on a 6,300 ha block of forestinvolving a concessionaire. The pre-harvestinginventory data collection work is complete andharvesting prescriptions are currently beingworked out. Depending upon the outcome of theoperational level trial, it is proposed to adoptthe Sustainable Forest Management SystemFiji-wide as a matter of policy by the year2003. In order to make the landowners aware ofthe long-term benefits of the SustainableForest Management System, ITTO has sup-ported a two-year project, of approximatelyUS$0.5 million, for landowners’ education andawareness on the sustainable use of theirforests. The project will be completed by theend of 2000.

Fiji’s own National Code of Logging Prac-tice was launched in 1990 and has been inoperation for approximately 10 years. All log-ging licences are subject to compliance withthe Fiji National Code of Logging Practice. It isfelt that environmental issues are not beingfully addressed and need to be considered andincorporated in the next review. Operatortraining and certification of operators,particularly in timber harvesting and theproposed mahagony harvesting, are the mainpriority activities.

Biodiversity conservation Fiji is a signatory of the Convention onBiodiversity and therefore a Contracting Partyof the Convention. The Fiji BiodiversityStrategy and Action Plan is Fiji’s initial re-sponse to this obligation. It was crafted in1989 with UNDP funding. To date there is one declared ProtectedForest, namely Batiwai Forest, with a Gulubiamicrocarpa palm population, of approximately15,749 ha. There are 17 proclaimed ForestReserves covering an area of 26,203 ha. Thereare 7 Nature Reserves in the country coveringan area of 5,740 ha. In addition, the sanddunes in Sigatoka with an area of 650 ha havebeen declared as a National Heritage Park. TheForest Department, in collaboration with otherorganisations, is identifying and developingeco-tourism areas and other areas of specialinterest, including Bouma and Lavena Parks inTaveuni, Abaca Parks in Viti Levu, and NatavuniPort in Sigatoka Valley.

Collaboration with partners

The Department of Forestry has beencollaborating with foreign partners and severalmemorandums of understanding have beensigned, including: a) GTZ support and assis-tance in sustainable forest management systemand practice, and agroforestry and sustainableland use plans; b) AusAid support for nutri-tional aspects of plantation species; c) ACIAR/CSIRO support for the biological controlprogramme; d) ITTO funds for a land owner

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34 Fiji58

awareness programme; and e)SPC/UNDP/FAO/ AusAid/GTZ support to thePacific Island Forest and Tress Programme.

Focal point Jico Conservator of Forests, Forestry Department Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and ForestsP.O. Box 2218Suva, FijiTel (679) 302740 301740 301611Fax (679) 301595

*****

Ask, and you will receive; seek and you will find; knock, and the door will be opened to you. For those who ask will receive, and those who seek will find, and

the door will be opened to anyone who knocks.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, India 59

India

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 297,319Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land area 65,005/

21.9Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 50,385Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/annual change(%)

36/ 0

Population total 1997 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000(%)

960.2/ 1.6



General informationIndia is the seventh largest country in the

world and has the second largest population.There is much diversity in the geographicalfeatures: the towering Himalayas and theextensive river plains in the north, the Thardesert in the west, the Deccan Plateau in thecentre and the south, the coastal plains to theeast and west and the numerous islands. Thecountry has 26 states and 6 union territories.It has a Union Government having its centre inNew Delhi.

The rising population has forced the ruralpoor to borrow against the future by depletingthe natural resources. It was reported that thepopulation reached one billion people in 2000,comprising about 16% of the world’spopulation. The problem is further compoundedby the high cattle population, estimated to be450 million; most of these animals have a verylow productivity but are allowed to grazefreely in forest areas, causing the degradationof forests. It was estimated that the cattlepopulation was 18% of the cattle population inthe world. This has led to severe erosion, lossof soil, and floods in the lower plains, inaddition to the destruction caused by shiftingcultivation. As a result, the demographic andeconomic landscape of the country is plaguedwith poverty and underemployment. Agricul-tural productivity is only 1 ton per ha againstthe actual capability of 4 ton per ha. How toachieve the optimum land use, including soil and

moisture conservation measures, are the mainchallenges confronting the policy and decision-

makers. To reverse the process of degradationand for the sustainable development offorests, the Government has prepared theNational Forestry Action Programme (NFAP).

Sixty percent of the forests are located inecologically sensitive zones. These forestsneed to be managed in a way to ensure thatthey are ecologically protected and maintained,as well as sustained at the highest productivitylevel to meet the growing population’sburgeoning demands for fuel, food, fodder,and timber.

India is one of the 12 mega diversitycountries, commanding 7% of the world’s biodi-versity and supporting 16% of the major foresttypes, varying from alpine pastures in theHimalayas to temperate, sub-tropical, tropicalforests, and mangroves in the coastal areas.But nearly half of the country’s area isdegraded, affected by the problems of soildegradation and erosion. The most commonforms of degradation are wind and watererosion, and salinity. About 146 million ha areaffected by wind and water erosion, and 7million ha have become degraded due toexcessive salts. About 8.5 million ha are underwater logging and about 10 million ha areaffected by shifting cultivation.

According to the Government statistics,nearly 22%, or 65 million ha, of the country’s

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, India60

land have been recorded as forests, but only19.5% have forest or tree cover, which is muchless than the goal of 33% set by the NationalForest Policy, 1988.

A large number of India’s livestockpopulation, dis-proportionate to the carryingcapacity of the forests, have been grazing inforests causing serious damage to regenerationand productivity. Since the livestock populationis not likely to be reduced due to socialfactors, a realistic grazing managementalternative has to be evolved.

As a result of the National Forest Policy,1988, the mechanism of Joint Forest Manage-ment (JFM) was legalised in 1990. Its principalaim is to ensure environmental stability andmaintenance of the ecological balance throughthe preservation and rehabilitation of forests,while providing for fuel wood, fodder, Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs), and smalltimber needs. The JFM has since beeninstitutionalised by most of the States. Theemphasis has been on the formation of VillageForest Committees and empowering them forparticipatory management of degraded forestson a benefit-sharing basis.

Forest resourcesIndia has a large and diverse forest

resource. Its forest types vary from tropicalrainforest in the north-east, to desert andthorn forests in Gujarat and Rajasthan; man-grove forest in West Bengal, Orissa and othercoastal areas; and dry alpine forests in thewestern Himalaya. The most common foresttypes are tropical moist deciduous forests,tropical dry deciduous forests, and wet tropi-cal evergreen forests.

According to the Forest Survey of 1997, thecountry has 76.5 million ha of forest. Thedegraded area was 26.13 million ha and therewas another 5.72 million ha of scrub; thus, intotal 31.85 million ha of forests were degradedor open.

The land use outside for habitations (ruraland urban), industries and infrastructure, suchas roads, rivers, canals, railways lines, underpermanent snow, rocks, desert, or not availablefor other reasons amounted to 264 million ha.It consists of cultivated land of 142 million ha,forestland of 67 million ha, fallows of 24million ha, pastures of 12 million ha, treegroves of 3 million ha, and cultural waste of 16

million ha. Thus, in order to achieve thenational goal of one third of the country underforest/ tree cover, an area of 29.7 million hahas to be brought under plantations.

It was reported that the country’sachievement in raising forest plantations, interms of area, has been impressive. Up to 1998,the total area of tree plantations was 28.38million ha, of which about 17 million ha wereplanted before 1990’s. The current annual rateof plantation is 1.2 million. The quality of theseplantations varies considerably. It should benoted that forest plantations are a means tomeet the increasing demand for industrial rawmaterial or for direct consumption, i.e. fuelwood, but not to justify deforestation or claimrestoration of biodiversity and otherenvironmental services.

There are other woodlands established insmall blocks on non-forestry lands, which arenot included in the forest survey because oflimitations of interpretation of satellite data.

The performance of forest plantations, interms of survival, growth and yield, has beenpoor caused by several factors, includinginadequacies in site selection and site-speciesmatching, poor planting stock, lack of propermaintenance and protection (from fire, graz-ing, pests and diseases), lack of timelytending/thinnings, delays in fund allocation,and inadequately trained staff. In this regard,some people are of the opinion that a masterplan for tree plantations should be developedspecifying categories, management regimes,utilisation and investment needs; and emphasisshould be given to enhancing qualitative andquantitative productions.

Involvement of the private sector in plan-tation development has not been substantialand are not adequately supported by thegovernment through relevant research, exten-sion, technological packages, input delivery,market information or credit facilities. Thissector is dominant in the area of harvestingand processing. It was noted that the needsand problems relating to this area aredifferent from those producers of wood inrural areas.

According to the latest State of ForestReport, 1999, the total forest cover was633.73 million ha or 19.39% of the geographi-cal area, with dense forest accounting for 11%.The Report stated that the forest cover hasincreased by 4,000 km2 since the last survey in


1997. Thus, the overall decline in the forestcover has been halted. In this regard, theMinister of Environment and Forests statedthat a major constraint facing theafforestation programmes is funding, whichrequires Rs 66.95 billion per year (1US$approximately equal to Rs 43.5 in September2000) in order to achieve one-third forestcover within the next 20 years. Rs 16 billionper year is available from both the central andstate budget together to be allocated forafforestation. Involvement and investment fromvarious NGOs, corporate, public and privatesectors to fund this sector is beingapproached. In this connection, consultationwith several donor agencies, including interna-tional and bilateral banks, for possible supporthave also been carried out. In this regard, WBand EU have provided substantial support toseveral forestry programmes in some states.

In regard to national parks, sanctuaries andother reserves, the country’s achievement interms of area is substantial. The ProtectedAreas (PA) cover about 14.8 million ha, orabout 14% of the forest area, consisting of 80national parks, 441 wildlife sanctuaries and 8biosphere reserves. However, the condition ofseveral PAs is poor because of fire, grazingand inadequate management. The Managementplans of some PAs are not comprehensive. Someare below the minimum size required to beeffective.

Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) have agreat potential to support the socio-economicdevelopment of the country and also theprinciples of sustainable forest management.These products are essential to localcommunities. Some products have great po-tential for export. Some products have alsoprovided employment and income earning.

Forest policy and planningIndia has a long tradition of professional

forestry and a nation wide concern for forestresources. Contemporary forestry legislationand policy date to at least 1864, at which timeforests became almost exclusively Stateproperty under the then British rule. The firstforest policy of 1894 was revised in 1952. Thepresent guiding legislation dates back to theIndian Forestry Act of 1927. The NationalCommission of Agriculture (NCA) studied the

forestry planning in the country in 1976 andmade recommendations for future action. Thisled to the emergence of social forestry and theestablishment of Forest Development Corpora-tions (FDCs). The new policy accords highestpriority to the environmental role of forests,and the derivation of direct economic benefitmust be subordinated to this priority.

The forest policy has been updated, mostrecently through the National Forest Policy(1988). Other supplementary legislation hasbeen enacted to explicitly provide for controland regulations covering non-forest resources,wildlife protection and environmental protec-tion, together with other broad directives insubstantive areas of national policy which havean impact on forestry, including land use. AWildlife Action Plan was formulated in 1983, aNational Conservation Strategy in 1992, fol-lowed by a National Environmental Action Planin 1993.

Despite the enactment of the above leg-islation, clear symptoms of degradation and adeclining capacity in meeting the various needsof the population (particularly the rural poorand tribals) are evident. Efforts to enlarge theforest estate as set forth in the NationalForest Policy (from the present 19 percent to33 percent of the total national land area)would require a substantial increase in fundallocation to the forestry sector.

The first national level planning exercise inthe forestry sector took place two decades agowhen the National Commission of Agriculturestudied the situation in the country and maderecommendations for future action. In for-estry, this led to the emergence of the conceptof social forestry and the establishment ofForest Development Corporations (FDC). Themain aim of establishing FDCs was to enablethe Forest Department to retain earnings fromthe sale of products for investment inplantations. However, this policy had twoundesirable effects, namely:§ Given the realities of budgetary allocations,

external aid for social forestry resulted inthe earmarking of 70 to 80% of the funds


for social forestry. As a result naturalforests received little attention.§ The establishment of high value plantations at

the expense of natural forests resulted in theloss of biodiversity and non-wood forestproducts. As a result, there was opposition tothe practice from the people, and theGovernment had to revise the plantation pro-gramme strategy.

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 is beingreviewed and a Committee has been estab-lished. The first meeting was held in January1997 and the last in January 1999. Experts andNGOs had been involved in the process ofreviewing the Forest Act, 1927. The final drafthas been made available and has beensubmitted to the concerned authority forapproval.

National Forestry Action Programme(NFAP)

In 1993, the Government decided to start anew strategic planning process following theNational Forestry Action Programme (NFAP)concept. The preparation of an NFAP wasdecided with the goal of addressing the issuesunderlying the major problems of the forestrysector in line with the National Forest Policy,1988. The NFAP is to evolve as a developmentprocess by integrating forestry development inthe country within the framework of thenational five-year plans. The exercise wassupported by the UNDP project: IND/93/021.The project was finalised in February 1998.

The objective of the NFAP is to enhancethe contribution of forestry and tree resourcesto ecological stability and people-centreddevelopment through qualitative andquantitative improvement in investment onsustainable conservation and development offorest resources.

The basic purpose of the NFAP is toestablish a direct linkage between the nationalforest policy and the national five-year plans.In the past, there has not been a comprehensiveand constant programme structure, so it wasdifficult to get linkages and establish trends.

In order to ensure that the exercise becountry-driven, close co-ordination was main-tained with State and Union TerritoriesGovernments by the Union Government. StateForest Departments were assigned the task ofpreparing State Forestry Action Plans (SFAP)and for this purpose detailed guidelines wereissued. The NFAP document was prepared bythe Ministry of Environment and Forests withthe help of various reports prepared bynational and international consultants.

In order to provide for inter-sectoral andintra-sectoral linkages, and to provide theNFAP with desired direction, Steering Commit-tees were formed at the National and Statelevels, comprising related Government depart-ments such as Agriculture, Animal Husbandry,Industry, Finance, and representatives fromNGOs and Industry. One meeting of theNational Level Steering Committee was held inAugust 1994, and several meetings of the StateCommittees were held in 1994. A workshop forNodal officers of SFAPs was conducted atDehra Dun by FAO on the subject "ProjectFormulation and Appraisal". A work-shop wasalso held for the North Eastern States atShillong and two national level work-shops atNew Delhi.

The NFAP has been formulated through thefollowing process:§ State forestry sector reviews 26 State Sector Review Reports (for 25

States and Andaman & Nicobar Island) werecompleted.§ National studies prepared by international

consultants Four studies were completed and reviewed,

namely: Forestry Planning, Forest SectorReview, Resource Economics, andInstitutional Development.§ National studies prepared by national

consultants Sixteen specific studies were conducted by

consultants. All the reports were preparedand reviewed. These reports, along with theSFAPs, formed the basis for the formulationof the NFAP documents.§ Sub-contracts studies


Four studies were undertaken: Non-TimberForest Products (NTFP), gender issues inforestry, common property resources man-agement, and software development. All thesereports were received and revised. One sub-contract was awarded in 1995 to criticallyanalyse and identify gaps in draft NFAPdocuments. Three more sub-contracts wereawarded for finalisation of NFAP documents.§ State Forestry Action Programme All of the 26 SFAP documents were prepared.

The NFAP document was available in June1999 comprising 3 documents as follows:ü Executive Summary;ü Volume 1: Status of Forestry in India;

andü Volume 2: Issues and Programme.

It is clearly stated in the document thatformulation of the NFAP is not a one-timeprocess, but rather it is an evolving process.The state of forest resources and developmentin the country should be appraised periodicallyat regular intervals of 10 years, and the NFAPshould be updated and extended for another20 years.

The NFAP exercise decided that the NFAPconsists of 5 programmes and 15 sub-programmes as follows:

§ Protect existing resources with three sub-programmes:∗ Forest protection;∗ Soil and water conservation; and∗ Protected areas and biodiversity conser-

vation.§ Improve forest productivity with four sub-

programmes:∗ Rehabilitation of degraded forests;∗ Research and technology development;∗ Development of NWFPs;∗ Assisting private initiatives with commu-

nity participation.§ Reduce total demand with three sub-

programmes:∗ Fuel wood and fodder;∗ Timber; and∗ NWFPs.

§ Strengthen policy & institutional framework:∗ Central forestry administration;∗ Central forestry institutions; and∗ State forestry administration and insti-

tutions.§ Expanding forest area:

∗ Tree plantations on forest and non-forest lands; and

∗ People’s participation in plantations andits protection.

A document concerning Concept PaperProjects containing a list of priority andessential projects for the smooth implementa-tion of the NFAP exercise is being prepared.If the determination of holding a donor meet-ing, scheduled in Rome, March 2001, is posi-tive, the Concept Paper document and the mainNFAP documents will be discussed at thisdonor meeting.

Legislation and institutionsIn view of the deteriorating forest

resources and their importance to the nationaleconomy and environment, the Government hasbeen emphasising the sustainable developmentof forest resources, as well as conservation ofecosystems. Since 1951 (commencement of theFirst Five-Year Plan), Rs 70 billion has beenspent on forestry development in the country.Afforestation has been carried out over anarea of 25.25 million ha during the period.Financial resources allocated to the forestrysector have increased from Rs. 76 million in theFirst Five-Year Plan (1951-55) to Rs. 40,818.7million in the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-96).

Amendments to the Indian Forest Act 1927,which provides for the management of forestsand forest resources of the country, areexamined to remove existing anomalies and tobring about a uniformity of law throughout thecountry. The Forest Conservation Act 1980,amended in 1988, stipulates concurrence of theUnion Government for diversion of forestlandsfor non-forestry purposes with provisions ofcompensatory afforestation. Implementation ofthis Act has reduced the rate of diversion offorestland from 150,000 ha to 39,000 ha peryear.

The National Forest Policy, 1988 accordshighest priority to the environmental role of theforests. The policy states that the principal aim


of the Forest Policy must be to ensureenvironmental stability and ecological balance,including atmospheric equilibrium, which arevital for the sustenance of all life forms, bethey human, animal, or plant. The basic objec-tives of the National Forest Policy, 1988 arelisted below:§ Maintenance of environmental stability

through preservation and, where necessary,restoration of the ecological balance that hasbeen disturbed by serious depletion of theforests of the country;§ Conserving the natural heritage of the

country by preserving the remaining naturalforest with the vast variety of flora andfauna, which represents the remarkable bio-logical diversity and genetic resources of thecountry;§ Checking soil erosion and denudation in the

catchment areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirsin the interest of soil and waterconservation, for mitigating floods anddroughts, and for the retardation of siltationof reservoirs;§ Increasing substantially the forest/ tree

cover in the country through massive affor-estation and social forestry programmes,especially on all denuded, degraded andunproductive lands;§ Meeting the requirements of fuel wood,

fodder, and small timber;§ Increasing the productivity of forests to

meet essential national needs;§ Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest

produce and maximising substitution of thewood; and§ Creating a massive people’s movement with

the involvement of women, and minimisingpressure on existing forests.

In one of the NFAP (main) documents it isspelled out that forest policy development is aprocess which follows a cycle of: evaluationand analysis; articulation; formation;formulation; instrumentation; furtherevaluation, etc. A forest policy should bedynamic; it should not, and cannot, stay thesame over any long period of time. Accordingly,it is important that a forest policy is

periodically evaluated to determine whether itshould be maintained, modified or changedaltogether.

In the context of sector policies, the NFAPexercise proposed that imperatives need to beidentified which represent the absoluterequirements to which all supporting objectivesshould contribute. For the forest policy inIndia, three imperatives are suggested:sustainability, efficiency, and people’s partici-pation. Sustainability should be the guidingfactor for forest management. Neither conser-vation nor development can be achieved inisolation. Efficiency in production impliesimproving productivity, reducing wastes andindirect costs, and thus registering a highereconomic rate of return compared to otheralternatives. The philosophy of people-baseddevelopment assumes that participation is notonly a fundamental precondition for, and a toolof, any successful development strategy, butalso is an end in itself.

Five-year plansThe basic purpose of the NFAP is to

establish direct linkages between the NationalForest Policy and the National Five-Year Plans(FYPs). In the past, there was no comprehen-sive and constant programme structure forforestry. Every FYP has had its own programmestructure, so it was difficult to get linkagesand establish trends. Although plans hadspecific objectives and programmes, the mainactivity under most of them was tree planting.The emphasis of different FYPs regardingforestry was as follows:§ First and Second FYPs: Rehabilitation of

degraded forest, introduction of economicspecies, survey, and forest demarcation;§ Third and Fourth FYPs: Increasing

productivity of forest through fast growingspecies plantations, scientific assessments,and modern logging;§ Fifth FYP: Social forestry and fuel wood

reserves to save natural forests;§ Seventh FYP: Forest conservation, massive

afforestation, and wasteland development;and


§ Eight and Ninth FYP: Preservation of biologi-cal and genetic diversity (both flora andfauna), protection of forest against bioticinterference, utilisation of wastelands, andpromotion of people’s participation throughJoint Forest Management (JFM) schemes.

Joint Forest ManagementThe National Forest Policy, 1988 envisages

people’s involvement in the development andprotection of forests to fulfil the objectives ofproviding fuel wood, fodder and small timberto local communities, as well as to develop theforests for improving the environment. As ofSeptember 1998, 21 States have issued theirresolutions for JFM, of which 7 million ha ofdegraded forests are being managed andprotected through approximately 35,000villages Forest Protection Committees.

A JFM Monitoring Cell of the Ministry hasbeen created to assess the impact of the JFMprogramme on the protection and developmentof forests. A JFM Standing Committee hasbeen established to ensure the effectivemonitoring of the JFM activities. In regard topoverty alleviation and income generation,analysis of the impact of JFM toward theseissues would be included.

Combating desertificationThe Convention to Combat Deserti-

facation (UNCCD) was adopted on 17 June1994 and entered into force on 26 December1996. The Convention came into effect in Indiaon 26 December 1996. At two internationalmeetings to discuss the Thematic ProgrammeNetworking (TPN) in Asia, six areas have beenidentified namely (of which India is the focalpoint for TPN 2):§ TPN 1: Desertification monitoring and

assessment;§ TPN 2: Agroforestry management & soil

conservation in arid, semi-arid & dry zones;§ Range and pasture management in arid areas

with particular emphasis in shifting sanddunes;§ Water resources management for agriculture

in arid, semi arid and dry zones;§ Drought preparedness & mitigation in the

context of climate change;§ Strengthening planning capacities for

drought management & controlling.

Biodiversity conservationTo address the problems of environment

and development holistically, the Ministry hasenunciated several policies, including theNational Conservation Strategy and the PolicyStatement on Environment and Development,1992. India is a signatory to the convention onwetlands of international importance especiallyas waterfowl habitat, generally referred to asthe Ramsar Convention, 1971. India hasdesignated 6 wetlands. India is also a party tothe Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),which was came into force in December 1993.The ratification of the CBD by India was on 18February 1994.

A draft National Policy and ActionStrategy on Biological Diversity has beendrawn up. The draft identifies the basic goalsand thrust areas and outlines action points forvarious subjects.

According to the State of Forest Report,1997, the total area covered by mangroves inIndia was 4,872 km2. It had increased byabout 600 km2 during 1991-1997. A NationalCommittee on Conservation and Management ofMangroves and Coral Reefs has beenconstituted to advise the Government on policyand research related to conservation of thesefragile ecosystems.

Research and extensionSeveral research activities have been

carried out by several research institutions inIndia, including: a) environmental research; b)research under the National River ConservationPlan (NRCP), such as biodiversity and bio-monitoring the river Ganga; and c) forestryresearch, with emphasis given to increasingproductivity through genetic and silviculturalimprovement, treatment of wasteland, tribaldevelopment and social forestry, while theIndian Council of Forestry Research andEducation (ICFRE) continues to co-ordinate,direct and oversee the research activities ofthe 11 research institutes/ centres; and d)wildlife research, such as ecological, biologi-cal, socio-economic and managerial aspects ofwildlife conservation, research on biologicaldiversity and forest productivity – a new per-spective, research on the wild dog (Cuonalpinus) and ornithology.


Forestry research in the country has beenupgraded with the formation of the IndiaCouncil of Forestry Research and Education(ICFRE) to boost and integrate forestryresearch in the country. There are eightresearch institutes/centres under ICFRE. TheNational Afforestation and Eco-DevelopmentBoard is carrying out the rehabilitationofdegraded forests and wastelands throughState forest departments and voluntaryagencies by adopting an integrated approachdeveloped through micro plans with people'sparticipation.

Focal pointC.P. OberaiInspector General of Forests & SplSecretary to the Government of IndiaMinistry of Environment and ForestsB. Block, CGO ComplexLodhi Road. New Delhi 110003, IndiaTel: (9111) 436 1509Fax: (9111) 436 -3957

*****

I believe the real difference between success and failure in an organisationcan very often be traced to the question of how well theorganisation brings out the great energies andtalents of its people.

(Thomas J. Watson Jnr, former Chairman, IBM)

There are two kind of people in this world i.e. takers and givers.If you associate with givers, you will become one.

If you associate with complainers, you will be one.(Shiv Khera – You Can Win)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Indonesia 67

Indonesia

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 181,157Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land 109,791/

60.6Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 103,666Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/Annual change % -5,422/ -1.1%Totally protected areas (million ha) 49.5Population total 1997 (million)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 203.5/ 1.5Rural population 1997 in % 62.7GNP per person total 1995 in US$ 980Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999

General information

Indonesia, the world's largest archipelago,is one of the most diverse countries in theworld. The population is very unevenly distrib-uted, with over 100 million people living inJava, which accounts for only 7% of the totalland area. Indonesia is still an agriculturalcountry but the agriculture sector'scontribution to the GDP has declined due to theincreased activity of the industrial and servicesectors.

Forestry is the largest export earner withinthe agriculture sector, with plywood and sawntimber as the main commodities. In 1999, theforestry sector contributed less than 3% ofthe GDP in current prices, but the sector ismuch more important in export trade. In termsof national export earnings, forestry rankedsecond only to the oil and gas sector, andaccounted for about 14% of the country's totalexport revenue for the last five years.

Wood-based panels are presently the majorexport commodities. Secondary processingproducts and the pulp and paper industry havebeen promoted so that rough sawn-wood ex-ports will be limited in the near future.

To get a long-term perspective of the for-estry sector, the Government, with assistancefrom FAO and WB launched a comprehensiveanalysis of the sector in 1989. The resultswere used to formulate the IndonesianForestry Action Plan (IFAP) – a planningexercise. Some important results have been

used as preconditions for the IMF loan for therestructuring of the Indonesian economy

during the economic and financial crisis thatstarted in Thailand 1997.

Indonesia has a rich in species composition.It occupies only 1.3% of the earth's landsurface, but 10% of the world's plant speciescan be found in its territory, as well as 12% ofall mammal species, 16% of all reptiles andamphibians, and 17% of all species of birds.

Traditionally, Indonesian households in ru-ral areas have relied on fuel wood from homegardens or from agricultural estate crops. It isestimated that home gardens provide about 80-85% of the households' wood energy needsand timber for local construction.

Forestry is a strategic sector in creatingjob opportunities. According to Governmentstatistics, during 1990-1995, it was estimatedthat about 2.5 million citizens were directlyemployed in the resources development and in-dustries, and about 2 million workers inforestry-related industries and indirectactivities. It was also reported that the forestsand forestry in Indonesia have benefited atleast one thousand expatriate workers andconsultants, and also broadened the knowledgeof young expatriate consultants and volunteers.With respect to unemployment caused byclosing down some factories in urban areas asthe direct impact of the 1977 economic andfinancial crises, forests and forestry havebecome like “shock absorbers”. However, dueto several unforeseen reasons, encroachment

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Indonesia68

and illegal felling have been taking place thatare beyond the capability of the existingmanagement system to control. This situationhas had serious affects on the degradation anddeforestation of some forest resources,including protected areas and conservationforests.

In addition, according to the report of astudy carried out by the Economy andEnvironment Programme for South East Asia(EEPSEA) and the World Wide Fund forNature (WWF), in May 1998, the economic tollof the fire and haze in 1997 amounted to US$3.073 billion. The loss for Indonesia was US$2.787 billion, which was more than double thetotal foreign aid received annually. The firesaffected about 5 million ha, of which 20% wasin the forest areas.

Since August 1997, the Region’s financialand economic turmoil has badly affected thefinancial and economic situation in Indonesia,including the forestry sector. A number ofsocio-economic reforms were institutionalisedby the new Government in 1998, 1999, and2000, including decentralisation. However,pulp production and the furniture industrieswere only slightly affected by the Region’seconomic turmoil. It was reported that in 1999,the exports of furniture were double comparedto 1998.

Forest resourcesSince 1992, the Spatial Plan has been used

at the provincial level. It is the follow up actionof Government Act No. 24 of 1992 concerning“Spatial Arrangement”. The forestland use hasalso been harmonised in line with this arrange-ment, and as of April 1999, 121.1 million ha arerecorded as forest areas. According to therecent satellite imagery interpretation, 92.4million ha are covered by forest and 28.7million ha are non-productive land, abandonedareas or secondary forests.

The functions of the permanent forest-lands are as follows: conservation forests(20.6 million ha); protection forest (33,9million ha); and production forest (58.5 millionha). Non permanent forestlands cover an areaof 8.1 million ha.

By May 1995, aerial photography offorests and forest vegetation maps has beenmade for 81.0 million ha and 40.8 million harespectively. For various purposes, the

interpretation of satellite imagery was updatedto cover 167.9 million ha (target for the year2000 is to cover all country’s land area of 193million ha). The permanent natural forests havebeen demarcated in the field. As of September1999, 273,160 km of boundaries had beenestablished, of which 191,398 km were outerboundaries and 81,762 km were concessionboundaries. As of 1990, the demarcated outerforest boundary was l51,019 km.

In the past ten years 3,870,520 ha ofplantation forests were established, of which1,258,391 ha were community forests and pri-vate owned forests covered 843,704 ha. Theseplantation activities provide substantial jobopportunities, especially for the local people.Indirectly, it decreases their dependence onnatural forests for their livelihood and income,and conserve biodiversity of the naturalforests.

It is planned that within 10 years, 4.0million ha of plantations will be established bythe private sector, Government enterprises,nucleo-estate smallholders, and other institu-tions. To support the plantation programmes,the government established 8 modern nurseriesand some seed centres, capable of producing80 million seedlings per year.

Policy, legislation and institutionalForests are owned and administered by the

State, and responsibility for forestry develop-ment and management rests with the Ministryof Forestry. There are six Government StateEnterprises and a number of private sectorassociations dealing with forest activities.Presently, there are about 700 NGOs active inthe forestry and environmental sectors.

Since the economic and financial crises,which were started in 1997 in Thailand, itappears that small and medium businesses arecapable of facing market upheavals.Therefore, the reform process in the field offorestry would be toward the strengtheningthe small, medium and village industries. Thesewill become the second-force in nationaleconomic development. The strategy will be togive a role to small and medium sizedbusinesses and co-operatives. Under thereform era several new policy and regulations


have been made to restructure forestmanagement and utilisation, and to adopt newparadigms, e.g. from timber based managementto resource based management, from sectoralto regional development, from conglomerates tocommunity-based management, and towardssustainable security environmental management.In the same spirit, the Forest Act No. 5 of1967 was revised, and a new Forest Act No. 41of 1999 was adopted, which has the principlesof utility and sustainability, is people oriented,and stresses justice, partnership, transparencyand integration.

The Government recognises that noteverything that has been done in the past wasmistake. There are many acts that are good andneed to be developed and followed up.However, the Government also admits that manymatters have to be changed and improved.

Under the Local Government Act No. 22 of1999, many forestry affairs will be delegatedto local governments. Under thedecentralisation schemes, the authority for themanagement of production forests would bepartly handed over to provincial governments,district governments, state enterprises, andcommunities. The distribution of authority indetails is still under process at the moment.

Forestry extension is an important subjectin the Ministry of Forestry, for which around6,000 extension workers have been recruited.Extension for forest industries is well servedby the sector's associations, particularly withrespect to market intelligence and new prod-ucts. In line with the industrialisation pro-gramme, intensive deregulation in forestry andrelated aspects like revenue, incentives,processing, marketing, and trade, has beencarried out in recent years.

In 1991, a Village Development Scheme(HPH Bina Desa) was introduced aimed atincreasing the contribution of concessionairesto the welfare of the people living in and in thevicinity of forest areas. This scheme consistsof five programmes: sedentary agriculture,income generation, infrastructure provision,socio-cultural activities, and forest resourcedevelopment. By August 1995, 392 concession-

aires had participated in this scheme, involving37,378 households in 878 villages.

At the end of 1995, 49.5 million ha hadbeen gazetted (about 25% of the land area) astotally protected areas (TPA) in order toconserve wildlife and ecosystem richness. TheTPA consists of protection forests (30.8 millionha) and conservation areas (18.8 million ha),which include national parks, nature reserves,game reserves, hunting parks, recreation parks,and forest parks. During 1990-1995, 9 naturereserves were upgraded to national parks. Toenrich the biodiversity within the conservationarea, a minimum of 700 ha within eachconcession’s area should be protected by thecompany as a biogenetic conservation area.

As a member of ITTO, the Government iscommitted to implementing sustainable forestmanagement by the year 2000. The modalitiesare under preparation, supported by bilateraland multilateral agencies and institutionalNGOs.

In 1993, the Ministry of Forestry declaredDecrees No. 252 and No. 576 of 1993,concerning the Criteria and Indicators forNatural Production Forest Sustainability atNational Level. These Decrees were followedby the promulgation of the Minister of ForestryDecree, No. 610 of 1993, concerningSustainable Management of Natural ProductionForests at Management Unit Level. Further, theDirector General of Forest Utilisationproclaimed Decree No. 208 of 1993 concerningthe Technical Guidance on Criteria and Indica-tors for Management Unit Level. The basicstructure of these decrees is consistent withthe ITTO criteria and indicators. Thesecriteria and indicators have been used as a toolto assess the concession permits. In addition,the Timber Concession Guidance Committee wasestablished by the Concessionaires'Association in 1994 to supervise the conces-sionaires on the application of the criteria andindicators of sustainable forest management inthe field. In the last five years, 125 conces-sionaires' licenses were revoked due tounsatisfactory performance.

The policy concerning the log exports ban,which was imposed in 1985, was in non-


compliance with the GATT principles. In 1992,the ban was revoked, and replaced by a highexport tax on log exports, which would begradually reduced in accordance with theGATT scheme.

In March 1998, the task of the Ministry ofForestry was enlarged to include the EstateCrops, and it was renamed as the Ministry ofForestry and Estate Crops. However, it waschanged back to the Ministry of Forestry in thelate 2000.

Several changes in policy have beenundertaken in 1998 in line with the reformpolicy made under pressure from the Interna-tional Monetary Fund (IMF), including thefollowing important forestry policy reforms:§ Reduced export taxes on logs and rattan;§ Eliminating the Indonesian Plywood Associa-

tion’s monopoly over plywood export;§ Transfering control of the Government-

owned Commercial Forestry from the Minis-try of Finance to the Special Ministry ofGovernment Commercial Companies.§ Charging the Reforestation Fund in local

currency instead of in US$; and§ Creation of a new resource (or land) rent tax

on timber resources.

The Indonesian Forestry Action Plan(IFAP)

The Government initiated the IFAP processin December 1987. A Forestry Studies projectsupported by FAO/World Bank, initiated inearly 1989, formed the basis of the IFAPprocess. The IFAP document was finalised inNovember 1991, and an International RoundTable meeting was organised in February 1992.It predicted that Indonesia would need aninvestment of approximately US$ 20 billion inforestry development over the next ten years,of which less than 10% would come from donorsupport.

In line with the National Development Planfor Forestry in the Sixth Five-Year Develop-ment Plan 1994/95-1999/2000 (Repelita VI)and taking into consideration the progress ofdevelopment, constraints, issues, and oppor-

tunities, the IFAP document had to be revisedand updated. In addition, the First IFAPneeded to be reviewed and revised due to thefollowing:§ The Earth SUMMIT, Rio, 1992 and it’s

follow up;§ New Global initiatives and international con-

ventions relating to forests and forestryincluding:∗ CITES, Convention on Biological Diver-

sity, Convention on Climate Change,RAMSAR;

∗ ITTO Guidelines on Sustainable ForestManagement;

∗ WTO of GATT;∗ APEC and AFTA;∗ Anti Tropical Timber Campaign;∗ Tariff and Non-tariff Barriers;∗ The Government Second Long-term Na-

tional Development Plan andinternational, regional, and nationalcommitments.

A team was established in late 1994, and adraft IFAP Updating document consisting oftwo parts, i.e. Country Brief and Project Pro-files, was made available in the middle of1995. After a long process of discussion andrevisions, the final draft was adopted inNovember 1997. The programme structure ofthe First and the Second IFAP is presented inTable 1.

Notable important results of the IFAPexercise toward the forestry sector develop-ment include:§ Institutionalisation and strengthening of the

IFAP implementation co-ordination;§ More NGO involvement in forestry sector

development;§ Efforts and development activities have been

made by some forest concessionaires throughthe establishment of concessionaire forestryvillage development (HPH bina desa hutan)within the context of people's participation,people's welfare, etc.;§ More efforts and resource allocations for

plantations, critical land rehabilitation, wa-tershed development, and forest conserva-tion;


Table 1: Programme structure of the First and theSecond IFAP

First IFAP Second IFAP1.Institutional and humanresource development;2. Forest resourcesinventory and land-use;3. Improvement of forestland productivity and theestablishment of industrialplantations;4. Improvement of theefficiency of forest basedindustry;5. Conservation of livingnatural resources and theirecosystem;6. Improvement of naturalproduction forestmanagement;7. Soil and waterconservation; and8. Forest protection.

1.Forest ResourceInventory and Land UsePlanning2. Management of NatureProduction Forests;3. Management of ForestPlantation; 4. Forest BasedIndustries and Marketingof Forest Products;5. Social Forestry andPeople’s Participation;6. BiodiversityConservation andEcotourism;7. Management ofWatersheds, ProtectionForests, Wetlands,Coastal Areas; and8. InstitutionalStrengthening.

§ Recognition of the importance of genderanalysis in forestry development planning,and identification of gender issues inforestry;§ More transparency in information and man-

agement;§ Introduction of environmental impact

assessments (EIA) for forestry activities;§ Strengthening of inter-sectoral linkages and

a programme-oriented approach throughtransmigration programmes in plantationdevelopment;§ Promotion of GIS and remote sensing

technology for forestry planning and opera-tion by the private sector;§ Decentralisation of forestry management and

planning;§ Linkages between the IFAP, the Environ-

mental Action Plan, and the BiodiversityAction Plan;§ Indonesia was chosen as the location for the

Headquarters of the Centre for InternationalForest Research (CIFOR);§ Rationalisation of forest industries develop-

ment, marketing incentives, and tradederegulation;§ Establishment of the Biodiversity

Conservation and Management Action Plan(BCMAP), complementary to the IFAP, to be

supported by the Global Environment Facility(GEF). Some bilateral donors and interna-tional agencies have indicated their interestin participating in the BCMAP;§ Establishment of a Research Council to pro-

mote meaningful interaction with the users ofthe research findings;§ Sustainable forest management of the

concessions through the implementation ofthe "accreditation and assessor approach";and§ The Spatial Arrangement, Act No. 24 of

1992, has strengthened the legal status offorest area. It is also strengthened theForestland Use by Consensus programmelaunched in 1984.

Consultative Group on IndonesianForestry (CGIF)

In addressing the challenges by theforestry sector, Indonesia has been assistedby various bilateral donors and internationalagencies. During 1987-1992, there were about70 donor-assisted projects with a total supportof US$ 342 million. It was beyond thecapacities of the Ministry to manage theprojects. The biggest problems faced inimplementing the projects were the following:§ Lack of co-ordination in sector planning and

lack of information on projects;§ Little integration of foreign assistance

projects into national forest developmentplanning;§ Overlapping and duplication of efforts;§ Conflicting and contradictory approaches;

and§ Lack of internalisation of innovations to a

larger scale for the benefit of the sectorand the population.

At the Donor Round Table Meeting inFebruary 1992, it was recommended that aforum of consultation among the main actorsshould be created. The Ministry welcomed therecommendation, and established a ConsultativeGroup on Indonesia Forestry (CGIF) in May1993.


Initially, CGIF was established as a meansto facilitate the IFAP implementation and to bea forum for the exchange of informationbetween the Ministry and the representativesof the international partners, with limitedinvolvement of other partners, such as theprivate sector, NGOs and scientists. Later,CGIF responded to the increasing need todiscuss technical issues. Therefore, permanentCGIF Working Groups were formed. TheseGroups were separate from the initial CGIFforum, which is now called the “CGIF Assemblymeeting”.

CGIF was formalised by a MinisterialDecree in October 1994. The objective of theCGIF is to strengthen the communication, co-ordination and co-operation among all partiesinvolved in the planning, implementation andevaluation of the forestry sector developmentefforts, thereby contributing to increasedeffectiveness, efficiency and sustainability ofthe forestry sector development in Indonesia.It is envisaged to cover all forestry develop-ment activities carried out by the privatesector, NGOs and the projects assisted byinternational partners.

Four permanent technical working groupshave been established, as follows:§ Sustainable forest management;§ Social forestry and people’s participation;§ Conservation; and§ Policy and institutional development.

In addition to the above technical workinggroups, a number of small teams were estab-lished in 1997 to discuss the followingsubjects:§ Formal recognition of traditional land use

rights;§ Setting-up permanent production forests;§ Supply and demand of timber and timber

products;§ Social forestry; and§ Forest fires.

The CGIF Working Groups are designed tobe a forum for the exchange of informationamong Indonesian and foreign professionalsconcerned with technical, organisational and

scientific matters of forestry development. Therationale behind the need to promote theexchange of information between forestryexperts is the observation that the know-howacquired through foreign co-operation projectsseems to be insufficiently utilised for otherprojects and for the development of theforestry sector as a whole.

The following are among the importantoutcomes of the CGIF:§ CGIF has become an important tool for stra-

tegic planning in the Ministry of Forestry;§ CGIF is a multi-stakeholders forum to bring

together representatives of the Ministry ofForestry, NGOs, donors, universities, re-searchers, and the private sector;§ CGIF has become a model for a national

dialogue between the donor community andnational partners;§ CGIF is fully in line with the idea of partner-

ship as recommended in the IPF/CSD, 1997.In the future, a number of actions need to

be taken, including the following: a)strengthening the management of the overallprocess; b) updating the database andguaranteeing the accuracy of the data; c)standardisation of the format, terms and itemsused; d) improving the manpower skills; e)accommodating the increasing consequences ofthe many international commitments andinitiatives as the follow up to Agenda 21 ofUNCED on forestry.

It was reported that during the exercise tocarry out a case study in implementing the IPFProposals for Action, CGIF served as the forumfor the execution of the case study. About 100stakeholders from various disciplinesparticipated in the case study, including:planners, decision makers, scientists,researchers, other concerned sectoralinstitutions, NGOs and donors. Six WorkingGroups based on the organisational structureof CGIF were set up.

Five-year planIndonesia's development strategies and

policies are incorporated in three plans: thelong-term plan (covering a period of 25 years),the medium or five-year development plan (theRepelita) and the annual plan. The long-termplan provides broad development goals and


guidelines, while most policy packages areassociated with the five-year development plan.The second long-term development plan beganin 1994/1995. The National DevelopmentGuidelines (GBHN) indicate in broad terms thenational development plans, including themanagement of forest resources.

Inter-sectoral linkages for sectoralplanning were developed by a Central PlanningBoard (BAPPENAS) at the central level and bythe Provincial Planning Agency at the provinciallevel (BAPPEDA). Some State and Co-ordinationMinisters were assigned to co-ordinate certainaspects of development, such as the StateMinistry of Population, and Environment, andthe State Ministry of Economics, Finance, andIndustries.

The Sixth Five Year Development Plan(1994/95 - 1999/ 2000), as the first medium-term plan under the Second Long-term Devel-opment Plan (25-year plan - from 1994/95 to2018/19), sets its priorities on: sustainability,conservation of biodiversity and people’s par-ticipation, poverty alleviation, and economicand political stability. However, the plan couldnot be completed due to the change in theGovernment in 1998. Starting in 2001, thebudget calendar will start on 1 January 2001;it previously ran from 1 April through 31 Marchof the following year.

Six-country initiative of the IPF/CSD’s proposals for action

Indonesia is participating in the “Puttingthe IPF Proposals for Action into Practice atthe National Level Government-led Initiative inSupport to IFF Work Programme Category I(a).Six countries are participating in the exercise(three each from developing and developedcountries), i.e. United Kingdom, Finland,Germany, Indonesia, Uganda, and Honduras.The purpose of the Initiative is to support theimplementation of the Proposals for Action ofthe IPF at the national level (as endorsed byUNGASS in June 1997), including developmentof guidance derived from country experiencesfor consideration by IFF.

The preparatory meeting was held in Bonn/Germany, on 3-5 February 1998. Indonesia isusing its Five Year Plan (the First up to theSeventh Plan) as the basis to assess the

implementation of the IPF Proposals for Action.Five categories of relevance of the IPFProposals for Action have been adopted toassess the progress of its implementation forIndonesia, i.e.: not relevant, low importance,important, very important, and priority.

Notable achievements have been reported;however, actions that have been carried out bythe private sector, people’s groups, NGOs, andother relevant institutions might not have beenincluded in the exercise.

Forest managementIndonesia has adopted three silvicultural

systems to manage its forests as follows: a)Indonesian Selective Cutting and ReplantingSystem (TPTI); b) Clear Cutting with ArtificialRegeneration.

The TPTI system has been applied fornatural forests since 1989. The purpose of thesystem is as follows: to regulate the utilisationof the natural forest production; to increasethe forest value in respect to the quantity andquality of residual stands for the next cuttingcycle; and to ensure the continual supply oftimber as a raw material for the woodprocessing industry. The TPTI system is amodification of the previous system, which wascalled “the Indonesian Selective Cutting”.Since more fieldwork is needed, the newsystem needs a well-trained team witheffective control to ensure implementation ofthe system toward sustainable forestmanagement. The modification aims at a moreefficient time frame in the implementation ofactivities of each step of the system.

Harvesting, marketing and tradeLog production had constantly increased

from 24.0 million m3 to 29.5 million m3 during1995/96 - 1997/98 period. But, it decreasedto 19.2 million m3 in 1998/99 due to theeconomic and financial crises. Rattan, resingum, turpentine, raw silk, and cayuput oil areamong the important commodities of non-woodforest products.

As of the end 1999, the main exportdestinations of timber and wood products were


Japan, China PR, USA, Korea Republic,Norway, Singapore, India, Italy, the Nether-lands, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Australia, andEngland. The export of wood products, whichcomprise mostly plywood, sawn timber, andwood based products, was around 8-9 millionm3 during the last ten years; the revenuegenerated was around US$ 4 billion, except in1998 during which it was US$ 2.5 billion.

Indonesia has published a practical GuideBook entitled “Principles and Practices ofForest Harvesting in Indonesia” which could beconsidered as the Indonesian Code of Practicefor Forest Harvesting. The principles andpractices are being socialised among theprivate concessionaires and states enterprises.In support of the implementation of the Code,some studies on Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)have been conducted involving some foreign co-operation projects and forest concessionaires.Some activities related to the promotion of RILand sustainable forest management aspectsinclude the following:§ Information collection and dissemination;§ Implementation of RIL training;§ Publication of technical procedures, manual,

and training materials; and§ Co-operation with CIFOR in conducting

research on RIL practices in Bulungan areaof East Kalimantan.

A handy guidebook for tree harvesting intropical forests, especially for the operators atthe field level, has been published. Theguidebook contains many illustrations that canhelp the operators in the field easily under-stand the instructions on how to harvest timberproperly. It is printed with a plastic cover forwaterproofing to make it last longer.

The Government is committed to takingmeasures against illegal logging. It wasreported that illegal logging is likely to be moredamaging to forests. This aspect has beenreflected in the Letter of Intent to the IMFrecently. Efforts have been made to strengthenthe administrative and security control,including the application of fines for violationsagainst logging operations. However, theissuing of permits for forest processing

industries is under the authority of theMinistry of Industry and Trade. The installedcapacity of the wood industries has beengreater than the wood supply under sustainableforest management from forests, which couldlead to an informal supply through illegallogging.

With regard to the implementation ofsustainable forest management, the Governmentis expediting the rehabilitation of degradedforests. However, it needs huge funds that theGovernment expects to have support fromglobal partnership. In addition, incentivemechanisms are being formulated for theinvolvement of the private sector in the forestrehabilitation and development, includingproviding a reward to well disciplined forestconcessionaires to implement sustainable forestmanagement.

The Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute(LEI) has been established to look into theadoption of the timber certification scheme.TheInstitute has developed Criteria and Indicatorsfor Sustainable Forest Management inIndonesia, in total 57 indicators, which consistof criteria on production, on environmental andon social aspects. LEI signed an MOU and JoinCertification with the Forest StewardshipCouncil (FSC) in September 1999.

InformationAs regard to CGIF, the Ministry of

Forestry has established a web site e.g.http://www.cgif.com/


Focal pointHaryadiDirector, Bureau of Planning and International Co-operationMinistry of ForestryManggala Wanabhakti BuildingJalan Gatot Subroto, SenayanJakarta Pusat, IndonesiaPhone: 62-21-5701114Fax: 62-21-5700226; 5738732E-mail: [email protected]

*****

The two great movers of the human mind are the desire of good,and the fear of evil.

(Samuel Johnson)

Such is the state of life that none are happy but by the anticipation ofchange.

The change itself is nothing; when we have made it, the next wish is to change again.

(Samuel Johnson)

The test of wanting is doing.(John Adair)

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Japan76

Japan

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 37,652Total forest area (thousand ha)/ % of total area 25,146/ 66.8Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) n.apTotal change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ Annual change(%)

-66/ -0.1

Population total 1997 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000(%) 125.2/ 0.3Rural population 1997 in % 22.4GNP per person total 1995 in US$ 31,450

*) Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationThe Japanese economic transition after

World War II can be divided into thefollowing phases:§ The restructuring period after the war in

1945 to 1955, followed by a high growthperiod until two oil crises occurred in 1973and 1978;§ The low growth period which began in mid

1970 and continued until the appreciation ofthe yen in the mid 1980s;§ The domestic-economy oriented growth pe-

riod which began in 1987; and§ The stagnant period, since the “bubble econ-

omy” which began in 1990.The rapid economic growth and the rise of

the secondary and tertiary industries in urbanareas attracted labour from the countryside,which resulted in depopulation and changes inthe age demographics among upstream villagers.

In response to the experiences of the pasttwo oil crises, alternative energy sources topetroleum, such as nuclear and LNG energyhave been developed and promoted. The resultsshow that reliance on petroleum decreasedfrom 71.9% to 55.8% in 1995, nuclear poweruse increased from 0.3% in 1970 to 12.0% in1995, and use of LNG grew from 1.2% in 1970to 12.8% in 1995. As the economic situation was

sensitive to the reliance on petroleum as themain source of energy, the efforts to findalternative energy sources will be continued,particularly after the repeated oil crisescaused by the Middle East Peace Crisesbetween Israel and Palestinian in September/October 2000.

Japan experienced a drastic land tenuresystem change in the late 19th century andafter the devastation of its land during theSecond World War. Forests cover 67% of theland area, where steep landforms are charac-teristic, and closely linked to the life of theJapanese people not only for wood production,but also for land and water conservation. Thisis the result of the people’s efforts andexperiences accumulated over a hundred years.69% of the forests are privately owned andmostly managed by small-scale owners. Theremaining 31% comprise national forests.

The total growing volume surpasses that offelling and is being adequately replenished.The man-made, or plantation, forests, coveringabout 10.398 million ha in 1995, are made up ofstands in which 70% are less than 35 yearsold, and thus have not reached cutting age, andstill need tending and thinning.

Nowadays, Japan is in a position to share

its experiences and to financially contribute toforestry development in other countries. Japan

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Japan

77

has contributed substantially to forest andforestry development in other countriesthrough several channels, including bilateralforestry co-operation (providing technical andfinancial support through JICA and OECF) andmultilateral forestry co-operation (contributingto the efforts to achieve sustainable forestmanagement by providing support to FAO,ITTO, ICRAF, and CIFOR).

Forest resourcesAccording to the 1995 survey, which is

carried out in every five years, the forest areaof 24.23 million ha consists of planted forestsof 10.40 million ha (41%) and natural forestsof 13.38 million ha (53%) of the total land arearespectively. The growing stock of plantedforests reaches 1,892 million m3 and naturalforests 1,591 million m3.

According to ownership, the forests can beclassified into the following: a) private forests(58%); b) public forests (11%); and c) nationalforests (31%). The private forests are ownedby individuals, corporations, and temples orshrines. The total owners of the private forestsare 2.9 million individuals. The Forest Agencymanages most of the national forests.

In order to conserve scenic areas andtheir ecosystems, natural parks are establishedunder the provisions of the Natural Parks Law.In the Special Protection Zones of 331,999 ha,cutting or damaging trees are strictlyprohibited. In Class I of Special Zones of473,040 ha, trees are protected to the highestdegree. In addition, Wilderness Areas of 5,631ha and Nature Conservation Areas of 21,593 hahave been established in line with the NatureConservation Law.

The protected areas are mostly naturalforests. As of April 1999, the total area ofprotected forests is 513,739 ha, including theForest Biosphere Reserve Area of 320,000 haand the Plant Community Reserve Forests of350 locations.

Afforestation activities are focusing onthe restoration of the devastated forestscaused by over cutting during the World WarII in the mid 1940s and the growing woodconsumption. Since 1965, the newly plantedarea has tended to decrease because of ashortage of suitable places for afforestation,inclination toward natural forest management,and the recent decrease in the financial rateof return in the forestry sector. The area ofafforestation was 40 thousand ha in 1998.

In regard to conducting forest improve-ment, the composition of the forests should betaken into account as to whether they aresingle or multi-storied forests. Three catego-ries of forests have been defined as follows:a) Improved Single-Storied Forests; b)Improved Multi-Storied Forests; and c)Naturally Regenerated Forests.

Policy, planning and legislationThere are several important legal and

institutional frameworks for sustainable forestmanagement in Japan, including the following:a) Forest Law; b) Forestry Basic Law; c) theLaw of Administrative and Management ofNational Forests; d) Forest Pest and DiseaseControl Law; e) Nature Conservation Law; andf) Natural Parks Law.

The Forest Law stipulates the basicprovisions for the forest planning system, theprotected forest system, and other forestrelated issues. This Law aims at theconservation of lands and their optimumcontribution to the socio-economic develop-ment, including enforcing it, toward theachievement of the sustainable and properdevelopment of the forest resources, andincreasing the forest productivity.

The forest planning system in Japan sets along-term and comprehensive policy directionand target for forest and forestry at national,prefecture, and local levels. It also providesguidelines for forest owners to plan theirforest. The forest planning system aims atstabilising the forest products market andenhancing their various public benefit


functions through promoting their viability andproductivity, taking into account the longgrowth period of forests. It ensures effectivepolicy implementation by showing the basicdirection of government policy on forests andforestry, and at the same time serving as aguideline for forest owners and managers inimplementing forest management.

To maintain the public functions providedby forests, such as conserving water, prevent-ing natural disasters, protecting/ improving theliving environment and providing recreationalopportunities, the Minister of Agriculture,Forestry and Fisheries, or the governors ofindividual prefectures designate some forestareas as “protection forest (17 types)” underthe Protection Forest System. At present, onethird of the forest areas, approximately 8.81million ha, have been designated as ProtectionForests.

Forests other than protection forests havecertain public functions. The control of thedevelopment of the private forestland iscarried out by the Forestland DevelopmentControl System.

Each of the prefectures has some forestryspecialists and forestry extension agents whoprovide technical advice and knowledgeconcerning the forest management.

In order to promote the establishment andimprovement of diverse forests as the primarysources of greenery and water, under thesevere social and economic conditionscurrently faced by forests and forestry,national and non-national forests are managedin a harmonious and collaborative manner undercommon forest planning units based on riverbasins, in which management plans for bothnational and non-national forest areestablished at the same time, for the sameperiod, and for similar management goals. Thebasic structure of forest plans in Japan is asfollows:§ Basic Plan on Forest Resources and Long

Range Demand and Supply Projection forImportant Forest Products. The plan is for-

mulated by the Government in accordancewith the Forestry Basic Law;

§ Nation-wide Forest Plan. The 15-year plan isprovided every five years in accordance withthe Forest Law. It is formulated by theMinister of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fish-eries in compliance with the above Basic Planand Projection and approved by the CabinetCouncil;§ Regional Forest Plan. The 10-year plans are

provided by every five years in accordancewith the Forest Law. They are formulated incompliance with the Nation-wide Forest Planby prefecture governors for non-nationalforests, and by regional foresters fornational forests;§ Forest Management Plan. The Five-year plans

are voluntarily provided by forest ownersfor their forests, and authorised byprefecture governors in compliance with theRegional Forest Plan; and§ Local Forest Improvement Plan. Ten-year

plans for the management of non-nationalforests are provided every five years inaccordance with the Forest Law. They areformulated by the municipal governmentdesignated by prefecture governors.

In order to respond to the recent changes,as well as the prospective development ofsocial and economic conditions surroundingforests and forestry, the “Basic Plan on ForestResources and Long Range Demand and SupplyProjection on Important Forest Products” wasrevised in November 1996. In this plan,emphasis is put on the enhancement ofqualitative values and the public benefitfunctions of forests in order to ensuresustainable forest management. Also in thisPlan, it is projected that the domestic supply oftimber would increase in the future, based onthe assumption that utilisation of timber wouldbe expanded as an environmentally andphysiologically friendly material.

In relation to the revision mentionedabove, a new Nation-wide Forest Plan was es-tablished in December 1996. The Plan setsforth the basic policy directions on various


79

aspects, including the management of plantedforests and construction of forest roads, andalso provides a set of guidelines for forestowners and managers. The Basic Plan on ForestResources of 1996 classified forests into thefollowing functions:

§ Timber production 14.90 million ha§ Water conservation 14.67 million

ha§ Disaster prevention in

mountainous areas 5.89 million ha§ Conservation of living

environment 4.32 million ha§ Cultural and recreational

activities areas 5.82million ha

The Forestry Basic Law came into effectin 1964 to set forth the policy objectives offorest management and basic measures forachieving these objectives in order to enhancethe development of forestry and to improve thestatus of forestry workers, as well as tosecure forest resources and conserve lands.The objectives set forth by this Basic Lawinclude a) increasing production of forestproducts, b) achieving stable development offorestry by improving the productivity offorestry, and c) expanding the income base offorestry workers thereby improving theirsocial/ economic status. Based on the Law, theGovernment establishes and announces a BasicPlan for Forest Resources and a Long-RangeDemand and Supply Projection for importantforest products.

National forest management objectives setby the Law of Administration and Managementof National Forests are to maintain andpromote public functions provided by NationalForests such as conserving land as well as toachieve a sustainable and reliable supply offorest products. This will contribute to thepromotion of the local industries and thewelfare of the local people living in and nearthe forests by effectively using National For-est resources.

The Administrative Law specifies that theMinister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheriesmust present a 10-year basic management planfor the National Forests every five years. TheDirector General of the Regional Forest Officecrafts a 5-year plan for the operation andmanagement of the National Forest every 5years based on the 10-year basic managementplan.

The Government implements various meas-ures for controlling and managing pests,diseases, and harmful vertebrates which woulddamage the soundness of the forests under theForest Pest and Disease Control Law.

The Nature Conservation Law stipulatesbasic policies for nature conservation andprovides measures for conservation. The Envi-ronment Agency responsible for the conserva-tion of natural environment develops admin-istrative measures for nature conservation inaccordance with the purpose of the law.

The Natural Park Law aims at conservingscenic areas and their ecosystems, enhancingtheir sound utilisation, and promoting thehealth, recreation and the culture of thepeople. There are three types of natural parksin Japan, i.e. national parks, quasi-nationalparks, and prefecture natural parks. Areaswith beautiful natural scenery are designatedas natural parks, regardless of the type ofownership. Thus, many private and naturalparks are included in this category.

Forestry in Japan has become stagnant dueto an increase in imported wood products andthe decline in the industry’s profitability.These factors have lowered the managementlevel and the wood supply will be obstructed.Hence, the public function of forests will becurtailed. With regard to the various functionsof forests where emphasis is given to tourismand recreational aspects, water conservation,and the biological diversity, prevention ofglobal warming, the Government has rearrangedthe forestry approaches as follows: a) topromote sustainable forest management; b) tostrive for the maintenance of stability anddynamics of the forest ecosystem, and c) to


fulfil a variety of needs in co-operation withthe public.

In order to make full use of the variouspublic functions provided by the NationalForests, its management purposes are dividedinto three categories as follows: a) forest forsoil and water conservation; b) forest forcoexistence between forests and humans, andc) forest for cyclic utilisation of resources.The forest for lumber production has beenreduced from 54% to approximately 20%. Theforests for full utilisation of public functionsincreased from 46% to 80%. Consultation withand the participation of the public, both atnational and local levels, should be enhancedduring the drafting and approval of theNational Forest plan document.

Global warmingIn regard to the Kyoto Protocol, the

Government established a “Headquarters onMeasures to Arrest Global Warning” for whichthe Prime Minister inaugurated the chief of theoffice. A Guideline for Promotion of Efforts toPrevent Global Warming was finalised in June1998. Subsequently, the Central Forest Councilrecommended a comprehensive policy called”Future Direction of Forest Use: Forest Culturefor the 21st Century and the Creation of a NewSociety”. It gives directions toward thefostering of forests as one of the measuresagainst arresting global warming, to protectfoothill forests near villages with the help oflocal people, and to propel a national landafforestation movement with publicparticipation.

In order to cope with various demands forforest functions from the public, theGovernment has undertaken the followingmeasures: a) education for understanding theforest environment; b) activities that encouragepeople’s visits to forests, such as woodlandsnear settlements and protecting theenvironment; c) direct public participation inplanting trees and establishing forests; and d)development and active use of forest recrea-tion sites and facilities to provide goodphysical and mental health.

Within the National Forests, 1,270 recrea-tional forests have been delineated. Theseinclude the “Recreation in Nature Forests”where people can appreciate the natural beautyof forests throughout the four seasons,outdoor sports facilities where people canenjoy skiing and camping, and “NatureObservation and Education Forests” forobserving nature and wild birds. In 1998, 160million people visited these recreationalforests.

Forest firesIn 1998, about 1,900 cases of forest fires

occurred in Japan and approximately 800 haof forests burned down. Most of the fireswere caused by the imperfect extinction ofbonfires and cigarettes butts. In regard toforest fires, several measures have beenundertaken by the Government, including thefollowing: a) forest fire prevention campaignsto make people more conscious of forest fires;b) arranging protection/ operation systems byestablishing forest patrol teams anddistributing forest fire prevention equipment;and c) developing fire break forests andforest roads.

Public participation in forestmanagement

Several approaches/ schemes have beenintroduced to promote public participation inforest management including: a) profit sharingforests; b) a land afforestation campaign; andc) providing opportunities for voluntary par-ticipation in forest-related activities.

Within the profit sharing forest scheme,people under contract with the Governmentplant trees in National Forest sites. Profitsgained from the sale of lumber is sharedbetween the Government and the contractor.This system promotes co-operative effortsbetween the upstream and downstream com-munities such as improvement of headwaterforests and the fishermen’s forest system.


81

Through land afforestation campaigns suchas the “Forestry Fund for Green and Water”and “Green Feather Fund Raising”, theGovernment encourages the public to partici-pate in afforestation activities, includingNational Arbor Days and silvicultural festivals.These activities will pave the way to a betterunderstanding of coexistence between forestsand humans, prevention of global warming, andthe role of forests in the socio-economic andenvironmental development of the country.

Starting from 1999, one or two “encoun-tering forests” are to be established in eachForest District Office so that people canvoluntarily participate in fostering forests.

Wood production and tradeJapan is one of the worlds’s largest im-

porting countries of wood, where 70% of thedomestic wood consumption is imported. Theimport of logs has decreased while the importof sawn wood has increased. Production ofwood from domestic forests has tended todecrease.

Wood consumption was 117 million m3 in1973. It reached only 92 million m3 in 1998.Japan was the biggest tropical wood importingcountry, amounting to 12% of the domesticconsumption in 1998.

Wood production has gradually decreased;it was 52.741 m3 in 1967 and 19.33 million in1998. The number of forestry employees was140 thousand in 1985, but only 86 thousand in1995.

Imports of timber have shifted from logsto processed wood products. In 1989, theimport of logs was 35.192 million m3, sawnwood was 12.882 million m3, and plywood was4.312 million m3. In 1998, the import of logswas only 18.597 million m3 (decreasing by 53%compared to imports in 1989), sawn wood was10.582 million m3, and plywood was 6.082million m3 (increased by 238%).

Under the Uruguay Round Agreement,Japan committed to reduce tariffs by approxi-

mately 50% of the base rate on trade-weighedaverages, equivalent to an approximately 30%decline from the applied rate when theAgreement was made in 1994. It was imple-mented progressively every year from 1995 to1999.

In regard to global environment issues, thenext trade negotiations on wood products ofJapan should be carried out as part of com-prehensive negotiations and due considerationhas to be given to the global environmentalissues and sustainable resource use.

Wood prices increased in 1996 due to anincrease in house building demand. But overallthe trend continued to decrease. ITTOconducts a special monitoring of wood prices inJapan and elsewhere. The ITTO web site canbe visited for more details.

International co-operationIn providing development assistance to

developing countries, the environmental factoris the most important consideration. This wasclearly stated at UNCED in 1992. In addition,Japan is implementing the ODA on forest andforestry matters through multilateral organi-sations, such as UNEP, FAO, CGIR, and ITTO.

At the UNGASS in 1997, Japan announcedand introduced the “Kyoto Initiatives” and theInitiatives for Sustainable Development (ISD)which established that Japan would continue toactively support policy works on sustainableforest management and to assist the developingcountries to undertake measures against theGlobal Warming. However, the Japanese Gov-ernment is of the view that it is important foreach country to make further efforts toachieve sustainable forest management.

In regard to bilateral co-operation, Japanis implementing different approaches, includingproject-type technical co-operations, develop-ment studies and yen loans. The amount ofbilateral ODA in the field of forestry was Yen15.8 billion in 1991, Yen 16.9 billion in 1993,Yen 25.2 billion in 1995 and Yen 22.3 billion in1997. Recently, Japan has agreed to support


four countries in the Region, China, Myanmar,the Philippines and Thailand to launch a projecton Model Forests.

In regard to criteria and indicators, Japanhas been actively involved in the developmentof criteria and indicators (C&I) forsustainable forest management for thetemperate and boreal forests (MontrealProcess). One of the unique efforts carried outby Japan is a project in two watershed areasto develop criteria and indicators at the locallevel and the monitoring methodologies. Inaddition, a new nation wide Continuous ForestInventory (CFI)

has been initiated to monitor and assess forestresources and their dynamics using unifiedmethodologies, taking into consideration of itscompatibility with C&I of the Montreal Process.

Focal pointIchiro NagameDeputy-DirectorInternational Forestry Co-operation OfficeMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries1-2-1 Kasumigaseki, Chiyodu-KuTokyo, 100 JapanTel: (813) 3591 8449; Fax: (813) 3593 9565E-mail: [email protected]

*****

No man will find the best way to do a thing unless he loves to do that thing(Japanese proverb)

Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm.(Emerson)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Korea, The Republic of 83

Korea, The Republic of

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 9,873Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total area 7,626/ 77.2Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 6,226Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ Annual change(%)

-65/ -0.2

Population total 1997 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000(%) 45.7/ 0.9Rural population 1997 in % 16.8GNP per person total 1995 in US$ 9,700Source of data: FAO – State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationBy late 1961, the Republic of Korea was

suffering from many difficulties commonlyfaced by developing countries. The populationwas growing by 3% annually, the nation had nonotable exports, and it depended on importsfor both raw materials and important manufac-tured goods. The economic planners found itnecessary to adopt an export-oriented industri-alisation strategy. In its five-year economicdevelopment plans, the Government has focusedon specific key industries by providingincentives in the form of tax subsidies, lowinterest loans, and manpower training.

Since 1962, under the new economicdevelopment plan, and with the positive invest-ment mood by the private sector, plus theimplementation of tax-reform, the country’seconomy has grown substantially, and the GNPhas grown by an average of more than 8% peryear.

However, the forests were completelydevastated at the end of the Korean War in1953. Until the 1970s, barren and browncoloured mountains could be seen. Peoplewould walk for days to get woody fuel. Riverswere muddy carrying away the wealth of theland. According to ownership, the forest areacan be divided into three categories: nationalforests (22%), public forests (8%), and privateforests (70%).

The demand for timber products has beenconstantly increasing in line with continuedpopulation and economic growth. In 1994, thedomestic timber supply was about 1 million m3,representing about 13% of the total demand,while imports were increasing, amounting to 8.9million m3.

Korea has been a member of ITTO since1986, in the consumers’ group. Korea has alsobeen supporting other developing countries byfacilitating training and despatching experts.By 1996, 25 Korean companies had participatedand invested in overseas forestry developmentin 15 countries, including forestconcessionaires in seven countries;development of plywood, sawn wood, and woodchip industries; and nurseries and plantations.

In 1995, forest product imports amountedto US$ 2.779 billion, or 2.1% of the country’stotal import. These products included logs,sawn timber, plywood, and non-wood forestproducts such as oak mushroom. The share ofconifers in total log imports has increased andis expected to continue to increase in thefuture. Imports of wood chips, sawn timber,wood pulp, plywood, paper and paperboardhave also increased. The total export value offorest products was US$ 505 million, or 0.4%of the country’s total exports.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Korea, The Republic of84

The major forest products exports werechestnut, pine mushroom, oak mushroom, andplywood.

However, since August 1997, the regionalfinancial and economic turmoil has affectedthe financial and economic situation in Korea,including the forestry sector. The rate ofconstruction works has been declining, whichhas affected the domestic demand for timberand related products. Thus, the imports oftimber and timber products from the countriesin the Region have been declining. The Ministryof Finance and Economy expects that theeconomic growth will be around 8%, althoughits growth was 11.6%in the first half of 2000.

After completing greening operations allover the country, the Korea Forest Serviceswitched its policy from reforestation tomanagement of forest and initiated the Fourth10-year Forest Plan in 1998. Its ultimate goal isto build the foundation and groundwork forsustainable forest management.

Since 1998, although the country hasfaced significant economic and social difficul-ties, including a high foreign exchange rateand high unemployment, the Korea ForestService has continued implementing severalimportant forest and forestry developmentprojects and activities, including the following:making substantial progress in the implementa-tion of a public works project for tending theforest (1998-2002); completed the construc-tion of Forest Information System using GIS;establishment of several forest related NGOs;and putting in place a Green Lottery in 1999.

Several reports show that the area ofnational forest has been slowly increased asthe result of several efforts launched by thecountry, including the Korea Forest Service byimplementing the National Forest ExtensionPolicy. The long term goal of this policy is toincrease the size of national forests to up to40% of the forest land in Korea.

Planning, policy and legislationBefore the 20th century, the country

owned the majority of forests and villagecommunities and individuals owned the rest.After 1910, according to the forest survey

carried out by Japan to exploit Korean’sforest, forest ownership was classified intonational, public and private forests.

In the early 20th century, Japaneseharvested about 500 million m3 of timber in theKorean Peninsula, far above the forestcapacity. As a result, the average volume oftimber per hectare decreased to 14 m3 in 1945from 45 m3 in 1910. Old growth forests weredeforested by over cutting and illegal harvest-ing throughout the colonial period of 1910-45and during the Korean War of 1950-53. Inorder to establish and manage the forestresources efficiently, the Forest Law of 1961required the Government to produce a nationalforest plan every ten years.

In 1973, the government embarked on anambitious "first ten-year’s forestry develop-ment plan". The plan was part of the "SaemaulUndong" or "New Community Movement", whichaimed to enhance the quality of life. The planwas directed at building up a sound, broad-based community forestry programme at thevillage level for the whole country. A turningpoint in forestry was witnessed in 1973 withthe initiation of the first ten year ForestDevelopment Plan, during which 1.0 million haof denuded land were to be replanted within10 years.

The massive reforestation project can beaccomplished through traditional culture of thevillage community, called “Sanrimgae”, that hasbeen practised in Korea for several hundredyears. This involves the participation of forestowners, village residents and the governmentand other public organisations in communityforest development.

In addition, one million ha of fuel woodforest plantations were established through theIBRD-assisted project in the 1970s by plantingblack lotus (Robinia pseudoaccacia L.).However, due to less demand for fuel wood,the black lotus plantations are now used inconstruction timber production and the bee


keeping industry. Loans for a period of 35years had also been provided for plantingconifer, for which the Internal Rate of Return(IRR) has dropped to about 1-2% due to therapid increase in labour costs recently.

The objectives, targets, and accomplish-ments of each plan are as follows:1. The first ten year forest development plan(1973-78)

Objectives§ To implement the national tree planting

movement through people’s participation invarious reforestation projects;§ To develop new economic zones of forest

lands in harmony with the goals of landconservation and income generation by refor-estation and forest production;§ To achieve rapid reforestation of denuded

forest land through the planting of fastgrowing species; and§ To accomplish the stabilisation of shifting

cultivation, which uses fire as a tool foragricultural practises.

The Government chose April as the“National Tree Planting Period” for its treeplanting campaign as this period is the besttime to plant trees. The Government encouragedvarious groups such as farmers, families, andstudents to participate in the reforestationprogramme. Development of rural fuel woodforests and prohibiting access to the mountainssubstantially reduced the damage to forests.The reforestation target of 1.08 millionoriginally planned in the First Ten-year Plan (tobe completed in 1982), was accomplished in1978, so the second Plan began in 1979. Inaddition, 120,000 ha of devastated forestlandwere rehabilitated by a comprehensive erosioncontrol project for soil conservation.

2. The second ten year forest development plan(1979-89) The basic objective of the plan was tobuild large scale commercial forest zones fortimber production. To achieve this objective,several forest policies were crafted including:

§ Strengthening the national reforestationplan;§ Expansion of forest protection activities;§ Enlargement of the forest development funds

to support private forest management;§ Grouping and enlarging national forests; and§ Implementing forest conservation projects to

improve public benefits from forests.

Major accomplishments in the Second Planinclude: reforestation of 966 thousand ha anddevelopment of 80 large scale groupcommercial forest zones; forest fire preventionand aerial control of diseases through ahelicopter purchasing project; establishment ofa Forest Works Training Centre to train foresttechnicians.

3. The third forest development plan (1988-97)The main objective of the Third Plan, which isalso called “the Forest Resources EnhancementPlan”, is to harmonise the economic developmentof the forest and the public benefits. ThePlan’s target is to improve log production tomeet 51% of the country’s log demand by theyear 2030. To meet the objective, priority hasbeen given to the following:§ Government investment will be concentrated

on forestry development promotion zones of1.52 million ha in private forests;§ Harmonisation between timber production

and other functions of forests byintroducing a new concept of multiple usemanagement; and§ Enlarge urban forests in cities and

recreation forests in urban areas to provideclean air, water, and recreation spaces.

4. The fourth forest development plan (1998-2007)

The ultimate objective of the Plan is to laythe foundation for sustainable forest manage-ment through the accomplishment of majorprogrammes based on major strategies asfollows:§ To accomplish the policy goal, target areas

were established including establishment ofmore valuable forests resources, fosteringof competitive forest industries, and mainte-


nance of healthy and sound forest environ-ment; and§ To achieve these targets, several critical

strategies will be devised and in eachstrategy will include more specific pro-grammes encompassing various subjects.

At present, the country’s most importantforest policy is reforestation. However, itshould be noted that it has not merely targetedindustrial timber production, but emphasis hasalso been given to reforesting the devastatedmountain areas. The objectives of the policyare: harmonisation of management betweenconservation and development, fosteringcompetitiveness by improving the managementand organisation structure, improving the livingconditions of the local people, and preservingbeautiful landscapes.

The Law on Wildlife and Hunting wasenacted in 1967. At the end of 1997, 541 areashad been designated as wildlife protectionareas, and 486 species of wildlife were underprotection. To preserve the natural scenery andto provide a better environment for recreation,the Park Law was enacted in 1967, and revisedagain in February 1997. Parks are classifiedinto three categories: national, provincial, andcity parks. The number of national parksincreased from 17 in 1985 to 20 in 1996.

The natural recreation forest project hasbeen operated as part of a major forestryinitiative to implement multiple use managementof forests since 1988. As of 1996, 197.4thousand ha had been designated as protectionforests, out of which 157 thousand ha, or 80%was for water conservation, 30.0 thousand ha,or 15% for scenic beauty, and 5% for otherfunctions.

Forestry associations are among the activeinstitutions that carry out the forestryactivities in Korea. They traditionally deal withforest protection, and are based on the ruralpeople’s self regulated organisation, called“Sanrimgae”. The Sanrimgae was reorganisedinto a modern form in the 20th century, andhas been reoriented toward the members’welfare. In 1993, they were converted into“Forestry Co-operatives”. The goal of the For-

estry Co-operatives is to manage their forestsby enlarging the management scale to include:forest land, labour, capital, and improving thesocio-economic position of the members. Simul-taneously, the Forest Association Law wasreplaced by the Forestry Co-operatives Law.

Nowadays, Forestry Co-operatives are alsoinvolved in planning of reforestation, manage-ment and harvesting, storage, marketing andtrade of forest products, and loans. Forestryco-operatives are also considering becominginvolved in supplying drinking water producedin the mountain areas.

The Government is fully committed toimplementing the Forest Principles and relatedforestry matters of Agenda 21. The governmentsupports the Montreal process for sustainableforest management. In compliance withinternational agreements and the new globalinitiatives on forest and forestry, the ForestLaw was revised in 1994.

The Government has actively expandedinternational co-operation on forestry matters.During the last ten years, about 100 juniorforesters from tropical countries have beeninvited to visit Korea to share their experiencesin silviculture and soil erosion control. TheKorea International Co-operation Agency(KOICA) was established in 1990 to expand theco-operation and to improve the relationshipwith developing countries. Bilateral co-operation with Germany, Japan, and Indonesiahas also been strengthened.

In regard to sustainable forest manage-ment, the Government has been activelyinvolved in the Helsinki and Montreal processesto determine the criteria and indicators forsustainable forest management. In implementingsustainable forest management, severalproblems will have to be faced, including:

§ Inefficient forest resources management forthe present and future generations;§ Unbalanced forest ownership between public

and private forest, which might hinderefficient forest land use;


§ Not enough private forest owners participa-tion, due to unattractive investment environ-ment conditions such as low profits and long-term investment; and§ Land use conflicts due to the increasing

demand for land by other sectors.

Important achievements in the lasttwo years (1998-2000)a. Implementation of public works

Project for Tending the ForestsThe forestry sector has been playing substan-tial role in promoting employment opportunitiesduring the economic crisis. A Forest for LifeProject which is called “Soop Kakoogi” inKorea, was launched in 1998 and will continuetill 2002 to hire unemployed workers forsilvicultural activities, including weeding,pruning, thinning and under-storey cutting. Thisproject has had a positive impact, i.e. theperception and public awareness towards theimportance of sustainable forest managementhas been significantly improved. In 1998, theKorea Forest Service (KFS) hired 2.8 millionpeople with a total expenditure of US$ 45million. This increased to 4.83 million peopleand US$ 147 million in 1989. This project wasone of the most efficient projects among the20 unemployed labour hiring projects.

b. Establishment of the 21st centuryforestry visionIn the late 20th century the socio-economic

situation in the country was changing rapidly.Therefore, the 21st century forestry visionwas crafted in 1999 to enable forestdevelopment in harmony with the socio-economic conditions and the environment.c. Construction of a forest information

systemA forest site survey project was started in

1995 and will be completed in 2000. A ForestGeographic Information System that willprovide the basic information for scientificforest management will be completed in 2002.A National Arboretum Institute and a NationalPlants Resource Information Network for

endemic plant management has been estab-lished.

d. Strengthening of forest firepreventionForests are under great risk from fire

caused by careless human beings, which isincreasing in proportion with the increasingnumber of people visiting forests for recrea-tional activities. In 1998, it was reported that265 forest fires occurred, destroying 1,014 haof forests, 50% of which were caused bycareless people. In collaboration with localgovernments, KFS established and maintainedseveral ground and airborne fire squads andsupporting teams. In 1999, KFS organised 656ground forest fire squads and airborne firessquads involving about 19 thousand people and40 people respectively.

e. Establishment of forest relatedNGOsThree important NGOs have been

established, i.e. Forest for Peace (FFP); Forestfor Life (FFL); and Northeast Asian ForestForum (NAFF). The main activity of FFL, whichwas established in 1988, is to lead people toplant trees around suburbs and in educationalactivities. While the main activity of FFP, whichwas established in March 1999, is to help theGovernment of Korea Democratic People’sRepublic to reforest lands that were destroyedby floods and drought.

The objectives of establishing NAFF are topromote the environmentally sound and sustain-able management of the forest ecosystem in theNortheast Asian Region by strengthening therelevant networks. The main purpose of NAFFincludes reforestation and afforestation,strengthening dialogues and environmentaleducation for sustainable forest development,exchange of information on forestconservation and sustainable forestrymanagement, and co-operation with FFP tosolve food problems and to prevent naturaldisaster caused by deforestation in theDemocratic People’s Republic of Korea.


f. International co-operationKFS invited and trained 19 forestry

officials from 11 developing countries in 1999.KFS organised the Korea-Indonesia ForestryCommission and signed the Forestry Co-operation Agreement with Vietnam andMyanmar in 1999.

g. Green lotteryKFS invented a new lottery programme

called the “green lottery”. The funds collectedwill be used for the enhancement of forestenvironmental functions. The programmeadvocates that to purchase a green lottery isthe same as planting a tree. Indirectly, it willstrengthen the people’s awareness of theimportant role of forests and trees andunderstanding the importance of public par-ticipation in this matter.

h. Reformation of forestry co-operativesTo improve the benefits of the forest

owners and to promote sustainable forestmanagement, the co-operative system waschanged into an association system.Simultaneously, the Forestry Association Lawwas accepted by the National Assembly in 1999to replace the Forestry Co-operative Law.

Constraints

§ Structural deterioration in competitivenesscaused by the growing inefficiency of thegovernment-guided economic system, thedwindling supply of low cost skilled labour,restriction of log exports by tropicalcountries, increased prices of imported logs,and development of substitutes for timber.§ Problems of forest fires are gradually

becoming larger with an increase infavourable conditions for fires such as therecovery of forest stands, the accumulationof ground surface material susceptible toforest fires, and the rapid increase in thenumber of outdoor recreations.

§ Due to the rapid increase in demand forleisure activities in the forest and a largenumber of mountain climbers, there is agrowing problem of accumulated waste andtrash in the forests.

Focal pointPark Jung-SikDirector GeneralForestry Policy BureauForestry Administration207 Chongnyangni-dongDongdaemun-ku,Seoul, 130-012Tel: 82-2-961-2349Fax: 82-2-961-2345

*****

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Lao PDR 89

Lao PDR

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 23,080Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land 12,435/

53.9Natural forests 1995 (thousand ha) 12,435Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (million ha) / annual change (%) -742/ -1.2Population 1997 (millions)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 5.2/ 3.1Rural population 1997 (%) 78.2GNP per person 1995 (US$) 700


General informationLao PDR is a land-locked country bordered

by the Animate mountains on the eastern side.The elevation range from 80 m in the south to2,820 m above the sea level. About 79% of thecountry are mountainous. The climate isdominated by monsoons with annual rainfallranges from 1,000 mm in the north to 3,000 mmin the south. The dry season, from October toApril, is characterised by wind from the north-east. Lowland areas are tropical and the highelevation and the mountains are sub-tropical.The Mekong River is the dominant drainagesystem. It demarcates some of the internationalborders with Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia.

Approximately 65% of the GDP come fromagriculture and forestry. About 250,000families (1.5 million people) are engaged inslash and burn agriculture practices.

The forest cover has been reduced byshifting cultivation and uncontrolled fire. Thepressure on forests is increasing due to thedecreasing supply of forest products inneighbouring countries like Thailand, Malaysia,the Philippines and Indonesia. The level ofharvesting is also increasing due to the need togenerate revenue in the provinces.

Hydroelectric power is one of the com-modities exported to neighbouring countries.Hydroelectric power development potential is

estimated at about 10,000 MW. This commoditywill be one of the priority sectors to bedeveloped in the near future. Therefore, thereis need for a clear policy for the protection ofwatersheds.

In 1986, the introduction of the NewEconomic Mechanism led the country to a moreoutward orientation. Progress was noted in theyear 1994-1995. The growth in GDP was 8.1%for 1995. Industry led all sectors with a 9%growth, followed by agriculture with 8.3%.Timber products continued to be the top earnerwith US$ 96 million in exports.

1995 was a historically important year forLao PDR. The following important events werenoted:§ The 40 anniversary of the Lao People's

Revolutionary Party;§ The final year of the implementation of the

3rd Five Year for Socio-Economic Develop-ment Plan of the Government.§ A more favourable foreign investment climate

and increased aids has been achieved;§ The IMF released two "tranches" of US$ 8

million each under ESAF arrangement;§ The United States removed Lao from the

prohibition imposed by the Foreign AssistanceAct;§ Among the regional initiatives, the Govern-

ment announced its intention to become a fullmember of the ASEAN by 1997 and officially

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Lao PDR90

offered Vientiane as the headquarters of theMekong River Commission, while activelypromoting the participation of Myanmar andChina as full member of the Commission;§ Agreement in principle was reached to

develop new roads and bridges over theMekong River. Japan has agreed to conduct afeasibility study.

With the substantial economic and infra-structure development, pressure on the naturalresource base is increasing. This includespressure on forests and forestry and alsohydropower, particularly due to increase inintensive farming, general development andmineral extraction.

The National Forest Conference was heldin May 1989 The strategic directives agreedupon during the Conference were as follows:§ Preservation of forests and improvement of

management to increase production;§ Rational use of forests to increase their

economic value;§ Permanent settlement by the year 2000 of

60% of the 1.5 million people currentlyengaged in shifting cultivation.

The Government signed the internationalConvention on the Conservation of Biodiversity.This has implications for the policy and regula-tory framework for biodiversity conservation inthe country. Draft regulations for governingharvesting operations, contracting and planning,village forestry, and national biodiversityconservation areas already exist. Regulationspertaining to forest management and biodiver-sity conservation are currently being drafted.As of now, the Government has established anddeclared 20 National Biodiversity ConservationAreas, covering about 30,000 km2, or about12.5% of the country’s total area.

In addition, the Ministry of Agricultureand Forestry has also crafted the “StrategicVision for the Agricultural Sector”. Thedocument was released on 22 December 1999.Based on the achievement and opportunities offorestry sector development, a forestry stra-tegic vision 2020 was initiated in 1997. A draftFramework of Strategic Vision on Forest

Resources Management to the Year 2020 (FSV-2000) was discussed at a Policy DialogueMeeting held in Luang Prabang on 8 and 9September 2000.

In 1996, the Government introduced a newpolicy to promote forest plantation by allocat-ing degraded forestland to households as wellas the private sector for planting trees, andwaiving the land tax.

The forestry sector is one of the mainearners of export revenue. The share of fo-rest products in total export value was about40% in 1996. In principle, there is a log exportban, except of pine logs. Domestic paperdemand is met solely through imports. Recently,the garment industry has generated substantialemployment and income for several people andsubstantial revenue to the Government, whichreduce pressure on forests as alternativesource of income.

Land use and forest resources

At present, permanent agriculture lands arelimited to flat areas and valley. Due toextensive upland agriculture, including shiftingcultivation, and commercial logging, substantialforestland areas have been degraded inmountainous areas. The trend towards forestdegradation will continue.

Based on the land use planning exercise,land for the different purposes will be allo-cated to farmers, households and communities.The villagers will determine the land allocation,and they will decide on how the land will bedistributed. A map indicating the boundaries ofthe allocated land will be prepared. The landallocation exercise will be completed with aland tenure certificate for each participant.The certificate will be prepared by the districtland management and land allocation committee.

Land allocation will be a key measure ofland management. About 3,096 villages or75,100 households had received their certifi-cates.

In the past, Lao PDR possessed substantiallarge area of forests. However, some reportsindicate that there has been a dramatic decline


in forestland in the past 20-30 years. Thecauses were enormous, including populationpressure, shifting cultivation, agriculturalexpansion, bush fire, and unsound logging forcommercial purposes.

According to the current survey, the mostheavily forested areas are in the south, whilethe least are in the north. Most of the forestsare mixed deciduous forests, which coverabout 35% of the land area. The drydipterocarp forests cover about 5%, and theevergreen forests are 5%. The forest areas inthe country is presented in the Table 1.

In low and medium altitude (100-500 abovethe sea level), many species of dipterocarpsand legumes are common, including hard woodand rose wood (Dipterocarpus spp., Hopea spp.,Pterocarpus spp., Dalbergia spp.,Afzelia,Lagerstomia spp.). In higher up, tropical pinusare found commonly, such as Pinus merkusii,Pinus kasya, Araucaria spp., Cunninghamia spp.

A wide range of plant species andderivatives of Non-wood Forest Products existsin Lao PDR, such as bamboo, rattans,cardamons, benzoins, latex, resin and gums.

Table 1: Forest areas (ha)category areaEvergreen forests 3,400,000Mixed deciduousforests

5,680,000

Deciduous forests 1,600,000Others 480,000Total 11,160,00

0Source: Country Report- 18th APFC, May 2000

Since 1995, the Government has promotedreforestation and tree planting developmentprogrammes. In recent years, these programmeshave been linked with the land managementpolicy and land-forest allocation programme,investment promotion policy. Start from thelaunching of the programme, people’s groups,private individual, and the private sector hasbeen involved. The progress of the plantationforestry programme is presented in the Table 2.

Table 2: Progress of plantationsYear Area (ha)1990 7161991 1,359

1992 9011993 2,219.1994 3,7981995 8,8281996 11,8491997 12,2901998 9,0301999 6,353

Source: Country Report – 18th APFC, May 2000

Policy and planningAs the results of the First National Forest

Conference held in 1989, the Governmentformulated the basic forest policy andguidelines. The salient features of the policyinclude:§ Biological resource of present forests should

be protected emphasising people’sparticipation;§ Resource use should be balanced with

conservation;§ Afforestation, production and forest devel-

opment must be linked to food production,provision of alternative for shifting cultiva-tion;§ Increased forest cover up to 70% of the

total land area through the application ofnatural regeneration system.

The Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP)was launched in 1989. The draft strategic planwas produced in February 1990. At theInternational Round Table meeting held inDecember 1990, the Government proposed adevelopment strategy and indicated thefollowing priorities: rationalisation of theshifting cultivation system and sustainablewatershed management and protection. TheGovernment endorsed the draft document in1991.

Within that TFAP framework, the Govern-ment decided that:§ Sustainable forestry programmes which

support hydro-electric power developmentshould be given high priority.§ Non-wood forest products development,

particularly in water catchment areas, shouldcontribute to employment creation and income


generation. This would reduce the pressureon forests from encroachment and illegalfelling and contribute to biodiversityconservation.§ The harvesting of non-teak wood species

should be promoted.§ The implementation of programmes for

stabilisation of shifting cultivation andcontrol of opium cultivation should contributeto sustainable harvesting in watershedmanagement areas.

The first TFAP review meeting was held inVientiane, on 14-15 October 1994. This meetingwas attended by active donors, NGOs, forestryofficials from the provinces, and keytechnicians of the department. The main ob-jectives were to:§ Evaluate the implementation of the TFAP

during the 1991-1994 period;§ Provide broad information on the TFAP and

it's role in the Lao Forestry Policy, strategicplan and activities to provincial officials andget their active participation to draw upguidelines, methods and measures for moreeffective implementation of the 1995-2000strategic plan in forestry activities;§ Draw lessons from the co-ordination between

central and local levels in the application ofthe decentralisation directives, especially inthe management of projects located inprovinces and districts;§ Prepare facts and data for a round-table

meeting with donor countries / organisationsto be held at the end 1995.

Since its first review in 1994, the annualdonor meeting has been held every year. Inthese meetings, progress of the TFAP imple-mentation was reported on and the donors’community presented information on the statusand future support to Lao forestrydevelopment. In addition, several technicalworking groups have been established. Thesegroups discuss achievements, constraints,issues, policy reform, input for simplifying pro-cedures, instructions and guidelines.

In the Fourth Donors Meeting held in April1998, it was reported that donors support to

the forestry sector development was comingfrom:§ Bilateral donors: SIDA, GTZ, and JICA;§ International Monetary Institutions: ADB,

WB, EU, FINNIDA;§ International Institutions: Mekong River

Commission, FAO, UNDP, UNCRD;§ NGOs international/ bilateral: WWF, JVC,

CSIRO, CUSO, CANADA, IUCN, BMZGermany, CARE, WCS, CESVI (Italy),DANIDA, and NORAD.

It was also reported at the meeting thatrecently, the Governments of Denmark, France,and Norway sent missions to Lao PR andidentified some co-operation projects. Theyinformed the meeting that financial supportwould be provided to implement the identifiedprojects. The Ministry of Agriculture iscurrently implementing more than 70 projectsand that there are more projects in the pipelineat various stages of identification andformulation.

About five years ago, some donors becameconcerned about an apparent lack of co-ordination among projects within the Depart-ment of Forestry. To respond to this, theSwedish International Development Co-operation Agency (SIDA) provided fundingsupport through UNDP for a project to assistthe Division of International Co-operation infulfilling its mandate. The objective of theproject is to achieve maximum impact fromprojects implemented in the upland agricultureand forestry sector by institutionalising aneffective monitoring and co-ordination system.The immediate objectives are: 1) effective co-ordination of current development assistance;2) effective planning of future developmentassistance; 3) effective training for planning,publishing, monitoring, and evaluating develop-ment assistance. The project began in 1997.

Based on the achievements and opportuni-ties of forestry sector development seen in1997, the Government drafted the forestryvision for the year 2020, which is composed ofseven Frameworks. The priority strategies in


each Framework were outlined as the follow-ing:§ Develop viable alternatives to shifting

cultivation and gradually decrease unsustain-able upland farming;§ Allocate land to rural families and enter-

prises and encourage afforestation;§ Survey the national forest resource and set

up appropriate systems for forest manage-ment;§ Implement management in the biodiversity

conservation areas and protect prioritywatersheds;§ Develop an appropriate and competitive

forest industry;§ Strengthening human resource development;

and§ Strengthening forest research.

A revised draft Framework of the Strate-gic Vision for 2020 was discussed at a PolicyDialogue Meeting on the Forestry Sector, heldin Luang Prabang, 8-9 September 2000. Themeeting was organised as a consultative processfor the 7th Round Table Meeting scheduled for21-23 November 2000, which initially focus onfour sectors, i.e. health, education, roads andmacroeconomic management. The representativefrom donor agencies attended the meetinginclude UNDP, UNDCP, WB, ADB, AusAID,DANIDA, GTZ, FINIDA, JICA, and a numberof international and national NGOs, such asIUCN.

Issue concerning year 2002 would bedeclared as the International Year of Moun-tains was discussed. Some donors, includingSIDA, indicated its interest to be involved inthe exercise.

It should be noted that due to populationdistribution, culture, geography, and generaleconomic development, watershed protectionand management are very crucial in the country.Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture andForestry has developed a strategy that anywatershed management activities or uplandfarming has to be linked with efforts tostabilise shifting cultivation and poverty all-eviation.

Village forestryThe National Forestry Conference held in

1989 addressed the importance of participa-tory people’s-oriented forestry towardsustainable forest development. In addition, theessential involvement of local people in naturalresource management, protection, andconservation was clearly spelled out in theSixth Party Congress in 1996, in the Forest Lawof 1996, and in the Ministry of Agriculture andForestry’s strategy for the year 1996-2000.Village forestry is used to describe a process(but not a fixed management concept) and arange of approaches to people’s oriented forestmanagement with different intensities in thedegree of participation. This term has beenused as the Lao version of community forestry.There have been some important villageforestry programmes, projects, activities in LaoPDR. Altogether there are 10 projects dealingwith village forestry. The preliminary resultsshow that no single resource managementsystem can be applied in the same waythroughout the country. In the future, specificsystems should be developed that areapplicable to different conditions such as:forest and biological resources, culture,economy, peoples/ tribes, and topography.

In line with the above, the Department ofForestry began developing a national villageforestry strategy in 1997. The draft wasdiscussed at a National Village ForestryStrategy Workshop in February 1998. It isplanned that having a national strategy will helpin putting the various projects into a unifiedframework, facilitate co-ordination, improveresource allocation, provide guidance to variouson-going projects so that they conform to thenational development objectives, and also helpin identifying and formulating new projects.

The objective of the national village for-estry strategy is to develop village forestry andpromote its adoption as one of the majorsystems for the sustainable management of theforests. This objective can be attained in threephases of fifteen-year periods as follows:1. The first five years phase (2000-2005 with apreparatory phase 1998-2000)§ Establish a strong policy and legal founda-

tion;


§ Strengthen the national co-ordination;§ Develop various models with their respective

concepts, guidelines and procedures;§ Strengthen training capacity.2. The second five years phase (2005-2010)§ Forestry institutions will be re-oriented

toward village forestry;§ Integration of village forestry into university

programmes and training systems;§ Training of staff at provincial and district

levels;§ Development of models according to the

situations and conditions.3. The third five years phase (2010-2015)§ Strengthening field organisations;§ Consolidation and modification of models

based on the results of field experiences;§ Adoption, adaptation, and application of

village forestry in the country.

Shifting cultivation stabilisationConcerning shifting cultivation stabilisa-

tion, all concerned institutions and officers areaware that this should be a rural integratedwork. The approach should be multi-sectoralinvolving: agriculture, irrigation, livestock,agricultural banks/credits, transportation,education, and health. To be successful,sufficient funds, knowledge, and experiencesare needed.

The Government gives high priority to thisprogramme. It is one of the 8 top priority socio-economic development programmes of thecountry. The main objectives of the programmeis to protect the natural resources and theenvironment in Lao PDR, to ensure that theresources are managed under sustainable way,to increase the living standard of the localpeople who are living adjacent to forest areas.

This programme has been put in place since1986. There are substantial experimentalactivities adopting several methods and con-cepts supported by partners, including donors,such as Sweden and ADB.

Biodiversity conservationIn 1993, the Government issued the Prime

Minister Decree No. 164, of which 20 forestsites as National Protected Areas. In regard towildlife, the country has a high diversity of

mammals, reptiles, birds, and probably othervertebrate and invertebrate groups. But, veryfew of the information have been published.

Lately, wildlife populations are continu-ously decreasing due to uncontrolled hunting,habitat destruction caused by shiftingcultivation, agricultural expansion, and reset-tlement.

HarvestingA draft National Code of Timber Har-

vesting Practice was made available in themiddle of 1997. The purpose of the Code is toprovide guidelines for carrying out timberharvesting consistent with the principles ofsustainable development. This Code wasdrafted using experiences in the developmentof the Regional Timber Harvesting Code for theAsia Pacific Region.

Focal pointXeme Samountry

Director General

Department of Forestry

B.P. 3802

Vientiane

Tel: (85621) 5009

Fax: (85621) 5004

*****

National Forest Programmes – UPDADTE No. 34, Malaysia 95

Malaysia

Country dataTotal land area (million ha) 32,97Total forest 1998 (million ha)/ % of land area * 25,05 /76.0Natural forest 1998 (million ha) ** 20,02Total change in forest cover 1995-98 (million ha)/ annual change(%)***

-0.34/ -0.48

Population total 1998 (millions)/annual rate of change 1995-98(%)****

21.4/ 2.4

Source of data: Forest Department Headquarters, May 2000* Inclusive of forest area and area under agricultural tree crops

** Dipterocarps, swamp forests and mangrove forests*** Total changed on forested and tree crops area

**** According to the World Population Prospects, the 1998 Revision, ECOSOC - UN

General informationMalaysia is a tropical country which com-

prises Peninsular Malaysia (consisting of elevenstates and the federal territory of KualaLumpur), Sabah (including federal territory ofLabuan), and Sarawak. 79% of the populationis located in Peninsular Malaysia. According tothe World Bank, Malaysia is an upper-middleincome country.

The manufacturing sector, including elec-tronics, has emerged as the leading economicsector, followed by agriculture (agriculture,livestock, forestry and fisheries), and theretailing and hospitality sectors. The produc-tion and export of primary industries, such ascrude oil, palm oil, tin, and rubber, havecontributed significantly to the socio-economicdevelopment of the country. Malaysia leads theworld in the production of rubber and is oneof the biggest producers of cocoa, palm oil,tropical hardwoods, pepper and tin. In regardto socio-economic development, the forestrysector remains an important sector. This sectoralso makes a significant contribution to theconservation of genetic resources, to theclimatic and environmental conditions of parksand recreational facilities, whilst providing forthe needs of forest dwellers.

The year 1996-2000 is the period of theimplementation of the Seventh Malaysia Plan. Like many other Asian countries, Malaysia’seconomy was also influenced by the Asianeconomic and financial crisis, which was felt in1998. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP)growth declined by 6.7% after 12 years ofuninterrupted growth averaging 7.8% perannum. This situation had a significant impacton the private sector spending, resulting inreduced consumption and investment that led toa build-up in stocks and excess capacity andfurther depressing the private sector invest-ment.

The forestry sector remains an importantsector in terms of its significant contributionto the socio-economic development of thecountry. Despite the regional financial crises,the total exports of timber and timber productsin 1998 was impressive, the third highest amongthe commodities after petroleum oil and palmoil products. Exports of the major wood-basedproducts have increased steadily over the lastdecade, rising from RM 8.9 billion in 1990 toRM 12.7 billion in 1998, an increase of 42.7%.However, the export value in 1998 of RM 13.5billion declined by 3.4% compared to that in1997 of RM 12.7 billion.

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Malaysia96

Forest resourcesUnder the Malaysian Constitution, land is

defined as a state matter and is thus under thejurisdiction of the respective State Govern-ments. Each State is empowered to enact lawson forestry and to formulate forest policyindependently. The National Forestry Council(NFC) was established in 1971 to serve as aforum for the Federal and State Governmentsto discuss and resolve common problems andissues relating to forestry policy, administra-tion and management. All the decisions of theNFC have to be endorsed by the NationalCouncil (NLC) which is empowered by theMalaysian Constitution to formulate a nationalpolicy for the promotion and control of theutilisation of land for mining, agriculture, andforestry.

The total forest area was 20.25 million ha,or 61.4% of the total land area in 1998. This isan increase of 0.83 million ha or 4.3%compared to 1990, due to the 1.55 million haincrease in forest area in Sarawak.

Taking into consideration the 4.8 million haplantation under fast-growing agriculture treecrops such as rubber, oil palm, cocoa, andcoconut, the total area under permanent treecover amounted to 25.05 million ha or about76.0% of the total land area in 1998. Theseagricultural tree crops, particularly rubbertrees are of importance as sources of timberand fibre materials. Table 1 shows the trend offorest area from 1960-1998.

Table 1: Forested area and tree crops(million ha)

Year Landarea

Forestedarea

Treecrops

Total %

1990 32.97 19.42 4.6 24.02 72.91991 32.97 19.42 4.6 23.84 72.31992 32.97 19.15 4.6 23.75 72.01993 32.97 20.75 4.8 25.55 77.51994 32.97 20.59 4.7 25.29 76.71995 32.97 20.59 4.8 25.39 77.01996 32.97 20.45 5.2 25.65 77.81997 32.97 20.57 4.8 25.37 76.91998 32.97 20.25 4.8 25.05 76.0

As of 1998, 14.33 million ha, or 43.5% ofthe total land area had been designated asPermanent Forest Estate (PFE) to be managed

sustainably. These forestlands are gazetted asPermanent Reserved Forests in accordancewith the National Forestry Act 1984 (amendedin 1993). Approximately 3.49 million ha areclassified as protection forests, with theremaining 10.84 million ha as productionforests.

Besides the protection forest within thePFE, other protected areas that had beengazetted/ proposed as national parks andwildlife and bird sanctuaries amounted to 2.12million ha. Of this 0.33 million ha are locatedwithin the PFE. These parks and sanctuariesare carefully selected to reflect the repre-sentatives of the biological diversity found inthe country.

The Government has set aside pockets ofvirgin forest, known as Virgin Jungle Reserves(VJRs) throughout the country as ecologicaltypes of original conditions, particularly forstudies. As of now, 120 VJRs had beenestablished, covering an area of 111.800 harepresenting several forest types, including:mangrove swamp forest, beach strand forest.heath forest, peat swamp forest, low landdipterocarp forest, hill and upper hilldipterocarp forests, and montane forest.

Forest plantations have been establishedsince the 1950’s. The species planted includetropical pines and fast-growing hardwoodspecies. Other species planted include Tectonagrandis, Shorea macrophylla and Duriozibethinus.

At the end of 1998, a total area of227,863 ha of forest plantation wasestablished in Malaysia, of which 73,735 hawere in Peninsular Malaysia. In view of thegrowing importance of forest plantations andto encourage greater private sector investment,a National Committee on Forest PlantationDevelopment with full participation from theprivate sector was formed. The Committee’smain role is to formulate a national strategyand action plan for the promotion andeffective implementation of forest plantationprogrammes.

Forest plantation projects are viewed as strategicprojects of national interest and the Governmentprovides fiscal incentives as well as full tax


exemption under the Pioneer Status for 10 years or100% tax exemption under the Investment TaxAllowance for 5 years, effective from 1993.

Policy and planningThe National Forestry Policy (NFP) was

accepted by the NFC in 1977 and endorsed bythe NLC in 1978 for the administration andmanagement of its national forest. However,the NFP was revised in 1992 to take cognisanceof current global concern on the conservationof biological diversity, sustainable utilisationof genetic resources and the participation oflocal communities in forestry.

To ensure effective forest managementimplementation in Malaysia, various forestryenactment and ordinances have beenformulated and enforced by the respectiveState Authorities since 1910. These legislationwere further strengthened in the areas offorest management planning and forest renewaloperations with the endorsement of theNational Forestry Act and the Wood-BasedIndustries Act by an act of the Parliament in1984. These two Acts are currently beingenforced by all the States, and especially inPeninsular Malaysia. In tandem with the revisedNational Forestry Policy and in order tofurther safeguard the forest resources fromillegal logging and timber theft, the NationalForestry Act, 1984 was amended in 1993 toinclude more stringent penalties for suchforest offences, includinng a mandatory jailsentence of not least than one year. Actionsare currently being undertaken to revise theWood-Based Industries Act of 1984.

Forestry development in the country hasbeen guided through a series of five-year na-tional development plans. The strategy is basedon the need to maintain sufficient areas ofproductive, protective and amenity forestswhile recognising at the same time thatsustained efforts to promote economic activi-ties in the form of secondary and tertiaryprocessing, trading, and marketing are equallyvital.

The forestry sector was analysed in foursections of Malaysia's Fifth Plan (1986-1990):Agriculture and Rural Development, Tourism,

Environment and Manufacturing. In addition,the wood-based industry (WBI) was one of the13 industrial sectors for which a sectoraldevelopment plan was compiled under theIndustrial Master Plan 1986-1995 (IMP).

Under the Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996-2000), the following strategies for the for-estry sector have been adopted:§ Consolidation of Permanent Forest Estates

and formulation of long-term forest manage-ment plans;§ Management and development of forest

resources based on sustainable forestmanagement principles;§ Enhancement of forest regeneration through

reforestation and silvicultural treatments onlogged-over forest areas;§ Consideration of environmental impacts,

importance of biodiversity and genetic re-sources;§ Modernisation of forest industries by

upgrading of processes and through improvedresearch and development;§ Integration of forestry with agriculture in

rural development through an agro-forestryprogramme;§ Promotion of forestry for people’s activities

to improve socio-economic benefits and thequality of life;§ Promotion of training programme for human

resource development to ensure an adequatesupply of trained manpower to meet therequirements of forestry and wood-basedindustries; and§ Development of a forest information system

based on timely and comprehensive data so asto improve the effectiveness of forestryplanning, development, and management.

To ensure the sustainability of the for-estry sector contribution to the overall socio-economic development, adequate funds havebeen allocated for the forest rehabilitationand development programme under normalexpenditure and the five-year developmentplan. Moreover, a Forest Department Fund wascreated to facilitate the preparation andimplementation of the State Forest Managementand Reforestation Plans.

There are a number of complementaryagencies to the Forestry Department including:


§ Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB),which is responsible for initiating appropriatedevelopment in the various sectors of thetimber industry and for providing thenecessary assistance to ensure its continuedgrowth as a modern and thriving sector of theeconomy;§ The Forest Research Institute of Malaysia

(FRIM) which is responsible for theimplementation of research in all aspects offorestry and forest products;§ The University Putra Malaysia (UPM) which

produces professional and semi-professionalforesters; and§ The Malaysian Timber Council (MTC) which is

committed to addressing issues such as thelog supply situation, promoting the timbertrade, promoting and participating incommercial forest plantations, andaddressing issues undertaking projects ofimportance to the timber industry.

Since 1994, Malaysia has made consider-able efforts in formulating the MalaysianCriteria and Indicators for Sustainable ForestManagement (MC&I) based on the elaborationand operationalisation of the ITTO Guidelinesfor the Sustainable Management of NaturalTropical Forests and its Criteria for theMeasurement of Sustainable Tropical ForestManagement. This is in line with Malaysia’sposition as a producing country of ITTO, aswell as her commitment to achieve sustainableforest management in tandem with the ITTOYear 2000 Objective. It is required that alltimbers traded in the international marketsshall come from sustainably managed sourcesby the year 2000.

The effort was spearheaded by theNational Committee on Sustainable ForestManagement, which was established inFebruary 1994. The Committee is comprised ofmembers from the Ministry of PrimaryIndustries Malaysia, Forestry DepartmentSabah, Forestry Department Sarawak, ForestResearch Institute Malaysia, Malaysian TimberIndustry Board, Malaysian Timber Council, andFaculty of Forestry of Universiti PutraMalaysia. To further complement and supportthe work of the National Committee, the tenState Forestry Departments in Peninsular

Malaysia formed a Working Party onSustainable Forest Management based at theForestry Department Headquarters, KualaLumpur in February, 1994. The main objectiveis to furnish all necessary technical details orinputs on forest management, operations, andadministration needed for the formulation andimplementation of the MC&I.

Further elaboration on the ITTO Guide-lines and Criteria for the Measurement ofSustainable Tropical Forest Management isnecessary to better reflect the local situation,as well as to ensure its applicability within theMalaysian context. To fully operationalise theITTO’s Criteria and Indicators, the NationalCommittee had formulated relevant activitiesfor each Indicator, as well as managementspecifications for each activity to ensure itseffective monitoring and evaluation on theground.

Based on the ITTO’s Criteria and Meas-urement of Sustainable Tropical Forest Man-agement, the National Committee formulated atotal of 92 activities to operationalise its 5Criteria and 27 Indicators at the Nationallevel, covering the forest resource base,continuity of flow, level of environmentalcontrol, socio-economic effects and institu-tional framework. At the Forest ManagementUnit (FMU) level, which is being defined as anindividual state, the National Committeeformulated a total of 84 activities tooperationalise the 6 Criteria and 23 Indicatorsof the ITTO’s Criteria for the Measurement ofSustainable Tropical Forest Management.Against each of the activities formulated at theNational and FMU levels, the respective StateForestry Departments had also formulatedmanagement specifications (benchmark) for itseffective monitoring and evaluation. Currently,a total of 201 and 191 managementspecifications have been formulated at theNational and FMU levels respectively inPeninsular Malaysia. Of the 191 managementspecifications formulated at the FMU level, atotal of 161 or 84% of them are identical tothose formulated at the national level.

Based on feedback obtained from fieldevaluations, both through internal andindependent assessment, and new knowledge


gained on sustainable forest management, theMC&I will be periodically reviewed andrefined to ensure practicality, as well as tokeep pace with the latest developments inforestry. The National Forest Policy wassanctioned by the Government in 1977. Incognisance with the current concern expressedby the world community on the importance ofbiological diversity conservation and thesustainable utilisation of genetic resources, aswell as the role of local communities in forestdevelopment, this National Forest Policy wasrevised in November 1992. The salient pointsof the revised National Forest Policy are asfollows:§ to designate as Permanent Forest Estates

(PFE) sufficient areas strategically locatedthroughout the country in accordance withthe concept of rational landuse;§ to manage the PFE so that they maximise

social, economic, and environmental benefitsfor the nation and its people in accordancewith the principles of sustainable manage-ment;§ to implement a planned programme of forest

development through forest regeneration andrehabilitation operations, as well as theestablishment of forest plantations ofindigenous and exotic species to supplementthe timber supply from the natural forest;§ to promote sufficient harvesting and utilisa-

tion within the production forest for maximumeconomic benefits, to stimulate thedevelopment of appropriate forest industries,and to create employment opportunities;§ to increase the production of non-wood

forest produce to supply local demands andthe requirements of related industries;§ to undertake and support a comprehensive

programme of forestry education and trainingat all levels;§ to undertake publicity and extension services

in order to generate better understandingamong the community of the multiple values offorests, and to encourage private sectorinvestment through the establishment offorest plantations on private lands;§ to provide for the conservation of biological

diversity and areas with unique species offlora and fauna;§ to develop a comprehensive programme in

community forestry to cater for the needs of

the rural and urban communities, and topromote active local community involvement inforestry development projects, includingagroforestry projects; and§ to undertake and support intensive research

programmes in forestry and forest productsaimed at enhancing maximum benefits fromthe forest.

Harvesting and utilisationIn recent years, the forest industries have

been rapidly moving away from the manufac-ture of low value primary products. Thedevelopment of secondary and tertiary woodprocessing industries is being activelypromoted. Steps are also being taken toencourage the setting up of small scale rural-based industries using forest produce such asrattan and bamboo as raw materials. It is theGovernment’s objective to make Malaysia amajor producer of high value added wood-based products in the world market asstipulated under the Second Outline Perspec-tive Plan 1991-2000 and the Second IndustrialMaster Plan of 1996-2005.

Malaysia has succeeded in developing theutilisation of rubber wood for domestic andexport markets, particularly for furniture.Currently, research on the possible utilisationof waste from oil palm trunk for mouldedparticle board, fibre board and furniture; palmkernel shell for activated carbon and carbonbriquette; and palm fresh bunch for animalfeed, energy, as well as its ash for potash arebeing conducted.

In the area of forest harvesting, thesuccessful results of the low-impact loggingstudy have been widely used in Sabah andSarawak. The helicopter logging which wasundertaken in Sarawak will continue to be usedfor harvesting as the damage to surroundingtrees is found lower than under theconventional system. Moreover, land erosioncaused by road construction is also minimised.To further mitigate the effects of timberharvesting, Reduced Impact Logging is alsoundertaken whereby the operations includecontrolling the number of trees to be felled,timber tagging, directional felling, leaving of


buffer zones and the controlling of roaddensity.

Due to the impending shortage of rawmaterial supplies, the realisation of the need toreduce wastage of forest residues is one ofthe main efforts toward the achievement ofsustainable forest management. Efforts arecurrently being undertaken by the Governmentto increase the efficiency of timber utilisationin the country. This includes the revoking ofoperating licences for inefficient mills (whichhave ceased operation for at least 2 years),encouraging existing mills to replace their oldmachinery to improve mill efficiency,undertake studies to find means and ways tooptimise the utilisation of forest and millresidues, as well as the promotion of trade ofthe lesser known species.

The Forestry Department of PeninsularMalaysia has undertaken a joint collaborationproject with the Danish Corporation forEnvironment and Development (DANCED) withan aim to optimise the utilisation of forestresidues, including small dimension logs andmill residues as raw materials.

Forest industries in Malaysia are rapidlymoving away from the manufacture of lowvalue primary products. This is in line with thenational objectives and priority as stipulated inboth the First and Second Malaysian IndustrialMaster Plans, respectively for the period 1986-1995 and 1996-2005. In improving the socio-economic level of the rural population, stepsare also being undertaken to encourage thesetting up of small-scale rural based industries.The forestry industry has been identified asone of the resource-based industries to befurther developed as an important export-oriented sector. It is the Government’sobjective to make Malaysia a major producerof high value added wood-based products inthe world market; specifically Malaysia wouldbecome an important furniture and joinery/mounding centre.

Collaboration with partners andinternational agreements

As the follow up to UNCED, Malaysiaratified the Convention on Biological Diversity.A National Committee on the Convention onBiological Diversity (NCCBD) was established

to plan, co-ordinate and implement follow upactions as required under the Convention. In1988, the NCCBD formulated the NationalPolicy on Biological Diversity to provide thedirection for the nation to implementstrategies, action plans and programmes onbiological diversity for the conservation andsustainable utilisation of its resources. Inaddition, the Government prepared a NationalConservation Strategy and the Ministry ofScience, Technology and the Environmentpublished a country report on the Assessmentof Biological Diversity in 1997.

Malaysia is a producer member country ofITTO and is committed to implementing theITTO Year 2000 objective by making theMalaysia Criteria and Indicators (MC&I)operational and allocating financial resourcesto carry out forest development activities,projects, and studies related to sustainableforest management. The National Committee onSustainable Forest Management established in1994 will be strengthened. In line withMalaysia’s commitment towards achieving theITTO Year 2000 objective, the implementationof the Malaysian Criteria, Indicators, andActivities for sustainable forest managementwill be critical. The Malaysian Criteria,Indicators and Activities for SustainableManagement (MC&I) was formulated in 1995for two levels i.e. the national and the ForestManagement Unit level, in consonance with therequirements of ITTO. Since its formulation,the MC&I has undergone numerous refinementsand has taken into account the latestdevelopment on Criteria and Indicators forSustainable Management of Natural TropicalForests which was adopted at the 24th ITTCheld in Gabon in May 1998. This effort isfurther strengthened by the establishment ofthe National Timber Certification Council(NTCC) in October 1998.

Collaboration in forestry at the regionallevel is implemented through the Association ofSouth East Asian Nations (ASEAN) administra-tive structure through the following: a) ASEANCommon Forestry Policy; b) Technical Co-operation; c) Forestry Institutions; d) Co-operation in Intra-ASEAN Timber Trade; ande) ASEAN Common stand on international issueson forestry.

In regard to collaboration with interna-tional partners, Malaysia has carried out


several projects through bilateral arrange-ments, including the following:

§ Various Malaysia-ITTO projects in the fieldof watershed management and rehabilitation,wildlife sanctuary and genetic resourceconservation of commercial tree species, andsustainable forest management;§ Various Malaysia-German Technical Co-

operation Programme (GTZ) on sustainableforest management and conservation inPeninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Serawak;§ Malaysia-EC projects on training of forest

workers in Sabah;§ Malaysia-Japan project on multi storied

forest management, which aims to establishmulti storied forest management systems forthe tropical forest;§ Various Malaysia-Danish Co-operation for

Environment and Development (DANCED)projects on sustainable management of peatswamp forests, preparation of an integratedmanagement plan for Johor’s Mangroveforest, as well as on extraction and process-ing of forest residues and small dimensionlogs;§ Malaysia-the Netherlands projects on the

documentation of scientific information onplant resources in order develop a morecomprehensive inventory of the country’sforest resources, and the Forest AbsorptionCarbon Emission (FACE) project which isconcerned with the rehabilitation of loggedover areas in Sabah. Through its foundation“Keurhout”, the Government had undertakenan assessment of current forest managementpractices in the States of Pahang, Selangorand Trengganu based on a phased approachin accordance with the MC&I for forestmanagement certification at the ForestManagement Unit (State) level; and§ In Sabah, a forest certification exercise was

also conducted by an independent assessor,SGS Sdn. Bhd, where the management modelin Deramogot was certified as being a “wellmanaged forest”.

Involvement and consultations with non-governmental organisations have been intensi-fied in recent years. In the development ofMC&I a member of internal consultativeprocesses were carried out through theleadership of the National Timber CertificationCouncil (NTCC). A national level consultationfor the formulation of Malaysian Criteria,

Indicators, Activities and Standards ofPerformance for Forest ManagementCertification was organised by the NTCC on18-21 October 1999.

In 1993 the Government amended theNational Forest Act of 1984. The amended Acthas provisions for the Police and Armed Forcesto undertake surveillance of forestry activi-ties, especially in curbing illegal logging andtimber theft. A new Protection of Wildlife Actbecame effective in 1992. It provides the legalbacking for the conservation of national parks,wildlife and bird sanctuaries, as well as ofendangered species.

Focal pointDato’ Zul Mukhshar bin Dato’ Md. ShaariDirector General of ForestryPeninsular MalaysiaJalan Sultan Salahuddin50660, Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaPhone: 603-2988244Fax: 603-2925657

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National Forest Programme - UPDATE No. 34, Maldives102

Maldives

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 9,000Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land area 30/0.33Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) n.a.Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%) n.a.Population total 1997 (thousand) 258.7Rural population 1995 (%) 74.3GNP per person 1997 in US$ 837.4

Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest, 1999 and Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study

General informationThe Republic of Maldives is a coral

archipelago consisting of 1,190 islands. Theseislands are grouped into 26 coral atolls. Thetotal landmass of the area is less than 10%.The islands are small and low-lying with anaverage elevation of 1.6 m above mean sealevel.

The Government has established thePerspective Plan for Maldives – Vision 2005,which provides a vision and embodies thehopes and aspirations of the country for thefuture. Within the framework of the long-termnational goals envisaged in the PerspectivePlan, Three-year Plans have been formulatedand implemented. The fifth three-yearNational Development Plan of 1997-99 iscurrently under implementation.

The vegetation is relatively uniform andfollows a common pattern: salt-tolerant bushesand coconut palms. The soils are poor andhighly porous. All islands are dominated bylarge stands of coconut. Although no distinctforest exists per se, the demand of timber forboats, house building, fuel wood, fencing,foods and medicines has been partly fulfilledby the bushes and coconut palms.

The population is scattered over 200inhabited islands. The remaining islands areuninhabited, except for 87 islands that have

been developed as tourist resorts. Maldiveshas achieved economic growth during the lastdecade. Since 1987, the average annual eco-nomic growth rate has exceeded 9.0% due tothe global market for fish and tourism serv-ices. The agriculture sector grew at anaverage rate of 3.7% during 1994-96.

Shifting cultivation is still being practisedin agriculture development. Land is cleared byfarmers and planted with cash crops for a fewyears. Wood lots are also converted forcropping. Coconut trees are used in anagroforestry system, providing shelter andshade to crops and gardens.

In Maldives, all lands belong to the State.In the inhabited lands (not including backyardgardens) islanders are given communalcropland free of charge for the cultivation ofannual crops.

Currently, the country is experiencing asevere shortage of forest products as a resultof population pressure and unsound land usepractices, as well as developments in thefishing industry and marine transport. Themajority of timber demand was met fromimports. About US$ 97 million of timber pro-ducts were imported in 1994.

Recently, a more secure system of leasingland has been adopted. This will encouragetree planting and develop sustainable land usesystems through out the country. It wasreported that uninhabited islands make up the

National Forest Programme - UPDATE No. 34, Maldives 103

major part of the land area of Maldives. TheGovernment feels that it is necessary toupgrade the land tenure system of these is-lands.

Policy and planningMaldives has not previously formulated a

national forest programme, either under theTFAP or a Forestry Master Plan. However, inthe current Government development plans,promoting and sustaining forestry developmentis one of the priorities.

Timber is recognised as a valuable naturalresource in Maldives and its preservation andregeneration is an important element of thegovernment policy. The Ministry of Fisheries,Agriculture and Marine Resources (MOFAMR),the institution responsible for forestry, hasrestricted the issuing of timber cutting permitsto protect the existing vegetation. Only one ortwo varieties are allowed to be cut forfirewood. Two new trees must be planted foreach tree cut down for any purpose.

MOFAMR has successfully completed aprogramme to plant two million trees, mainly tosupport timber production and minimise theenvironmental impact of tree degradation, butalso to improve the condition of the communitylands. Trees for timber, shade and fruit treeshave been planted almost all over the country.In addition, a project supported byinternational institutions was launched tostimulate domestic timber production throughthe establishment of four regional nurseries.

The forest's role in providing wood en-ergy for domestic purposes was appreciatedfor daily cooking and preparing by-productsfrom fish, etc. Although the cost of labour andincreasing fuel wood prices has begun toresult in a shift to kerosene and gas, in theouter islands fuel wood is still used inten-sively.

From the utility point of view, tree speciesin Maldives have been grouped into thefollowing:§ timber commonly used for boat construction;§ timber used for house building;

§ timber used for handicrafts; and§ timber used for fuel wood.

ConstraintsThere are no minerals available for

economic exploitation. Land and fresh waterare in scarce supply. There are no lakes,rivers, or streams. All islands are dependentupon fresh water lenses that can be easilydepleted or contaminated unless handled withcare. Most of the islands are not suitable foragriculture as the soils are porous, highlyalkaline, deficient in potassium and nitrogen,and resist root penetration.

Island ecosystems are environmentallyvulnerable. Encroachment and depletion canhave long-lasting harmful effects that canthreaten the achievement of sustainableeconomic and social development. Economic,socio-economic and environmental develop-ments are seriously constrained by thecontinuing rapid population growth andpressure on forests, the lack of qualifiedmanpower, the lack of space, and the poor soilconditions.

Focal pointMohamed ZuhairDirector Agriculture ServicesMinistry of Fisheries and AgricultureGhazze BuildingAmeer Ahmed Magu, Male, 20-05E-Mail: [email protected]: 960-326558Phone: 960-322625, 323928

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National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Micronesia, F.S.104

Federated States of Micronesia

Country dataTotal land area (ha) 70,100Total natural forest area 1990 (ha) / % of total land 35,100Reported plantation area 1990 (ha) 81,000Population 1994 120,000GNP (per capita) 1992 US$ 2.000*) Source of data: Government statistics

General informationAgriculture in the Federated States of

Micronesia is of the subsistence type with somesemi-commercial activity. An agrofores-trysystem is commonly applied throughout thecountry with fruit trees, particularly coconut,breadfruit, mango, banana, and papaya,planted alternatively with vegetable and rootcrops. Pigs are the most important animalsraised by households for food, ceremonies,and sale. Tourism revenue is small, butcontributes significantly to the economy.

Forestry is a State responsibility. Stateforestry activities are carried out by theAgriculture Division of the Department ofConservation and Development, except in theState of Pohnpei. At the national level, forestryis handled by the Agriculture Division of theDepartment of Resources and Development.After a recent reorganisation under a newadministration, forestry is now merging withagriculture to form an office of Agricultureand Forestry under a new Division of ResourceManagement. Forestry has been able to retainall of its programmes, but in general is under-budgeted.

The States and municipalities claim thelegal authority to regulate mangrove exploita-tion. An assessment of the mangrove resourcesof the island of Pohnpei has been undertakento determine priority areas for preservationand sustained management. A mangrove manage-ment plan has also been prepared. Domestic

demand for timber and wood products is metthrough imports. Sawn timber accounts for50% of all timber imported.

The first aerial photographs taken in 1976showed that 42% of Pohnpei’s land wascovered by undisturbed forestland. However,by November 1995, this area had been reducedto 15%, according to the aerial photographycarried out at that time.

Policy and planningA National Environmental Management

Strategy was prepared under the guidance ofthe Presidential Task Force on EnvironmentalManagement and Sustainable Development in1991. The National Management Strategy andTourism Plan was completed recently. Awatershed management steering committee wascreated. The members include interestedGovernment institutions and representatives ofthe traditional chiefs.

In 1994, the Government decided to launcha Forest Policy and Strategic Planning processfollowing the Basic Principles and OperationalGuidelines of the National Forestry ActionProgramme. No action has been taken as yet.When the process begins, the utilisation ofexisting institutions should be explored, forexample the watershed management steeringcommittee. The exercise should also take intoconsideration the existence of the NationalEnvironmental Management Strategy andTourism Plan. Its linkage with these exercisesshould be examined. The involvement of localcommunities right from the beginning is vital.

National Forest Programme – UPDADTE No. 34, Micronesia, F.S. 105

The planning process will be useful since long-term forestry development plans have not beenmade. The exercise could be a useful tool todevelop a national dialogue on forestry andforestry-related issues among partners in-volved in forestry sector development.

In 1996, the forestry staff participated inthe following training/ workshops:§ Wetland fire suppression;§ Fundamentals of research, and research

thinking;§ Atoll agriculture; and§ Environmental Impact Assessment in man-

grove forests.

A proposal to repeal the PohnpeiWatershed Forest Reserve and MangroveProtection Act of 1987 (S.L. No. 1L-128-87)was under process, and would be introduced tothe Pohnpei Legislature in September 1996. Themain purpose for repealing the current law isto ensure that its administration is consistentwith community-based management anddecision making.

The Pohnpei’s Watershed ManagementStrategy as the basis for watershed

management was developed with assistancefrom the Asian Development Bank (ADB), andcompleted in February 1996. It was reviewedby the Government and the traditional leadersin March.

A Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)process has been carried out in 22 communitiesin two municipalities. The communities aredeveloping community action plans (CAPs) forthe management of their conservation areas,including watersheds, mangroves, and marineconservation systems. Part of the process is theidentification and designation of communityconservation officers who will be carrying outconservation responsibilities in accordancewith the CAP in each community.

Focal pointHerson AnsonChief of ForestryDepartment of Conservation and ResourcesSurveillanceFederated States of Micronesia 96941Fax (691) 320 5997

*****

When you go digging for an ounce of gold,you have to move tons of dirt to get an ounce of gold.

But when you go digging, you don’t go looking for the dirt, you go looking for the gold.

(Shiv Khera – You can win)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Mongolia106

Mongolia

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 156,650Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land 9,406/ 6.0Natural forests 1995 (thousand ha) 9,406Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (million ha) / annual change(%)

0

Population 1997 (millions)/Annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 2.6/ 2.1Rural population 1997 (%) 38.1GNP per person 1995 (US$) 310


General informationMongolia is a land locked and mountainous

country with an average eleviation of 1,580 mabove sea level. The highest point is MunhHairhany Orgil at 4,653 m and the lowest isHoh Nuuryn Depression at 520 m above sealevel. Due to the distance from the sea, theclimate is continental. The temperature variesnot only between seasons, but also within aday. In winter, the temperature can drop tominus 50 0C. The river-system in Mongoliacovers about 67,000 km. There are 4000 lakesand approximately 7,000 hot springs. Thecountry has a large resource of undergroundwater. In 1997, about 70% of the populationwas under 29 years of age and about 56.4%were living in cities.

The transformation of the country from afeudal agrarian society to a relatively modernand structurally diverse state wasaccomplished under a socialist regime and asystem of centrally directed allocation ofphysical and financial resources in the lastseven decades. In August 1990, the countryheld its first parliamentary election, duringwhich opposition parties gained 40% of theseats in the parliament. A new Constitution wasapproved in 1992 and has turned Mongolia intoa country of democracy with a market economy.The country is divided into 21 administrativeunits (aimag). Each aimag is divided into severalsums (districts). A sum is comprised of several

bags (the lowest rural administrative unit). Thecountry held a new election in September2000. A new political party gained power and anew administrative system is being formed atthis moment. The change from central planninginto a market economy system resulted insubstantial changes in the country’s economy aspresented, in brief, in Table 1.

Since 1990, the economic development hasbeen shifting from a centrally planned to amarket-oriented system. The system aims atexpanding the role of the private sector,diversifying the economic base, promotingexports, and strengthening the institutions.During the initial phase of implementing thesystem, there was rapid devaluation andinflation, increasing unemployment, and theliving standard of the people was sharplylowered. In addition, the domestic productionalso sharply decreased. However, the industrialsector is the largest contributor to the nationaleconomy, accounting for 32 % of the GrossDomestic Product in 1993. Since 1996, thesystem has had a positive impact on the socio-economic development of the country.

Forest resourcesAll forestlands in Mongolia belong to

the state. The Ministry of Nature andEnvironment (MNE) is responsible for themanagement of the forest resources.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Mongolia 107

Table 1: Progress in the economic sector development

Item 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997GDP growth rate (%) -9,2 -9.5 -3.0 2.1 6.3 2.4 3.3Inflation (%) 54.4 321.0 183.0 66.3 53.1 53.2 17.5Unemployment (thousand) 55.4 54.0 71.9 74.9 45.1 55.4 63.7Imports (US$ million) 360.9 418.0 379.0 362.7 415.3 450.9 434.4Exports (US$ million) 348.0 388.4 382.6 360.5 473.2 424.3 418.0

According to the Government’s statistics of1997, the total forest area was 17.5 million ha,or 11.2% of the total land area. The area ofexploitable forests was estimated to be 5million ha, located mainly in the northern partsof the country, forming a transition zonebetween Siberian forests and the CentralAsian steppe zones. Significant areas of aridforests and shrub lands for timber harvestingare found in the southern and south-westernparts of the country. In the forest-steppe zone,the environmental protection functions aremore important than the economic functions;exploitation is limited to meet the local needsfor fuel wood.

The forests are very slow growing,estimated at about 1.5-2.0 m3/ha per year. Thesurvival rate of plantations is very low,approximately between 50-60%. Almost allrivers, including the inflow to Lake Baikal, thelargest fresh water lake in the world, flowfrom forested watersheds of the northern andcentral parts of the country. In addition totimber production, the forests function as windbreaks against desertification and helpstabilise soil productivity in the agriculturallands.

Forest and steppe fires have been the mainnatural disaster in Mongolia. Due to the warmweather and high wind velocity, the firesspread out very fast over vast areas. In spring1996, about 2,364 thousand ha of forests weredestroyed by fires.

In the past, timber production was around2.0 million m3. But by 1991, it had dropped to800 thousand m3/year. The Soviet Union wasthe main trading partner. Log exports werebanned in 1995, and since then, the export has

shifted to China and other Asian countries inthe form of processed products.

“Gers” are traditional Mongolian woodenhouses constructed of sawn-wood and wood-based panels. It is estimated that half of theMongolian population live in Gers. Thus, theGers industry has been an important sector.According to a recent assessment, eco-tourismalso has a great potential for promotion inMongolia.

The Ministry of Nature and Environment(MNE) is the responsible institution in managingthe forest resources, while the Ministry ofAgriculture and Industry is responsible for co-ordinating the forest industries. The privatisa-tion of the forestry sector is still underwayand will be in line with the Privatisation Pro-gramme of 1996-2000. Finding funds toupgrade the equipment is among the main issuesin this Progamme.

The range of geographical zones, includinghighland, steppe, and desert, accounts for thediversity of Mongolia’s flora and flora. Theendangered and threatened flora and faunahave been listed in the Mongolian Red Book.Some endangered wildlife are the red dog,wild horse (Takhi or the Przhevalski horse),Mongolian saiga, and wild camel. Some specieslisted as threatened include snow leopard,reindeer, and gazelle. The total number ofanimal species listed in the Red Book aredivided into the following categories: 1)endangered species: 7 mammals, 6 birds, 2amphibians, 4 reptiles, and 2 fishes; and 2) asthreatened species: 16 mammals and 13 birds.

The Government has established 28 naturereserves, covering an area of approximately


6.8% of the total land area. In order to sustainthe existing range of wildlife species andecosystems, the MNE has set a target of 30%of the total land area to be under protectedareas, including national parks.

About 50,000 ha of tree plantations havebeen developed during the past 20 years.Forest fires and insects cause severe loss toforests of about 200,000 ha and 80,000 haannually respectively. Natural regeneration hasbeen taken place in the logged over and burnedover areas. The main causes of deforestationand forest degradation are fires, overgrazing,mining, improper forest harvesting, illegalcollection of timber for construction and fuel,pest and diseases.

Policy, planning and regulationsIn 1997, the Parliament passed the

National Policy on Environmental Protection, inwhich higher priority on forestry is to be givento the following aspects: forest resourcedevelopment, improvement of forest inventorymethodology, institutional strengthening forforest protection from fires and diseases, highsurvival rate of seedlings, and improvement ofwood harvesting and wood processingtechnologies.

During 1995-96, Parliament passed apackage of laws on forestry, including ForestLaw, Law on Forest Fire Protection, and Law onForest Resource Fee. However, these laws willbe reviewed accordingly in line with the newNational Forest Policy.

The main salient features of the ForestLaw are:

1. Emphasis has been given to protection offorest resources and the environment;

2. The clear-cutting system has been banned;3. The logging quota has been decentralised

to the provinces;4. Logging companies have to plant 3-5

seedlings for each tree cut;5. The royalties are calculated based on the

market price.

The Forest Law adopted in 1995 stipulatesthat the State budget for protection andrestoration should be at least 70% of feescollected during the same year. The “NationalForestry Statement”, which was ratified in1998, stated that 6,500 ha of forests land areplanned to be reforested in 2000 and 40,000ha for the period 2000-2005. The reforesta-tion plan for aimag and capital, which will beimplemented by citizens, people’s groups andvillage organisations, shall be approved andcontrolled by the local government. Theconstraints faced by the Government inreforestation activities include the following:low capacity of nurseries and seed orchards,inadequate funds and facilities for plantationactivities.

The Mongolian Law on Forest Steppe FireProtection was adopted by the Parliament in1996. The Principles for Assessment of ForestSteppe Fires Risk and the Rules forMobilisation of Resources during ForestSteppe Fires were adopted in 1997. It wasreported that approximately 6.0 million ha offorests were damaged by fires during 1995-1999.

In 1999, an export tax on round wood andsawn wood equivalent to US 150 per m3 wasadopted by the Parliament. This law wasdesigned to ban the export of raw and semi-processed wood with the main objective topromote domestic processing and conserve theforests.

In regard to ownership, the Mongolian Lawon Land and Forests clearly spelled out thatforests are the property of the State.However, the Mongolian Government ResolutionNo. 125 of 22 June 1998 stated that economicentities or organisations could be given alicence or contract to manage certain forestareas, in certain period and conditions. Theduration of the licence/contract can be for 15to 60 years with an extension of a maximum of40 years. It was reported that since 1998 theGovernment had issued contracts for 6communities covering an area of 37,000 ha of20-40 years duration and contracts to some


private logging companies covering an area of11,800 of 60 years duration.

Harvesting and processingAt the end of 1987, all issues of forest

management, protection and rehabilitation werehanded over to the Ministry of Nature andEnvironment. Issues of forest harvesting andwood processing were handed over to theMinistry of Industry and Trade. The ForestManagement Centre of the Ministry of Natureand Environment conducts forest surveys andinventories to determine forest resourcesstatus in different forest zones, produceforest maps, and craft forest managementplans.

Under the centrally planned system, mostof the timber industries were state-owned orjoint ventures with Russia, Rumania, andPoland. Currently, timber industries areutilising less than 30% of their productioncapacity. At the beginning of the economicreform, the forest industry was left aside.Attention was given to more promisingindustrial sectors. Later, the policy reformincluded the forestry industries, including theprivatisation of the state-owned enterprisesand many reforms in smaller production units.Some of these units and state-ownedenterprises have been reorganised into severaljoint stock enterprises. According to the 1998statistics, the number of wood workingcompanies totalled 60 units, mostly sawmillsand small scale joinery or furniture factories.

During the centrally planned economysystem, the average timber production was 2million m3 annually. It was 0.8 million m3during the new system. The timber harvestingsystem followed the Russian methods andtechnology i.e. clear cutting and tree lengthlogging. Under the economic reform, selectivefelling has been in used in larch and pineforests.

Nowadays, there are 22 forestry enter-prises dealing with forest management,rehabilitation, maintenance and protection,nine of which are owned by the Government,and the rest have been privatised.

Action plan for the 21st century(MAP-21)

MAP-21 is the country’s national agenda onsustainable development for the 21st century.It covers activities at the national andprovincial (Aimag) levels. It provides an overallframework for sustainable developmentactivities based on the country’s naturalresources and ecosystems. The MAP-21document was approved by the Government inNovember 1995, and formulated with assis-tance from UNDP.

MAP 21 is structured into four mainsubjects, including sustainable social develop-ment, sustainable economic development,proper use of natural resources and protectionof nature and the environment, and means forimplementing Mongolia’s System of sustainabledevelopment. Action for protection and carefuluse of forest resources includes the following:educating people about the importance ofprotecting Mongolia’s forest reserves,strengthening management and organisation,dealing with the financial and economicfactors that lead to irresponsible forestexploitation, developing better humanresources in forest management, achievinggreater scientific understanding and conduct-ing forest related research, creating informa-tion and promotion systems, improving use offorest reserves and reforestation, establishinga programme for extensive afforestation ofareas without forest reserves, assistance inevaluating forest raw materials and the properuse of reserves, creating conditions for thedevelopment of forest tourism, and strength-ening the various systems of forest activities,planning, evaluation and control.

In addition, several actions have beenidentified for combating desertification andprotecting biodiversity, biotechnology develop-ment, policies, and also laws and programmesrelated to the use and conservation of waterresources.

Other Action Plans such as the NationalEnvironmental Action Plan (NEAP), BiodiversityAction Plan (BAP), and the National Plan ofAction to Combat Desertification (NPACD) arecomplementary to and integral parts of MAP-21.


National Environmental Action Plan(NEAP)

Mongolia initiated a NationalEnvironmental Action Plan (NEAP) in 1993. TheNEAP covers actions to the year 2010. The Planis composed of three parts as follows:

1. Principal Environmental Issues, which hasfour sub-parts: environmental protection, man-agement of natural resources, conservation,and natural disaster mitigation;2. Social and Economic Dimensions; and3. Other Mechanisms and Responses.

Forestry related issues raised in the NEAPinclude:

1. Reversing land degradation is one of thenation’s highest priority environmentalactions, including measures to control andreverse overgrazing near settled areas.

2. The National Plan of Action to CombatDesertification was drafted with supportfrom UNEP.

3. The wildlife population is declining due toillegal hunting, wildlife trade, and destruc-tion of habitats due to deforestation,overgrazing, and urbanisation.

4. Eco-tourism offers a potential contributionto the economy; however, the facilities,particularly hotels and roads, are not welldeveloped

5. Institutions, including regulations, co-ordination, and human resources, are weak.

Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan(BAP)

Biodiversity conservation is one of thepriority issues in Mongolia. The BAP exercisewas initiated in 1993. The detailed planningexercise including the preparation of theaction plan, was undertaken in August 1995.The objectives of the BAP are to protectbiodiversity and to restore damaged areas. Thespecific objectives of the BAP are as follows:1. Establish a complete protected area system

representing all ecosystems and to protectendangered species. This may require jointactions with the Russian Federation and thePeople’s Republic of China.

2. Establish effective population controlmeasures to limit human impact on thenation’s biodiversity;

3. Implement an effective environmentalimpact assessment programme.

4. Establish a research programme to improveknowledge of biodiversity.

5. Establish a nation-wide information andmonitoring system for biodiversity conser-vation.

6. Establish national education and trainingprogrammes for biodiversity conservation.

7. Establish a public information programmeto improve people’s knowledge on biodiver-sity.

8. Control pollution of air, water, and soil.9. Regulate hunting and fishing.10. Prevent pasture deterioration from over

grazing.11. Establish effective land-use planning

control.12. Draft regulations to protect biodiversity

from the negative impact of mining.13. Support tourism while developing sensible

regulations to protect biodiversity.14. Ensure that agriculture and forestry are

carried out in compatible ways withbiodiversity conservation.

15. Identify and restore damaged lands.16. Develop renewable, clean energy sources,

and ensure environmentally safe transportof fossil fuels.

17. Improve ex-situ management for speciesconservation and genetic resources.

National Plan of Action to CombatDesertification (NPACD)

As stated in the Convention on Deser-tification, the Rio declaration on Environmentand Development, Agenda 21, June 1992, de-sertification is defined as: “ land degradationin arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areasresulting from various factors, includingclimatic variation and human activities”. Underthe above criteria, 90% of lands in Mongolia,which have been used for range lands forlivestock i.e. sheep, goats, cattle, horses, andcamels, are vulnerable to desertification.


It has been assessed that the major causesof desertification in Mongolia are:

1. The climatological factor. Scientists claimthat drought is a cyclical phenomenon, butits duration may have become longer andmore severe. Strong winds are also one ofthe major causes of desertification.

2. The anthropogenic factor. Several factorshave been identified, including overgrazingand other human activities associated withlivestock grazing; intentional burning; androdent and insect attacks.

Initially, the NPACD was prepared in 1991by Mongolian and Russian specialists withassistance from UNEP, ESCAP, and the RussianCentre for International Projects (CIP). In1994, the draft was revised. A nationalworkshop on desertification was organised inAugust 1995 to review the revised draftdocument. The final NPACD draft wasapproved by the Government in July 1996. Thedevelopment objective of the NPACD isconsistent with the development objectives ofthe MAP 21 document i.e. to ensure that aprocess of national development is establishedwhich fully incorporates the principles ofenvironmental sustainability and meets thebasic human needs. The immediate-term goal ofthe NPACD is to provide the country with theinstitutional capability to effectively addressproblems with the sustained use of naturalresources caused by the natural andanthropogenic forces associated with deser-tification and land degradation.

At the National Workshop on CombatingDesertification held in Mongolia on August1995, the NPACD prioritised programmes wereidentified as follows:

1. Institutional support for awareness raising,co-ordination and monitoring of theNPACD;

2. Creation of an enabling environment forsustainable management of land resources;

3. Support to applied and adoptive researchand its dissemination;

4. Assessment and monitoring of drought anddesertification/ land degradation;

5. Promotion of sustainable pastoral land usesystem;

6. Integrated management and rehabilitationof crop lands; and

7. Sustainable management of forest re-sources.

National forest programmes (NFP)Discussions concerning the possibility of

formulating a comprehensive strategic plan forforestry toward sustainable forest develop-ment began in 1994. However, due tounavoidable circumstances, mainly financialand expertise, the exercise could not beundertaken. In mid 1997, the Governmentsubmitted an official request to FAO forsupport to launch a national forest programme.An FAO mission to clarify the programme’sapproach and assist the Government toformulate a project proposal for possiblesupport from donors was fielded in May-June1998. A draft project proposal to launch theNFP exercise was made available. The missionalso provided assistance to finalise the draftNational Forest Policy.

For the smooth NFP preparation, FAOassisted the Government in organising atraining workshop to discuss NFP strategicplanning concept and modalities, held inUlanbaatar in June-July 2000. As the followup to the workshop, UNDP agreed to providefunds, under the SPPD scheme, to support theGovernment to strengthen the institution,including possible collaboration with theneighbouring countries for transboundaryforest conservation. UNDP also would beassisting the Government to draft a nationalcode for forest harvesting practice, anddevelop community boreal forestry.

ResearchResearch activities are implemented in

research institutes such as Institute ofGeocology, Institute of Biology and Instituteof Light Industry and Technology of MongolianTechnical University in Charge ofreforestation, forest protection from forest


fire and insects, forest silviculture, forestmanagement, forest inventory and improvementof wood industry technology and furnituretechnology development.

Support from partnersNowadays, the bilateral donors, interna-

tional agencies, and other institutions active inforestry development in Mongolia are: UNEP,UNDP, JICA, GTZ, DANIDA, DGIS-theNetherlands, IDRC, WWF, ADB, University ofSusse of UK, and USAID.

Focal pointDr. J. TsogtbaatarDirector, Institute of GeoecologyMinistry of Nature and EnvironmentUlaanbaatar, MongoliaTel: 321862; 329205Fax: 976-1321 862 976-1321 401E-mail:[email protected]

*****

Any of us will put out more and better ideasif our efforts are fully appreciated

(Alexander F. Osbom)

If you argue and rankle and contradict, you may achieve a victory sometimes;but it will be an empty victory

because you will never get your opponent’s good will.(Ben Franklin, quoted from How to Win Friend & Influence People – Dale Carnegie)

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Myanmar 113

Myanmar

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 65,755Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land 27.151/ 41.3Natural forests 1995 (thousand ha) 26,875Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%) -1,937/ -1.4Population 1997 (millions)/Annual Growth Rate 1995-2000 (%) 46.8/ 1.8Rural population 1997 (%) 73.4


General informationMyanmar is rich in culture, traditions and

natural resources. The country is endowed withsubstantial arable land, an expanse ofunexploited marine life, potential extensivetracks of mineral resources (tin, tungsten,lead, zinc, copper, silver, and gems) andcommercially viable gas deposits. In addition,the country is the world's prime supplier ofnatural teak (Tectona grandis), which is one ofthe pillars of the country's economy and willremain so, if managed soundly, for years tocome. The revenue generated from teakconstitutes the largest portion of the forestrysector's earning. The plentiful rivers andstreamlets will be targeted for immensedevelopment of irrigation systems, industry,and hydropower.

The rural population is heavily dependenton forest resources for fuel, food and timber.Degraded forests account for 7.5% of thetotal forest area. The underlying causes offorest degradation include: socio-economicproblems, scarcity of land in densely populatedareas, illegal agriculture expansion, shiftingcultivation, low agricultural output, improperland use, illegal fuel wood extraction, andimproper practice of forest management.

Export earnings by the sector was 21.63%of the total exports in 1994/95, 19.25% in1995/96, 18.32% in 1996/97, and 13.91% in1997/98. The sector failed to sustain the1994/95-export level earning due to scalingdown of the annual allowable cut of teak from

609.000 m3 to 409,060 m3 to ensure its sus-tainable production. However, production ofnon-teak hardwoods has been graduallyincreased.

Myanmar still remains highly reliant onagriculture. In its economic policies,agriculture constitutes the pillar and base forthe development in other sectors. Expansion ofagriculture and irrigation has had direct andstrong effects on the forestry sector. Timberconcessions were stopped by the end of 1993.To promote the market economy, the Gov-ernment formed the Privatisation Commission on9 January 1995, to oversee and ensure thesuccessful implementation of the privatisationprocess.

In line with reorienting the policy towardan appropriate market-oriented economy sys-tem, the Government adopted the followingfour objectives:§ Development of agriculture as the base and

all-round development of other sectors of theeconomy;§ Proper evolution of the market-oriented

economic system;§ Development of the economy, inviting partici-

pation in terms of technical know-how andinvestment from sources inside the countryand abroad; and§ The initiative to shape the national economy

must be kept in the hands of the State andthe nation’s people.

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Myanmar114

According to the official statistics, thetotal area of plantations was 621,318 ha in1997, of which 54% are commercial andindustrial wood species, 29% local supplyplantations, while the rest are watershedprotected species. It was increased to 694,192ha, or an increase of 72,874 ha in two years.The annual planting programme is now fixed ataround 40,500 ha per year, of which teakplantation’s comprise 8,100 ha on a 40-yearrotation. Special emphasis is being given to thegreening programme in the dry zone. Theobjectives are to reforest and preventdesertification and to meet the critical fuelwood needs of the rural people. The annualplanting area was around 6,900 ha in 1995-97and increased to 14,100 ha in 1998.

Initial adoption of a market economy wasannounced in September 1988. As a result,many private timber companies became involvedin timber industries. However, for teak timber,the Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) has amonopoly in its harvesting, processing, andexport. Common problems for private companiesare shortages of power supply, spare parts,and diesel oil.

The country’s import of forestry productsis almost nil, except for a small quantity ofpaper products and some infrastructure inputs.The export earnings were 25.479% of thenational total in 1995-96, and teak and otherhardwood timber are the most importantproducts. Therefore, forest management isfocused on the sustainable management ofnatural teak-bearing forest.

The Forest Department is the main arm ofthe Government for forestry sector policy andprogramme implementation. Lately, the ForestryDepartment has been re-structured with theaddition of five new directorates, i.e. theWatershed Conservation and ManagementDirectorate, the Extension Directorate, theInspection Directorate, the Directorate ofTraining and Research Development, and theDirectorate of Zoological Gardens. In June1997, the Dry Zone Greening Department was

newly created to speed up greening andenvironmental restoration activities in the dryzone.

Land use, policy and planningIn 1999, The Forest Department conducted

a forest resources assessment using a remotesensing and geographical information system. Itrevealed that the forest cover was 52.3%. Thearea under closed forests had decreased from43.34% in 1989 to 37.4% in 1999.

Improved access to the forest areas as aresult of development schemes makes thecontrol of trafficking of high-valued timberand forest products more difficult. Externalfactors such as population growth, increasedneed for food, shifting cultivation, illegalcutting and development activities constitutethe main causes of forest degradation anddepletion.

The status of the Permanent Forest Estatein 1999 is shown in Table 1. According to theForest Policy, 1995, it is mandated to increasethe area of Reserved Forests and ProtectedPublic Forests up to 30% and the area underthe Protected Area System up to 5% of thetotal area, scheduled to be achieved by theyear 2010.

Table 1: Permanent forest estate in 1999/2000

Category Area (mill ha) % total area

RF & PPF 12,553 18.55

PAS 2,509 3,72

Total PFE 15,063 22.27

Note: RF= Reserved Forest;PPF= Protected Public ForestsPAS= Protected Areas System

In 1996, the Forest Department launched aspecial operation to update and reformulatethe old Working Plans in line with the modernsustainable forest management (SFM) concept.The new district forest management plansplace the emphasis on all forest products andservices, including non-wood forest products,biodiversity conservation and the socio-economic well-being of the local people. Theplans are based on the district level. The


designation of 62 districts throughout thecountry has been completed.

The preliminary work of launching theNational Forestry Action Programme (NFAP)started in mid-March 1995, by formulating anIssues Paper as the basis for the NFAP exer-cise. A proposal to designate the Ministry ofForestry as the National Lead Institution andfor the establishment of the SteeringCommittee was approved by the Cabinet.

The final issues paper was adopted by thegovernment in September 1995. The main aimwas to explore possible funding support of theremaining NFAP process. However, no responsehas been received to date. In October 1995,the Forest Policy was promulgated in which theconservation aspects of forest resources andbiodiversity are highlighted. It is stipulatedthat the area of reserved forests has to beincreased to 30% from the present status of14.8%, and the Protected Area System (PAS) to5% from 1.72% in order to permanentlydedicate enough land to forestry. Two impor-tant laws were promulgated, i.e. the Forest Lawin 1992 and the Protection of Wildlife, WildPlants and Natural Areas Law in 1994.

At the beginning of 1998, a “Co-ordinationand Monitoring Committee” was formed tofacilitate the National Forest Programme (NFP)exercise. The NFP was titled “National ForestMaster Plan” and it was composed of 19chapters. At present, the drafts of all chaptersare completed and the NFP document will befinalised soon.

The Dry Zone Greening Department wasestablished in 1997 to undertake environmentalconservation and greening activities in thecentral dry zone of Myanmar. The integratedplan for the period 2001/02 to 2030/31 hasbeen prepared.

Legislation on Forestry and WildlifeConservation has turned away from the oldconcept of protecting only animals. It has nowadopted a holistic approach by conservinghabitats, which is pivotal to the conservation ofwildlife. The new Forest Law emphasises theimportance of people’s awareness and partici-pation in the conservation and sustainable

utilisation of forest resources, as well as thecollection and updating of the resource infor-mation, planning, continuous monitoring of allforest operations, and of ecological balanceand environmental stability.

NGOs such as Farmer’s and Women’sIncome Generation Groups (FIGG) are beingformed. This initiative aims at raising off-farmincomes and helping sustainable forest manage-ment with positive effects on the social well-being.

In order to promote and facilitatecommunity participation in managing theforests, the “Community Forestry Instructions”were issued in late 1995, focusing on themanagement of forests by rural communitiesthrough the protection of natural vegetation,establishment of forest nurseries, and forestplantations so as to enable them to fulfil theirown basic needs for fuel wood and smalltimber. It also focuses on the flow of benefitsto the communities participating in forestmanagement activities.

Professional forestry education formerlyunder the responsibility of the Ministry ofEducation has been transferred to the ForestryInstitute, under the Ministry of Forestry. Sub-professional level training is given at theMyanmar Naing-Ngan Forest School in Pyin-Oo-Lwin, while in-service training, (refreshercourses, training on basic principles,awareness in forest protection andagroforestry for rural communities, etc.), areconducted at the Central Forestry DevelopmentTraining Centre.

Criteria and indicators for SFM (C&Ifor SFM)

The development of C&I for SFM atnational and forest management unit (FMU)levels was completed in October 1999. The C&Ifor SFM contains 7 criteria at both nationaland FMU levels, 78 indicators and 257required activities at the national level, and 73indicators and 217 activities at the FMU level.

At present, the Forest Department will testthe C&I in the field. Revision and improvements


of the C&I will be made afterwards asappropriate. In addition, the Forest Departmenthas been undertaking an assessment of theapplication of the C&I in a FMU.

Model forestMyanmar has established two model

forests, namely Oktwin and Pauk Khaung ModelForests in Bago Yoma Region. Natural teakforests grow extensively in this Region. JapanInternational Forestry Promotion and Co-operation Centre (JIFPRO) and JOFCA, bothNGOs, have been co-operating with theForestry Department in managing these modelforests.

Myanmar is a member of the RegionalProject entitled “Implementation of the ModelForest Approach for SFM in the Asia-PacificRegion. The Philippines, China, and Thailandare also members of this Regional Project.

Timber certificationThe Timber Certification Committee (TCC)

was formed in August 1998. A preliminarycheck list for forest management certificationwas formulated in late 1999. Two workshops onC&I and timber certification were organisedby the Forestry Department and JOFCA in1999 and 2000.

The TCC started to establish links withother timber certification bodies on a bilateralbasis in mid 1998. The TCC seeks assistanceand co-operation from the National TimberCertification Council (MTCC) of Malaysia and

the Ecolabelling Institute (LEI) of Indonesia.

Forest harvesting and utilisationThe Forestry Department regulates the

annual allowable cuts (AACs) for teak andother hardwoods. To update the AACs, theForestry Department conducts a national forestinventory every year. The total AAC for theyear 2000 is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: AAC for teak and other hardwoodsin 2000

Species

No. of trees m3

teak 124,213 409,062OH 1,795,424 3,236,071

Note: OH= other hardwoods

Elephant skidding is extensively used inforestry operations. The country has about6,000 domestic elephants and about 5,000 inthe wild. In some areas, where the slope of theterrain is low, water buffaloes are also usedfor skidding. The Myanmar Timber Enterprise(MTE) has been using about 600 buffaloes forskidding under contract.

The obvious benefits of using animals forskidding are the low impacts on the soilsurface. The Myanmar Selective System willremain as the prime management system withanimal logging being practised.

There are 96 state-owned sawmills, ofwhich 8 are for export products. The privatesector owns 459 sawmills of small to mediumcapacity and 1,224 re-cutting mills. There are6 plywood factories, 4 managed by MTE, oneunder a joint venture between MTE, Daewooand Sam Won, and a private company owns onefactory

The local people and the private sector havecarried out harvesting of non-wood forestproducts (NWFPs), following the regulationsand procedures prescribed by the ForestDepartment. Among the important NWFPs arebamboo, cane, cutch, bark, plant fibre, nipapalm, and honey.


.

Table 3: Production and export of teak and other hardwoods

Production (Hoppus ton) Export of logs (Hoppus ton)Fiscal yearTeak Other hard woods Teak Other hard woods

1995/96 230,093 623,054 97,312 75,8721996/97 203,124 732,331 118,549 108,5771997/98 238,085 818,938 123,070 228,836

Five-year planCurrently, the country is in the second year

of its Five Year Short-term Plan (1996/97 -2000/01). This Five Year Plan is a follow-up tothe earlier Short-term Four Year Plan(1992/92 - 1995/96). The priorities of thecurrent short-term plan are: a) agriculture, b)livestock and fishery, c) production of crudeoil, national gas, gems and jades, d) transporta-tion and energy, e) value added and agro-based industries, and f) export of goods andservices.

The salient features of the plan for theforestry sector can construed as to:§ systematically extend and conserve reserved

forest areas;§ decrease teak production from 2.6 to 2.5

lakh cu.ton;§ increase hardwood production from 11.1 to

14.4 lakh cu.ton;§ increase charcoal production from 2.8 to 3.6

lakh cu.ton;§ increase bamboo production from 953.4 to

1087.6 million pieces;§ increase the total value of forest products

exports from 1,131 million kyats in 1995-96to 1,344 million kyats by 2000-01;§ place emphasis on wood lots plantation and

conservation of mangroves and watersheds;§ explore fuel wood resources alternatives;§ promote forest-based eco-tourism; and§ promote and support the production of value-

added products.

InstitutionalIn regard to forestry research, the

Myanmar Academy for Agriculture, Forestry,Livestock and Fishery organised a researchconference in April 2000, in which 12 forestryresearch papers were presented. The main

problems facing forestry research at theForestry Research Institute are as follows:

§ There have been a large number of discon-nected projects; thus a programme approachneeds to be initiated.§ The lack of qualified researchers; thus

training abroad needs to be intensified.§ Inadequate financial resources.

The issuance of Community Forestry Instruc-tions in 1995 was a major break through in thehistory of Myanmar forestry. It aims at decen-tralisation in forest management, addressing thebasic needs of the local people throughparticipatory approach and environmentalconservation.

A forestry extension division was estab-lished within the Forestry Department in 1995.A “Forest Bulletin” has been published everytwo months since 1998. The public media, suchas radio, television, and exhibition have alsobeen used for extension purposes.

There are four state-education and train-ing institutions for forestry in the country asfollows:§ Institute of Forestry at Yesin;§ Myanmar Forest Scholl at Pyin Oo Lwin;§ Central Forestry Development Training Cen-

tre at Hmawbi; and§ MTE training schools 1,2, and 3.

Collaboration with partnersIn the field of forestry, the Myanmar

Government is the member of the following on-going regional programmes/projects:

§ GCP/RAS/154/NET: Regional Wood EnergyDevelopment Programme for Asia;§ GCP/RAS/177/JPN: Regional Project on

Assistance for the Implementation of the


Model Forest Approach for SustainableForest Management in the Asia-PacificRegion;§ GCP/RAS/163/NET: Forestry Research

Support Programme for Asia and Pacific(FORSPA); and§ GCP/RAS/173/EC: Information and Analysis

for Sustainable Forest Management: LinkingNational and International Efforts in SouthAsia and South East Asia.

The Forest Department also gets assistancefrom UNDP and FAO in the form of HumanDevelopment Initiatives Projects. Moreover, theMyanmar Government was a member of tworecently-completed regional projects. Thesalient important results of support from thesetwo projects on forestry development inMyanmar were as follows:§ GCP/RAS/142/JPN: Strengthening Re-

afforestation Programmes in Asia (STRAP) A national workshop was held in November-

December 1995. Four zonal working groupson mangrove, teak, hilly, and dry zones wereformed to deliberate and makerecommendations on policy, problems andconstraints, people’s participation, technicalmatters, and suggested problem resolution onre-afforestation programmes.§ GCP/RAS/137/JPN: Forestry Planning and

Policy Assistance in Asia and the PacificRegionThis project assisted the Government in theformulation of a National Forest Policy,1995.

As a follow up to the recommendation madeat the 17th APFC meeting held in Yogyakarta,Indonesia, February 1998, the Governmentcrafted the National Code of ForestHarvesting Practices. FAO provided assistanceto facilitate the formulation of the Code. Thedocument was printed in early 2000.

Myanmar is the Headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Regional TEAKNET. FAO RegionalProjects were instrumental in the formation ofthe TEAKNET. The objective of the TEAKNET

is to strengthen interaction among all thoseconcerned with the conservation and sustain-able management of teak-bearing forests andplantations through sharing of information andpromoting collaborative efforts to deal withcommon problems. The aims of TEAKNET areto:

§ facilitate the exchange of technology andinformation on tree improvement, silviculture,management, harvesting, processing, andtrade of teak;§ assist in the exchange of genetic material

and plant, wood samples, and to standardisetrials and methods; and§ promote collaborative studies on critical

areas that are of common interest to membercountries or institutes.

The Second TEAKNET Steering CommitteeMeeting was held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, 14-15 December 1997. The need for informationabout teak was emphasised by the membersfrom the private sector. The meeting discussedissues on co-ordination with other teak relatedgroups e.g. Teak 2000, APAFRI, etc. The venueof the Third Regional Seminar on Teak will beheld in Indonesia.

With regard to human resource develop-ment, Myanmar has had the opportunity toparticipate in several seminars, workshops,training, and study tours.

Following the establishment of the Commu-nity Forestry Institutions, about 15,000 hacommunity-owned forest plantations had beenestablished throughout the country by 1999. Anation wide tree-planting programme is imple-mented annually; school children, local com-munities, and NGOs take part in thisprogramme; and about 15 million tree seedlingsare planted every year.

The Forestry Department and UNDP/FAOare implementing three projects as follows:

a) Environmentally sustainable food securityand micro-income opportunities in the dryzone , Phase III – MYA/99/006;


b) Environmentally sustainable food securityand micro income opportunities in criticalwatersheds of Shan State -MYA/99/007;

c) Environmentally sustainable food securityand micro income opportunity in theAyeyarwady (mangrove) delta, Phase III -.MYA/96/008.

These projects are designed to increasefood production and income generation for therural poor through environmental conservationand management.

Focal point U Kyaw TintDirector GeneralForest DepartmentMinistry of Forestry Bayintnaung Road, West GyogonInsein, Yangon, MyanmarTel: 095-01-681754Fax: 095-01-664336

*****

Rudeness is the weak man’s imitation of strength(Eric Hoffer)

Politeness and courtesy are signs of being cultured(Shiv Khera – You can win)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Nepal120

Nepal

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 14,720Total forest area 1999(thousand ha) / % of total land area *) 4,270 / 29Natural forest 1999 (thousand ha) 4,270Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%) -274/ -1.1Population total 1997 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 22.6/ 2.5Rural population in 1977 89.1GNP per person 1995 in US$ 200

Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999*) – Government Inventory Report, 1999

General informationNepal is a relatively small and landlocked

country. Nepal is distinctive for its rectangularshape and being the location of Mount Everest-the highest peak in the world. More than 80%of its land is covered by rugged hills andmountainous terrain, with a narrow belt of flatland in the southern part of the country knownas the Terai. Because of its varied topographyand elevation, it possesses a wide diversity ofgeo-ecological conditions. Precipitation variesfrom one place to another with an average thatranges from 225 to 4,500 mm. The vegetationranges from tropical hardwood forests in theTerai to tundra vegetation in the North.

The economy is predominantly agrarian.Agriculture provides a livelihood to over 90%of the population. About two-thirds of thehouseholds in Nepal own less than 1 ha ofcultivated land. About 21% of the total landarea of the country is under cultivation.Decentralisation is a basic policy of theGovernment development administration. Theobjective is to mobilise all local resources fordevelopment.

So far, no commercial deposits of oil, coal,or gas have been found. Thus, fuel wood fromforests as well as from the private lands is themajor source of energy for domesticconsumption. The fuelwood comes

from forests, shrub lands, and lands adjacentto farms in the form of agriculture residue.According to Government statistics, it wasestimated that 80% of fuel wood for domesticconsumption is obtained from forests, with therest coming from the private plantations. With aview to reduce the pressure on forests, thegovernment has launched plans and programmesto develop alternative sources of energy suchas biogas, turbines, solar, wind, and hydro-power energy. Some reports indicated thatalmost 90% of the people of Nepal areestimated to depend on forest resources fortheir livelihoods. Forest resources are criticalto sustaining farming system that providefodder, fertiliser, provision of energy supplies,building materials, medicinal plants, otherincome earning opportunities, and indirectbenefits such as soil and conservation and eco-tourism.

Forests have been deforested anddegraded for the last 50 years or so.Officially, it has been reported that the forestarea has been decreased at an annual rate of1.3% in the Terai and 2.3% in the hills from1978/9 to 1990/91. For the whole country,from 1978/79 to 1994, forest area hasdecreased an annual rate of 1.7%. As forestsand shrubs together decreased at an annualrate of 0.5%. The major causes are over-cutting for fuel wood and heavy harvesting forfodder. Fodder from forestland provides morethan 40% of livestock nutrition. In the Terai,

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Nepal 121

the cause of forest degradation is the illicitfelling of timber for smuggling across theborder. The annual planting by the governmentand community was 5,260 ha between 1992-96.Reliable figures for private planting are notavailable.

The major non-wood forest products(NWFP) are medicinal and aromatic plants,lokta paper, pine resin and sabai grass. Thecollection, trade, and processing of NWFPshave contributed substantially to the socio-economic development of the country. However,this contribution has suffered as a result ofdiminishing resources.

The protected areas play an important rolein the tourism industry as a recreationdestination. They are popular for trekking,mountain activities, and wildlife watching,particularly in the Terai. There are fivecategories of protected areas:§ National Parks are areas set aside for the

conservation, management, and utilisation offlora and fauna together with the naturalenvironment;§ Strict Nature Reserves are areas of

ecological significance set aside forscientific study;§ Wildlife reserves are areas set aside for the

conservation of animals and bird resourcesand their habitats;§ Hunting Reserves are areas set aside for the

management of animal and bird resources forhunting purposes;§ Conservation areas are areas managed for

the sustainable development of human andnatural resources.

At the moment, 2,670 thousand ha, or18.14% of the total land area, have beenselected as protected areas consisting of eightNational Parks, four Wildlife Reserves, oneHunting Reserve, and two Conservation Areas.

Forest resourcesForest is the main natural resource of

Nepal. Due to the wide range of climatic andtopographic conditions across the country,

almost every known forest type, excepttropical forest, is available in Nepal. In thenatural forests, hardwood species dominate thestock with 59%; another 24% are mixed, and17% are conifer species. Details informationconcerning forest resources in Nepal ispresented in the FAO Home Page: www.fao.org(click forestry, subject, forest resourceassessment, and publications).

The Government has enacted andimplemented the Forest Act, 1993 and theForest Regulation, 1995. According to the Act,the National Forests have been classified intofive categories i.e. production forest,community forests, leasehold forests,protective forests, and religious forests.

About 69% of the country’s energy needscome from forest for mainly cooking andheating. Tree leaves are equally important tofeed the domestic animals. Leaf litter hassignificant value for animal bedding andcompost preparation. According to an overviewof supply and demand of fuel wood and timbermade by the Master Plan for the ForestrySector, the demand has been significantlyabove the supply. However, people arecollecting timber and fuel wood from severalsources, including government managedforests, community forests and the privatelands. The supply and demand situation of fuelwood and timber is presented in Table 1.Table 1. Demand and supply for timber and fuel wood

Timber (m3) Fuel wood (ton)Fiscalyear Demand Supply Demand Supply

1993/94 1,156,063

28,400 10,029,370

100,038

1994/95 1,179,362

45,438 10,231,497

156,636

1995/96 1,204,880

48,575 10,452,875

29,426

1996/97 1,229,288

54,246 10,664,627

52,356

1997/98 1,254,806

39,383 10,886,005

22,631

1998/99 1,281,433

44,918 11,117,008

20,895

Master Plan for the Forestry Sector(MPFS)

In 1984, national authorities and foreignand international donors met in order to


initiate planning of the MPFS. Its objectivewas to activate forestry operations withinclearly defined development programmes. TheMPFS final document was available in early1988 and the International Round Tablemeeting was organised in May 1988. Thenational lead institution was the Department ofForest, Ministry of Forests and SoilConservation. The overall forest policy strategyis to improve the management of the country'sforest resources, with a sustainable balancebetween people's needs, the productionsystems, and the environment.

The plan has four long-term objectives:§ to meet people's basic needs for fuel wood,

timber, fodder, and other forest products ona sustainable basis and to contribute to foodproduction through effective interactionbetween forestry and farming practices;§ to protect the land against degradation by

soil erosion, floods, landslides, desertifica-tion, and other effects of ecologicalimbalance;§ to conserve the ecosystem and genetic

resources; and§ to contribute to the growth of local and

national economies by managing forestresources, forest-based industries, and bycreating opportunities for income generationand employment.

The medium-term objectives of the planare to:§ promote people's participation in forest

resource development, management, andconservation;§ develop the legal framework needed to

enhance the contribution of individuals,communities, and institutions for forestresource development, management, andconservation;§ strengthen the organisational framework and

develop the institutions of the forestrysector to enable them to carry out theirmission.

In order to meet long- and medium-termobjectives, the MPFS has formulated sixprimary and six supportive programmes asfollows:

1) Primary Forest Development Programmes§ Community and private forestry;§ National and leasehold forestry;§ Wood based industries;§ Medicinal and aromatic plants;§ Soil conservation and watershed manage-

ment;§ Conservation of ecosystems and genetic

resources;2) Supportive Development Programmes§ Policy and legal reform;§ Institutional reform;§ Human resources development;§ Research and extension;§ Forest resource information and management

planning;§ Monitoring and evaluation;

In order to pave the way for thesuccessful implementation of the MPFS, theGovernment had taken the following steps:§ approval of the proposed forestry sector

policy along with the MPFS, in April 1989;§ revision of legislation and preparation/

circulation of a new Forestry Bill;§ implementation of organisational reform in

the MPFS;§ a Forestry Sector Co-ordinating Committee

was formed and meetings held to overseeimplementation of programmes and donor co-ordination;§ reformulation of on-going projects to fit into

the MPFS framework; and§ creation of 65 new posts in accordance with

the Human Resources Development Plan ofthe MPFS.

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002)followed the Master Plan for the ForestrySector Policy in order to continue its mainthrust of people's participation in forestmanagement practices. The main objective ofthe Ninth Five Year Plan is poverty alleviationthrough providing economic opportunities forpoor people and encouraging their participationin development activities.

The main objectives of the Ninth Five YearPlan for the forestry sector include a)mobilise, conserve and manage forestresources to reduce the gap between demand


and supply; b) create income generating andemployment opportunities for poor and marginalfamilies; c) mobilise local people to enhanceproductivity; d) adopt proper land usepractices.

The main policies and strategies to achievethe above objectives include: a) Local userswill be supported in their efforts to fulfil theirday to day needs for timber, fuel wood,fodder and other forest products. A regularsupply will be ensured through communityforestry development; b) Support to povertyalleviation will be provided by promoting andestablishing participatory forest managementand by implementing community baseddevelopment activities; c) Conservation of theSiwalik area will be carried out in order tomaintain the renewal capacity of thegroundwater reserve by giving priority to soiland water conservation programmes; d) Themanagement, marketing, industrial development,processing and export of herbs and forestproducts will be supported; and e) The privatesector will be encouraged by providing theopportunity for the commercial management ofgovernment owned forests in potential areas.

In regard to the implementation of theMaster Plan for the Forestry Sector Develop-ment, a Forestry Sector Co-ordinationCommittee (FSCC) has been established as aforum for the discussion of policy analysis,planning, and programme implementation on apriority basis among forestry sector donorsand officials of the His Majesty’s Governmentof Nepal. At the 9th FSCC meeting held on 18and 19 September 2000, the Revised ForestrySector Policy, 2000 was discussed.

Special programme of the Government

His Majesty’s Government has nowimplemented two major forest developmentprogrammes through the Department of Forests,i.e. the Community Forestry Programme (CF) andthe Leasehold Forestry Programme. Communityforestry, a legally supported programme by theForest Act, 1993 and the Forest Regulation,1995, is now being implemented with great

success throughout the country. The communityforestry concept, which is active involvementof local people based upon the user groupapproach, is the key of the programme. Theforest will be handed over to the communitythrough a specific set of arrangements. Thisprogramme attracted support from donoragencies like DANIDA, USAID, GTZ, DFID,SIDA, EEC, JICA, Australia, CARE-Nepal,ICIMOD, CECI, and JICA. In addition to majordonors, there are various NGOs, organised adhoc groups, and individuals, providing supportto small-scale projects and campaigns.

The CF has achieved remarkable results,especially in terms of sustainability, equity,and self-reliance. The quality of forest hasalso improved. It was reported that the numberof wild animals has been increasing, forexample local people are facing problems fromleopard in the hills. More forest user groups(FUGs) are being formed and similarly morenational forests are being handled over to thereal users. However, it was reported that theco-ordination aspect is still poor and 80% ofthe development budget for community forestryis donor-funded so the sustainability of theprogramme after the termination of the donor-funded projects should be looked into morecarefully.

It was also reported that some FUGs aresustainable in terms of protection of theresources, thereby delivering improvedbiodiversity and watershed managementbenefits. But self sustainability of equity andincome factor has not yet been demonstrated.Achievements of the programme for the lasttwo years is presented in Table 2.

An in-depth analysis of the communityforestry programme recommended that there isa need to move focus away from communityforestry in isolation to transformation of theforest sector as a whole. There are indicationsthat the recent modification of policies may becircumscribing the rights of FUGs. In the highvalue forests of the Terai, there aresubstantial conflicts over the resources, policyis less well formed, and marketing is distorted.


In regard to institutional appraisal, it wasreported that as more areas of forest areprotected, the benefits to FUG membersdecrease as they lose access to previouslyneighbouring areas. Therefore, it is a majorrationale for accelerating the switch frompassive to active management.

Table 2: Achievement of community forestryprogramme 1996-1999

Fiscalyear

Numberof

FUGs

Forestarea

handedover as

CFs (ha)

Number ofhouseholdsbenefited

Till1996/97

8,183 506,864 800,338

1997/98 1,101 97,192 130,7301998/99 677 54,319 77,1691999/00 1,067 79,527 117,010Total 11,028 737,902 1,125,247

Source: Department of Forests

The Leasehold Forestry Programme wasstarted in 1992/93 under the technicalassistance of UNDP/FAO and a programmeloan by IFAD. It is now being implemented inthe twelve Hill Districts. Community-basedleasehold forestry is conceptually differentfrom community forestry, as it providesexclusive rights of forestlands to the marginalpeople, who are relatively small leaseholdgroups in the community, to increase theirlivelihood through different income generatingactivities. However, the approach is consideredto be complementary to community forestry asit focuses on key issues such as poor peopleand poor soil. Section 31 of the Forest Act1993 stated that the Government has theauthority to grant any part of a national forestin the form of leasehold forest. It createsinterest among the people to increaserehabilitation of the degraded forestland tosustain more productive livestock. Thecommunity, which consists of people livingbelow the poverty line, should be given priority.This provides exclusive right of 40 years to theproducts of the forestlands to the marginalpeople of the relatively small leasehold groups.Achievements of the Leasehold ForestryProgramme for the last two years is presented

in Table 3. The purposes of the programme areto:§ produce raw materials required by forest

products based-industries;§ plant trees and increase the production for

sale, distribution, or for use;§ operate the tourism industry in a manner

conducive to the conservation of the forest;and§ operate farms of insects, butterflies, and

wildlife in a manner conducive to theconservation of the forests

Table 3. Achievement of leasehold forestryprogramme 1996-1999

Fiscalyear

Number ofgroup

formed

No. of forestare handedover (ha)

No. of poorFamily

benefitedTill1996/97 570 2,637.00 3,8811997/98 408 1,672.92 2,6941998/99 328 1,243.42 2,1981999/00* 214 1,076 1,708

Note: 1 family = 6.72 person

Revised forestry sector policy, 2000The Ministry of Forests and Soil

Conservation realised that to implement theforestry programmes efficiently andeffectively requires a clear-cut policy.Therefore, the Revised Forestry Sector Policy,2000 has been formulated. It is an updatedversion of the Forestry Master Plan Policy andsubsequent amendments to that document. Theformulation of the Revised Forestry SectorPolicy, 2000 is based on the analysis of thestatus of forests, the previous policies andlegislation, including the previous policiesstipulated in the 7th, 8th and 9th Five Year Plansand the Master Plan for the Forestry Sector.

The basis for the formulation of the newpolicy includes: a) the land use criteriarecently approved by His Majesty’s Government(which still lacks appropriate institutions andmechanisms to ensure their implementation); b)the Local Self-Governance Act (LSGA) of 1998that empowers District Development Committees(DDCs) and Village Development Committee(VDCs) to collect revenues and calls on eachlocal government unit to draw up a development


plan of their own (unfortunately theinstitutional capability to enforce and monitorthe implementation of this legislation appearsquite limited); c) after a recent survey (1998)estimated that the annual depletion rate offorests in Terai is 1.3 % and in the mountain is0.2% (together with forest and theshrublands), His Majesty’s Governmentintroduced a new concept in managing theforests of Terai, Churia on 1 May 2000, inorder to check the depletion of forestresources, to improve conservation, and tomanage it in a sustainable way.

The Forestry Sector Policy, 2000 containsdevelopment imperatives, outlines, strategies,programmes, and summaries of the investmentrequired to prepare plans and programmes, toformulate legislation and to develop amechanism that fosters co-operation withsupporting partners.

Because of the complexity of the forestrysector, a holistic approach is needed totranslate the policy into administrative andmanagement actions. The Policy issues aremultidimensional and interrelated, thereforerequiring a mixture of strategies. The ForestrySector Policy, 2000 identified severalstrategies on the following aspects; a) land useplanning; b) production and utilisation; c)effective harvesting and distribution; d)reducing consumption; d) improved pasture andlivestock management; e) conservation of biodi-versity, ecosystems and genetic resources; f)social aspects of land and forestry resources;g) providing a livelihood to poor and landlesspeople in forestry related activities; h)promoting private investment in forestrydevelopment; i) investment in the forestrysector; and j) creating an environment con-ducive to investment.

In regard to programme structure, theForestry Sector Policy, 2000 keeps theprogrammes structure that was crafted by theMaster Plan for the Forestry Sector i.e. sixpriority programmes and six supportiveprogrammes. Some of the important strategiescrafted in the Forestry Sector Policy, 2000include the following:

§ Continue the forestry master planningprocess;§ Continue the Forestry Sector Co-ordination

Committee (FSCC) as a forum for thediscussion of policy analysis, planning, andprogramme implementation on a priority basis;and reorient the FSCC to better co-ordinateforest programme activities;§ Promote commercial plantations;§ Promote the involvement of the private

sector;§ Pay a just income to the rural poor who

collect raw materials for forest productsbased industries;§ Reduce the land tax on private land used for

tree plantations;§ Make parastatal organisations compete with

private enterprise; and§ Accept loan assistance for only those

productive forestry programmes which areeconomically and financially feasible.

Table 4: Ongoing project supported by donors

No Donor Project1 DANID

ANatural Resources ManagementSector Assistance ProgrammeWatershed Management

2 USAID Environment and Forest EnterpriseActivity

3 IFAD/Neth.

Hill Leasehold Forestry & ForageDevelopment Project Phase II

4 AusAID/DANIDA

Community Resource ManagementProject

5 GTZ Churia Forestry DevelopmentProject

6 SDC/Swiss

Nepal Swiss Community ForestryProject

7 DFID Nepal-UK Community ForestryProject

8 UNHCR Bhutanese Refugee Programme9 EEC Bagmati Watershed Project10 JICA Community Development and

Forest/ Watershed ConstructionProject Phase II

11 UNDP Park and People Project Phase II12 WWF Bardia Integrated Conservation

ProjectNorthern Mountain ConservationProjectInstitutional Support

13 CARE/ Upper Andhikhola Watershed


Neth. Management ProjectBuffer Zone Development Project

14 LZS Wildlife and Domestic VeterinaryProgramme in Royal ChitwanNational Park

Legislation and institutionsThe Forest Act of 1961 was re-amended

and published as the Forest Act, 1993. TheForest Act 1993 has categorised the forestinto two broad classes: national forest andprivate forest. For the sustainable developmentof forests, the Government has furthercategorised the national forest into five sub-categories as follows:§ Community forest;§ Leasehold forest;§ Government-managed forest;§ Religious forest; and§ Protected forest.

The basic system in community forestry isto hand over nearby national forest land tolocal communities. Under the communityprogramme, user group formation and handingover of forest have been more emphasised. Allthe activities are carried out with the approachof “for the people, by the people”. The usersgroup concept will be used as the basis forsustainable forest management. Users groupmeans a group of local people who areauthorised to manage and utilise nearbyforests. The users group should form a user'scommittee by themselves and they will preparethe operational plan for the forest. The usersgroup can freely sell the forest products to thelocal markets.

Collaboration with partnersMany donor agencies have been assisting

the country in the forestry sector development.They include DANIDA, USAID, FINNIDA,ADB, IFAD, AusAID, GTZ, SDC, DFID,UNHCR, EEC, JICA, UNDP, WWF, FAO, theNetherlands, WB, CARE, The country has alsoreceived support from several regional/ sub-Regional projects.

In 2000, there are a number of on-goingprojects supported by donors, as presented inTable 4. The total project cost amounted toUS$69,542.75 thousand. Due to some issues,there was an idea towards sector wideapproach to reduce transaction cost, avoidlengthy approval process and duplicationactivities, and promoting more joined approach,which will avoid stakeholder working inisolation and micro management.

The Sustainable Development – Agenda 21and the National Biodiversity Action Plan arebeing drafted. In addition, there are a numberof national policy reforms have been made,including the Local Self-Governance Act, 199(or Decentralisation). Harmonisation andsynchronisation of these plans with the otherinternational initiatives needs to be made.

A Forest Se1ctor Co-ordination Committee(FSCC) was established, of which the 9th

meeting was organised in September 2000. Inaddition, a Donors Sub-group on Forestry hasalso been established, of which the thirdmeeting was organised on 21 August 2000. Itwas noted that there are substantial resultsand recommendations had been made at thesemeetings. Several partners are of the view thatthe Master Plan for the Forestry SectorDevelopment, which was launched in 1988,needs to be reviewed.


Focal pointD.D. BhattaDirector General of ForestMinistry of Forests and Soil ConservationBabarmahalKathmandu, NepalTel 9771- 227574/ - 221231/ 256227Fax 9771- 227374E-mail: [email protected]

*****

Our thoughts lead to actions, actions lead to habits, and habits form character.Character leads to destiny.

(You can win – Shiv Khera)

Count your blessing.Not your troubles

(Darle Carnegie – How to enjoy your life and your job)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34 New Zealand128

New ZealandCountry dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 26,799Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land 7,884/29.4Natural forests 1995 (thousand ha) n.aTotal change in forest cover 1990-1995 (thousand ha)/ Annual change % 217/0.6Population total 1997 (million)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 3.6/1.1Rural population 13.7GNP per person total 1995 in US$ 14,340

Source of data: FAO – State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationThe make-up of the New Zealand forest

industry has changed substantially over thelast 15 years. Deregulation of the NewZealand economy since 1984, theprivatisation of the State-owned forestryassets since 1990, and private sectoracquisitions and restructuring that followedhave transformed forestry. The industry isnow dominated by the private sector andincludes numerous international companies. Italso includes an increasing proportion of smallforest growers.

The evolution has continued the segre-gation into two reasonably distinct forestestates in New Zealand. On the one hand,timber production forests comprising plantedforests and, to a limited extent, areas ofindigenous species are expanding in area andvolume to meet domestic and export marketdemand. This trend allows for the State-owned natural forest to be set aside forconservation management of non-timbervalues.

As a result of the expansion in theplanted estate, New Zealand is developinginto a major forestry nation. By 2010, theforecast wood supply from our plantedforests will be almost double the currentharvest volume and will continue to rise. Forthe year ending 30 June 1999, forestrycontributed 3.9 percent of New Zealand'snational income.

Planted production forestSixty-four percent of the planted forest

estate is owned by 13 major companies (withconsiderable off shore investment). Therewill continue to be rationalisation of forestholdings among existing companies as well assales of forests allowing new entrants.

The remaining forests are owned by smallcompanies, local government, partnerships,joint ventures and thousands of small scaleland owners. The dominance of large compa-nies in new planting has given way to smallerinvestors playing an increasingly importantrole. These include farmers, individual inves-tors, Maori forestry interests and additionalforeign participants. More than 14,000forests are less than 100 ha in size, and isconfirmation of this trend. It is possible thatby the year 2005, small-scale growers willown one-third of the forest estate.

Estimates of new planting for1999 indi-cate an approximate area of 22,900 ha, downdramatically from the 1998 new planting of51,900 ha, due in part to the Asian financialcrisis influencing the level of new investmentin forest growing in 1999

New Zealand's planted production forestnow covers 1.73 million ha (April 1999). Afurther 12.6 million ha of land is physicallysuitable for expanding the planted forestestate on degraded farmland and rolling andsteep hill country. The total standing volumeof timber contained in these forests is 353

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34 New Zealand 129

million m3. In the year ending March 1999,the volume of timber in New Zealand'splanted forests increased by 32.8 million m3.

HarvestingHarvesting has risen from 15.2 million m3

in the year ending December 1998, to 17.9million m3 in the year ending December 1999- an increase of about 18%. The increase hasresulted from improved trading conditions inNew Zealand's key export markets. Two-thirds of this was processed on-shore byNew Zealand's industry mix of four pulp andpaper companies, eight panel board compa-nies, more than 350 sawmillers and approxi-mately 80 remanufacturers.

Sixty-one percent of the forest area is15 years old or younger because of plantingdone during the 1980s and 1990s. As theseyoung forests mature, New Zealand's longterm renewable wood supply is expected todouble. From the actual harvest of 17.9million m3, the wood supply is forecasted toincrease to almost 30 million m3 by 2010 - an84% increase.

Indigenous forestIndigenous forests are a key part of New

Zealand's environment and help protect themany values of our natural ecosystems inaddition to making a marginal contribution tothe wood supply. The main threats to theseforests are introduced animals and plants andan increasing demand for access and recrea-tional opportunities. The indigenous forestsharbour about 126 native land bird speciesand subspecies (some classed as endangeredor threatened), two species of bats, reptiles,freshwater fish, amphibians and inverte-brates. Their other values include culturalrecreational, scientific, historic and scenic.

Volumes harvested from natural forestshave diminished over the past 50 years frombeing almost 100% of the total NZ harvest,to currently being less than 1% of the totalharvest.

In 1993, amendments to the Forest Actwere introduced that require landowners to

have a sustainable management plan or permitif they wish to harvest and mill indigenoustimber. The amendment also introduced in-digenous timber sawmilling and export con-trols.

Expansion of area under sustainablemanagement

The following table illustrates thechanges that have taken place with respectto sustainable management plans and permitssince the last APFC session, as of 31 January2000.

Table 1: Sustainable plans and permits1998 2000

Plans Number 21 16 Area (ha) 28,993 29,483 Annual harvest(m3)

58,000 50,724

Permits Number 83 212 Area (ha) 10,028 27,000 10 yr harvestvolume

26,111 60,000

A further 9 plans and 59 permits wereunder consideration by the Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry at the beginning ofthis year.

Of the 1.3 million ha of indigenous forestin private ownership, only around 20 %, or250,000 ha, is seen as having some potentialto support sustainable management plans andpermits. If all of this area was approved forsustainable forest management, it could yieldan annual log harvest volume of around250,000 m3.

Amendments to sustainable forestmanagement legislation

Amendments to the Forests Act, cur-rently before parliament, include proposalsto:§ extend the controls on the export of in-

digenous timber to cover timber from landthat is currently exempt from the ForestsAct, viz South Island Landless Natives Act(SILNA) forests and State-owned, SouthIsland West Coast forests;


§ amend the nature of the controls to permitthe export of logs and wood chips producedfrom sustainably managed indigenous for-ests;§ allow for South Island Landless Natives

Act forests to be voluntarily broughtwithin the sustainable management provi-sions of the Act.

Forests on land granted to Maori underthe South Island Landless Natives Act areexempt from the indigenous forestryprovisions of the Forests Act. They are theonly private indigenous forests in NewZealand not covered by sustainable forestmanagement requirements.

The opportunity for harvesting timberwithout the obligation for sustainable man-agement makes SILNA forests also have highconservation values. There is also an equityissue with landowners of other forests thatare subject to the Act, who see themselvesas disadvantaged. The Government has beeninvolved in a number of settlements to pre-vent such harvesting from taking place, andthe current policy towards SILNA forests isto pursue negotiated settlements with theowners on a section by section basis (thereare over 400 sections in total). These negoti-ated settlements may include bringing thesections under the Forests Act, agreementto a conservation outcome, and withdrawal ofgrievance claims. Inclusion under the ForestsAct would be on a voluntary basis. Themechanism for this is dependent on the pas-sage of the Forests Amendment Bill cur-rently before Parliament. The first stage ofthis process is to gain the agreement ofowners to a one-year voluntary moratoriumon harvesting, on receipt of a small goodwillpayment from the Government.

Cessation of beech logging on State-owned land

State-owned production forests on theWest Coast of the South Island are managedby Timberlands West Coast (TWC) - a stand-alone State-owned enterprise.

The newly elected Government has haltedall beech harvesting in State-owned forests,and amended Timberlands West Coast's mis-

sion statement to preclude the harvesting ofbeech.

Government review of logging (otherthan beech) on State-owned land

The West Coast Accord, signed in 1986,is an agreement between environmentalgroups, local authorities, industry and theGovernment which, amongst other outcomes,resulted in certain areas of forest on theWest Coast of the South Island being setaside for sustainably management timberproduction. The Timberlands Deed of Ap-pointment is based on the West Coast Ac-cord.

TWC has introduced sustainable forestmanagement under independently auditedplans. The management standard in theseRimu forests is generally consistent with theForests Act's requirements, and has beenrecognised internationally. TWC has alsodeveloped and established commercially vi-able aerial extraction techniques (helicopterharvesting) in Rimu forest.

The Government is currently reviewingits obligations under the West Coast Accord,and its options for ceasing all Rimu logging inthe West Coast state forests. At the sametime, the Government has confirmed itscommitment to sustainable forest manage-ment in indigenous forests on private land.

Ongoing debate on processes to deter-mine sustainable forest management, the useof negotiated accords, and sustainable re-source management in general, is likely.

Completion of a land cover databaseThe Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry

has just completed mapping No's land coverthrough analysis of satellite imagery and on-ground verification. The process was startedduring 1996/97 and was completed in May2000. Planted forests, indigenous forests,scrub, and major shelter belts, along with 12other land cover types, can be reliablyidentified on satellite imagery and all areasgreater than one hectare have been mapped.

These images will effectively be a"snapshot" of the location of New Zealand's


forest resource. The Land Cover Databaseimproves the accuracy of core Ministrystatistical databases, assists both inmonitoring shifts in land use and theGovernment's ability to meet a range ofinternational reporting requirements. It isexpected that this data will be pivotal indetermining habitat fragmentation andquantifying the areas of remaining forestvegetation by forest type.

On-going development of a NationalEnvironmental Performance Indicators(EPI) Programme

The Ministry for the Environment is de-veloping a national environmental indicatorprogram in order to provide standardisedmethods and protocols for the collection ofenvironmental data.

The Government's objectives for the EPIprogram are:§ to systematically measure the performance

of its environmental policies and legislation;§ to better prioritise policy and improve de-

cision making;§ to systematically report on the state of

New Zealand's environmental assets.A modified Pressure-State-Response

(PSR) model has been used as the framework.This model has been applied in many othercountries and is recognised internationally asa useful framework.

We are now more than 80% through theprocess of confirming the core set of envi-ronmental performance indicators. Onlytransport, urban amenity, energy, animalpests, weeds and diseases remain.

Currently trials of indicators for land, airfreshwater, climate change, ozone and wasteare underway, and indicators for marine,toxics, biodiversity and transport are alsounderway.

Montreal process criteria andindicators for sustainable forestmanagement

New Zealand, Australia, China and Japanfrom the Asia-Pacific region, and 8 othercountries with temperate and boreal forests,are members of the Montreal Process. TheMontreal Process represents the prime

international instrument whereby NewZealand can monitor and assess nationaltrends in forest condition and forestmanagement.

The 11th Montreal Process meeting washeld in November 1999. New Zealand re-cently contributed to a report on "Progressand Innovation" produced by the MontrealProcess group. The first full official reportby member countries will be in 2003. NewZealand has just completed prioritising itsreporting efforts against the 67 indicators.

Collecting the required information forreporting will require a collaborative effortbetween government agencies and theforestry sector. This work has already com-menced.

Certification developmentsThere is a fast growing interest world

wide in timber certification. There are ahandful of schemes that have been adoptedinternationally and regionally, while a numberof countries are developing their own nationalschemes.

New Zealand participated in a meeting inNew York last year initiated by Australia.This meeting allowed for considerable shar-ing of experiences with certification. Whilstgovernment intervention in the internationalmarket was not necessarily seen as being re-quired at this point, it was agreed that it wasimportant that governments continue tomonitor developments in this area.

The New Zealand forest industry hasbeen heavily involved, through chairing theInternational Forestry Industries' Roundta-ble, in developing a framework for mutualrecognition based on substantive equivalenceof different systems. Within New Zealand,the NZ Forest Industries Council (NZFIC) isdeveloping a Verification of EnvironmentalPerformance system to provide a cost ef-fective, credible, environmental performanceverification and communication tool for useby New Zealand forest industry companies.This is now undergoing some trials with theintention of implementing it later this year.


Application of certification schemes togrowers of small forests in New Zealandpresents difficulties. Their small scale ofoperations and the high costs associated withmany of these schemes has not encouragedthe adoption of any of the existing proc-esses. VEP and Forest Stewardship Council(FSC) are currently exploring ways to facili-tate participation by small wood lot owners.

Erosion controlThe East Coast Forestry Project is a

Government-funded initiative aimed at con-trolling present and potential erosion in theEast Coast region of the North Island bymeans of afforestation, reversion or gullyplanting. This area has some of the world'smost severe soil erosion. Preventing the ero-sion is a key land sustainability issue facingNew Zealand.

A government review of the project,completed in 1999, adopted the single objec-tive of promoting the sustainable use of60,000 ha of highly erosion-prone land.Funding was approved to continue at up to$6.5 million per year. This will enable newplanting to continue at 2-3,000 ha per year.Around 40% of the target area is Maori-owned land.

Health and safety implementationsThe forest industry has one of New

Zealand's highest accident rates by interna-tional standards. Both the New ZealandForest Industries Council and the NewZealand Forest Owners' Association havecommittees focusing on safety. Recently, theindustry training organisation - ForestIndustries Training - developed a ForestSafe Campaign that seeks to change workers'behaviour and attitudes.

In 1999, the Occupational Safety andHealth (OSH) Service of the Department ofLabour completed a Safety Code of Practicefor Forestry Operations, and Guidelines forthe Provision of facilities and General Safetyand Health in Forestry Work.

Forest companies environmentalmanagement system (EMS)implementation

Most of the major companies in NewZealand have implemented their own EMS'sin the last few years. These typically morethan cover their obligations under variousacts such as the Resource Management Actand Health and Safety in Employment Act. Asa consequence, the applicability of the indus-try Code of Practice for Forest Harvestinghas to a degree been made redundant forthese companies because of the existence ofmore detailed and company-specific operat-ing guidelines.

Wood processing and utilisationMost of the wood available for process-

ing over the next 5 to 6 years is owned ormanaged by a few companies, all of whomhave wood processing divisions. Investmentby the current large forestry companies islikely to be in both new plants and exten-sions, and upgrades to existing plants. Expan-sions by existing smaller independent saw-millers are most likely to be in plantupgrades. The industry faces a significantchallenge to process the future harvest ex-pansion.

With changes in resource managementregulations, and increasing wood productionin many wood-processing companies, the useof wood residue flows within the productionsite has increased in importance over the lastfew years. For large integrated processingsites (where a solid wood processing plant iscolocated with either panel or pulp and paperplants) the practice of using wood residuefor heat generation for other processes isalready in place. The focus is on processimprovement to reduce costs and externalwaste flows.

Data from the Ministry of Agricultureand Forestry's Annual Survey of Sawmillsand Chipmills for the year ending 31 March1999 indicates that 16 % of residues from


the sawmilling process is used to provideheat and steam at an associated processingplant. This figure is up from 11 percent in the1995 survey.

Pest and disease incursionsTo protect forests and agriculture from

harmful pests and diseases, New Zealand re-quires that timber imports must be free ofbark, fungi and insects. All imports are in-spected at port of entry and where con-tamination is found, fumigation is required.

The increase in imports and internationalpassenger movements has increased the levelof risk that New Zealand faces from pestsand diseases.

Government and industry-fundedsurveillance programs using independentservice providers are in place to detect anypests that are introduced.

The level of surveying required to meetthe probability of detection is determinedthrough risk profile modelling techniques.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestryis addressing a number of issues:

§ The risks associated with the importationof used vehicles.§ Revision of the import health standard for

pine seed to combat the threat of pinepitch canker.§ The risk of pests being introduced via the

outside of imported containers. Viablegypsy moth egg masses have been found oncontainers on more than one occasion, fol-lowing targeted inspections. A risk as-sessment of the external surfaces of im-ported sea containers is currently underaction.§ The quarantine risk from air cargo imports.§ The need to ensure quarantine measures

conform with the International Plant Pro-tection Convention and the World TradeOrganisation's Sanitary and PhytosanitaryAgreement, signed by New Zealand.§ Incursions necessitating recent responses

from the Ministry, including the paintedapple moth (Teia anartoides) in Auckland,which is a potentially serious threat toforestry and horticulture, the gumleafskeletoniser (Uraba lugens) at Tauranga,which is a potentially serious threat to theincreasing eucalypt estate, subterranean

termites in Otorohanga, and Dutch elm dis-ease in Auckland.

Amendments to the ResourceManagement Act

The forest industry has been very activein pursuing an effects-based approach tolocal authority plans produced under the Re-source Management Act 1991, rather thanthe previous prescriptive approach.

Key forestry issues in the planning proc-ess include:§ treating forestry equitably with other land

uses, which flows from controlling effectsand not activities;§ establishing planning certainty, especially

given forestry's long timeframes;§ processing of resource consents (cost and

time); and§ Developing self-regulation and recognising

and utilising Codes of Practice.The Resource Management Amendment

Bill addresses a number of the forestry in-dustry's concerns to varying degrees. Itincludes provisions that would enable con-testable resource consent processing andconsent applicants or submitters to requestcommissioners to consider applications. Itcontains other provisions to streamline con-sent processes, reduce duplication of re-sponsibilities within regional and territorialgovernment, and tighten the requirementsfor cost-benefit analysis of council planning.

Assessment of IPF ProposalsMost of the IPF proposals will be covered

in New Zealand through meeting our obliga-tions in other areas, e.g. the MontrealProcess, the Kyoto Protocol, the BiodiversityConvention, the RMA, the Forest Act, andthe Biosecurity Act. Nonetheless, a "gapanalysis" was initiated early this year toensure that the proposals are being covered.

Increasing energy usage and awarenessThe availability of competitive energy

sources is particularly important for woodprocessing industry development. Furtherinvestment may be delayed/ hindered if ap-propriate and adequate energy supplies areperceived to be not available at competitiveprices.


The wood processing industry is esti-mated to have consumed around 50 peta-joules (PJ), or 12% of the total NZ energyconsumption in 1998. Of this, pulp and paperproduction consumed around 44 PJ. Theenergy used by the wood processing industryin 2020 is expected to reach 83 PJ, up 66%from 1998. The potential for co-generationof energy has been realised by the forestindustry, which produces around 50% of theenergy it consumes by burning pulp and woodresidues.

Emerging labour concernsA labour shortage is developing in the

forest growing and harvesting sectors, whichwill be exacerbated with an increasing woodsupply. While employment opportunities arerising, particularly in harvesting, forestry isseen as an unattractive industry. (See alsotraining below).

Port upgradingForestry's competitive advantage is

critically linked to continuous improvement atthe country's ports. Port reforms initiated inthe late 1980s have resulted in greaterloading efficiencies and more flexibleworking hours, with consequent economicbenefits to the port companies.

Forestry products exports are projectedto increase substantially due to the increasein harvest volumes over the next 5 to 10years. Many ports around New Zealand areupgrading and adding new facilities to servicethe expanding volume and range of forestproduct exports.

Research status and issuesResearch and development are key to up-

grading New Zealand forestry's commercialand environmental competitive advantages.Forestry sector research and developmentexpenditure is drawn from both the PublicGood Science Fund (PGSF) and forest indus-try investment as illustrated in the table 2.below.

Table 2: Expenditure on Research and Devel-opment (in million $)

Subject 1996/97 1997/98 1998/89Total PGSF 266.8 294.5 304.0PGSF For-estry

22.7(8.5%)

24.6(8.4%)

24.7(8.2)

Industryinvestment 36.0 44.8 32.6

NZ Forest Industries Council (NZFIC)has recently produced a report on StrategicDirections in Research and Technology forNew Zealand's Forest-Based Industries. Theobjective of the strategy is to provide anintegrated approach to the research andtechnology needs of New Zealand's forest-based industries. Forest Research (a State-owned Research Institute), continues to con-duct internationally respected research intogrowing and managing forests and using for-estry products. However, spreading the re-search findings to parts of the sector thatdo not directly fund Forest Research is oftenlimited. Information on species other thanRadiata pine is restricted, and Forest Re-search has recently reduced funding on al-ternative species.

Training and education initiativesThe training needs and qualifications re-

quirements of five forestry sectors (growingand harvesting, biosecurity, solid wood proc-essing, wood panels, and pulp and paper) aredetermined by the industry through ForestIndustries Training (FIT), and registered onthe New Zealand Qualifications Authority(NZQA) framework. FIT is the forestry'sIndustry Training Organisation (ITO), and apart of the NZ Forestry Industries Council.

FIT is the largest of 52 ITOs and catersfor the needs of over 8,500 trainees. Theorganisation has experienced sustainablegrowth over the past four years from under3,000 trainees to nearly three times thatfigure.

Over half of the education and training isdelivered by a number of independenttraining providers, namely polytechnics and


private training enterprises accreditedthrough NZQA.

Much on-the-job training takes place inforests and mills. Many companies have optedto link their own company training systems tothe nationally recognised industry trainingframework based on unit standards and na-tional qualifications.

Government financial support throughForest Industries Training for the1999/2000 year is $4.4 million ($4.2 millionin 1998/99) - with the industry typicallycontributing just over half of that amount.

Considerable progress has been made ondeveloping programs and systems to improvetraining achievement, e.g. from 2000 onwardson the job training and assessment will besubsidised.

Industry training is complemented by on-going technology transfer activities providedfor by industry associations, such as theTimber Industry Federation, New ZealandPine Manufacturers Association, ForestIndustry Engineering Association and the NZInstitute of Forestry.

Community issuesForestry's effects on rural communities

and environments in New Zealand have gen-erally been positive and for the year ending30 June 1999, forestry directly providedjobs for more than 25,000 people. However,the forest industry is being asked to respondto a number of challenges, including:§ potential impacts of harvesting activities

on ecological values;§ the perception of planted forestry as a

monoculture (based on a single species) andassociated concerns;§ impacts on rural community populations,

infrastructure and employment;§ landscape changes; and§ road infrastructure demands and safety.

Tapping Maori forestry potentialForestry has a number of advantages for

the Maori, as compared with other potentialland uses. It is seen as an inter-generationaluse, providing a return to the owners through

harvesting approximately once per genera-tion. Forestry is relatively profitable and canprovide Maori with valuable employment op-portunities. It protects hill country fromerosion. One of the main factors restrictingnew Maori planting has been the difficulty inobtaining development finance for multiple-owned land.

A common strategic objective of recentgovernments has been closing the economicand social gaps between Maori and non-Maori.The establishment of a Cabinet Committee onClosing the Gaps, headed by the Prime Minis-ter, shows the current government's com-mitment to this objective.

Around 21 percent of all planted forestsare on Maori-owned land. Most of these for-ests are owned and controlled by forestrycompanies or the Government, through long-term (up to 99 years) forestry leases. Thegovernment is progressively transferring itsinterests in the leases to the Maori landown-ers. Over the period 1997-99 the Govern-ment negotiated two direct sales and oneprogressive transfer to the Maori. Discus-sions with other lessors are making good pro-gress.

The transfer of lease forests to Maorilandowners has the potential to significantlyincrease Maori involvement in commercialforestry in the Central North Island,Northland and East Coast regions. This inturn could have implications for Maori eco-nomic and social development.

In addition, there are claims on State-owned lands under an historical treaty(Treaty of Waitangi) signed between Maoriand the State. Forest assets have been usedto fund and settle some of these claims.

Rental income from the forested landsgoes into a fund administered by the Gov-ernment Forestry Rental Trust, with interestfrom the fund going to assist the progress ofMaori claims to the forests.

International agreements andconventions

The expanding forest estate is thoughtto be offsetting a high proportion of NewZealand's carbon emissions.


New Zealand's Kyoto Protocol target isto stabilise emissions at 1990 levels on aver-age for the period 2008-2012.

New Zealand still has to make decisionson a mix of measures that will deliveremission reductions across the economy.Some of these decisions can only be madeonce international negotiations resolve thenecessary details of the Kyoto Protocol.Central among these issues is the treatmentof greenhouse sinks.

New Zealand has undertaken significantafforestation/ reforestation efforts sincethe agricultural reforms of the late 1980s.Therefore, forest sinks are important toNew Zealand because the expanding forestestate will offset a high proportion of NewZealand's carbon emissions.

An economic instrument that rewards ab-sorption is likely to boost the expansion ofplanted and indigenous forests, creatingclimate change and other environmentalbenefits.

Development of a Carbon MonitoringSystem (CMS)

A program to develop a monitoring sys-tem for a national carbon budget in indige-nous vegetation and soil started in 1996.

The overall aim of the project is to de-velop a framework national system for moni-toring carbon in indigenous forests and scrubland, and in soils, to ensure that New Zealandcan meet its reporting requirements underthe Framework Convention on Climate Change(FCCC). It will also assist in meeting othernational and international reportingrequirements.

The estimates of total forest and scrubcarbon are satisfactory to meet the report-ing requirements of the FCCC.

The proposed CMS will be based on a na-tional uniform square grid containing a per-manent sample plot system. Estimates ofcarbon stocks will be determined by usingallometric relationships to the tree andshrub diameter and height measurements andto measures of dead wood volume. The mainspatial data source will be the land use

database that has been developed (referabove). The system being developed to moni-tor soil carbon is a modification of the IPCCapproach. New Zealand's land area has beenstratified into climatic and soil classes, andoverlain by land-cover/land-use (LC/LU)classes to derive climate/soil/land-use cells.Climate and soil classes are regarded asconstant over time, while LC/LU classeschange. Coefficients of change are being de-veloped to estimate changes in soil carbon asa function of land use change over time. Theclimate and soil classifications have beencompleted and tested.

The first three-year phase of theproject ended in June 1999. The Ministry forthe Environment appointed an internationalreview panel to assess whether it and otherstakeholders could have confidence in theapproach and systems being developed by theresearch providers.

The CMS will provide important contri-butions for New Zealand's internationalreporting requirements under the UNFCCC,UN/FOA/TBFRA-2000 and Montreal Proc-esses.

Release of national biodiversitystrategy

As a signatory to the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity, New Zealand's draft Biodi-versity Strategy was launched in January1999. The strategy sets a vision, goals andactions towards conserving and sustainablyusing New Zealand's biodiversity.

The intention of the draft biodiversitystrategy is to:§ Increase our knowledge of our indigenous

biodiversity and key threats to it. Fill criti-cal information gaps through a co-ordinated national research strategy forbiodiversity.§ Make information about indigenous biodi-

versity more available and accessible topeople and communities to enable them tomake decisions and take actions to con-serve and sustainable manage biodiversity.§ Develop performance standards and codes

of practice to assist primary producers andbusinesses to sustain biodiversity.


The forest industry is involved in a num-ber of joint initiatives with conservationgroups to protect biodiversity values. Exam-ples are, the New Zealand Forest Accord,the Principles for Commercial PlantationForest Management in New Zealand, and theCarter Holt Harvey-sponsored ProjectCrimson (to protect and enhance Pohutukawaand Rata).

Asia-Pacific economic co-operationA key APEC objective is to strengthen

the open multilateral trading system and toreduce barriers to trade in goods and serv-ices among participating economies. In 1999,APEC leaders gave strong support for thelaunch of the new WTO round. This was toinclude comprehensive market access nego-tiations on industrials (which include forestproducts) being completed within three yearsand consideration of the "Accelerated TariffLiberalisation" proposal by the APECeconomies that would have ensured fastertariff reductions for forestry products.

The Seattle Ministerial Conference inDecember 1999 was, however, suspendedwithout reaching a formal conclusion. Never-theless, it is important that New Zealand andAPEC continue to work towards the re-launchof a broad-based round of WTO nego-tiations, including non-agricultural productsto reduce barriers to forestry productstrade.

Timber imports tariff reductionSince mid 1980's successive New Zealand

governments have committed to a steady andsignificant reduction in tariffs on importedtimber. The rates were reduced furtherbetween 1998 and 1999 to where they arenow typically around 6.5% to 7% on timberand timber products.

The current government has frozentariffs at the 1999 level, and these will bereviewed again in 2005.

In 1999, it imported around US$550 mil-lion worth of forest products. Of this, lessthan 1% was made up of tropical timber.Sawn timber accounted for around 60% ofthe tropical timber imports andplywood/veneers made up a further 35%.Major timber suppliers were Indonesia(24%), Fiji (17%), and Australia (14%).

Focal PointDavid RhodesSenior Policy AnalystInternational PolicyMinistry of Agriculture and ForestryASB Bank House101-103 The TerraceP.O. Box 2526, WellingtonTelephone: 64-4-4989829Fax: 64-4-4744206E-mail: [email protected]

******

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Pakistan138

PakistanCountry dataTotal land area 1995 (thousand ha) 77,088Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land area 1,748/2.3Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 1,580Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%) -275/ -1.1Population total 1997 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1990-95 (%) 143.8/ 2.7Rural population 1997(%) 64.6GNP per person 1995 in US$ 46.0


General information

Improving and transforming the country intoa free market economy has been a top priorityof the Government since 1990. In 1991,economic policies were formulated in thatdirection, including a programme ofprivatisation, deregulation, and the formulationof new agricultural, industrial, and energypolicies. In order to support the expansion ofinternational trade and investment, relationswere strengthened with members of theAssociation of South East Asian Nations(ASEAN) and Japan. Economic co-operationlinks were also strengthened with Turkey.

The military took over the government on 12October 1999. It was the major event duringthe last two years. The Military Governmentoutlined 7 agendas as follows: rebuildingnational confidence and morale, strengtheningthe federation, removing inter-provincialdisharmony and restoring national cohesion,reviving the economy and restoring investorsconfidence, ensuring law and dispensingspeedy justice, depoliticising state institutions,devolution of power to grass root levels, andensuring the board’s accountability. TheGovernment emphasised loan and tax recovery,accountability and revival of economy andrestoration of investors’ confidence. Further,the Government announced an economic revivalplan consisting of tax reform, reprioritisationof public expenditure towards

poverty reduction, debt reduction, andprivatisation and reviving investors’ confidence.

Although some problems were faced,including economic sanctions, the economicperformance showed positive progress. TheGDP grew by 4.5%, the agriculture sector grewby 5.5% in 1999, and exports and importsincreased by 9.8% and 10.9% respectively.

Agriculture is the largest sector ofPakistan’s economy, accounting for 26% of theGDP. It employs around 46% of work force(52% of the rural labour force), andcontributes 45% to the net export earnings.The main commodities are wheat, cotton, rice,sugar cane, pulses, tea, and livestock. In recentyears, awareness about the importance offorests has increased, and there is nowconcern for increasing the area of land underforests.

The agricultural policy adopted in May 1991envisaged an increase in the existing forestareas from 5.4% to 10% during the next 15years. It also contained a commitment tocombat environmental degradation and con-serve biodiversity by improving the managementof hill forests, watersheds, range lands,irrigated plantations and the expansion ofsocial forestry, forest research, education,and extension programmes. In order to helpimplement the afforestation plans, specialemphasis would be put on the concept of socialforestry.

Pakistan’s problems are heterogeneous andcomplex, caused by population growth which

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Pakistan 139

has increased from 34 million in 1951 to 140.5million in 1995. Some decreases in the area ofcropland due to water logging and salinity havereduced the average crop area per person from0.4 ha in 1951 to 0.16 ha in 1995.

Forest resourcesThe forests in Pakistan are heterogeneous

and reflect great physiographic, climatic, andedaphic contrasts. The following forest typesare found:§ Tropical dry deciduous forests;§ Tropical thorn forests;§ Sub-tropical broad-leaved evergreen forests;§ Sub-tropical pine forests;§ Litoral and swamp forests;§ Himalayan moist temperate forests;§ Himalayan dry temperate forests;§ Sub-alpine forests; and§ Alpine scrub.

According to the Government’s report, totalforest area, including range lands, is 10.5million ha, of which 1.4 million ha are produc-tive forests. However, the contribution of theforestry sector to the national economy was0.3% in 1999 due to ban on forest harvesting.

Wood for fuel wood is produced fromstate-owned forests, private farmlands, andwaste lands. A study on Household EnergyStrategy conducted by the Government withassistance from the World Bank, confirmedthat the country’s consumption of fuel wood ishigh, with about 79% of all the householdsusing fuel wood for cooking (82%), spaceheating (7.3%), and water heating (9.8%). Fuelwood is also used in the commercial sector bybakeries, restaurants, in ovens and brick kilns,for tobacco curing, in ceramic products manu-facturing, food processing, etc.

Several forestry development and extensionprogrammes and projects are currently beingexecuted in different parts of the countrywith financial assistance from FAO, UNDP, theWorld Bank, Asian Development Bank, KFW,and the International Fund for AgricultureDevelopment. However, they only cover a smallarea and do not address all the problems of

forest conservation and development.Environment and forestry awareness campaignshave created a lot of enthusiasm amongst thegeneral public.

The Advisory Notes on the Fifth CountryProgramme of Assistance for Pakistan, 1993-1998 were finalised based on four cross-sectoral themes:§ Poverty alleviation (income and employment

generation and social services);§ Environmental protection and natural re-

source management (capacity building);§ Assistance to a deregulated, open-market

economy;§ Institutional adjustment for more effective

management of development (implementationcapacity.

Although the country is deficit in timberand the demand gap of about 734,000 m3 wasmet from imports, the commercial timberharvesting ban is still in effect. This has badlyaffected the income of poor families, whowere mainly dependent upon the commercialsale of the products.

As the result of lack of rain in the pastthree years, some parts of Pakistan have beenbadly affected, particularly Baluchistan Prov-ince and certain parts of Sindh.

The Master Plan for ForestryDevelopment (MPFD)

In view of the country’s problems relatingto forest resources, including the difficulty ofmeeting fuel wood and timber demands, theGovernment decided to prepare a Master Planfor Forestry Development, covering the 25-year period from 1993 to 2018.

The MPFD envisages increasing the forestarea by 10% by the year 2018. This should beachieved by planting new areas on private andpublic lands and restocking public lands.

Watershed protection and development willbe accorded highest priority, and theGovernment will allocate 32% of the totalestimated expenditure. A similar amount will beallocated to planting in the farm lands


programme, amounting to 23% of the totalexpenditure. For planting and wood productionprogrammes, the Government will allocate 19%of the proposed outlay. Programmes for thepreservation of ecosystems and biodiversityshould receive 3.5%, and strengthening ofinstitutions, including administration,education, and research, should represent3.2%.

Action should focus on the following areas:§ Commercial plantations, by planting fast-

growing species in irrigated areas, such aspoplar, eucalyptus, semul, and bamboo;§ Fuel wood plantations on hillocks which are

not suitable for agriculture;§ Afforestation of sand dunes and sand dune

fixation through shelterbelt plantations;§ Watershed rehabilitation through refor-

estation;§ Increasing tree planting by individuals and

communities through social forestry andextension programmes, encouraging NGOinvolvement, and increasing the price of fuelwood and timber in the country.

Recent changes in policy, legislation,and institutions

A donors meeting (International RoundTable) was held on 18 April 1993 in Islamabadto discuss the MPFD document. The meetingwas attended by several donors including ADB,FAO, UNDP, the World Bank, the Netherlands,Switzerland, Japan, IUCN, USAID, ODA,WFP, FINNIDA, and AIDAB, as well asrepresentatives of the central and provincialGovernments.

It was suggested at the meeting that pro-vincial action plans be prepared and greatercommunity participation achieved. As a follow-up to the meeting, ADB agreed to support theimplementation of the Master Plan by providingUS$580,000 over a 15-month period.

Implementation of the MPFD began in thefiscal year 1993-94. The Plan proposed thesetting up of planning and evaluation cells ineach provincial forest department tostrengthen the planning machinery. It alsoproposed the establishment of extension wings

in provincial departments and a centralMonitoring and Evaluation Unit at the federallevel.

The Government felt that the MPFD was toogeneral. It was decided to undertake a socialsector survey in the North West FrontierProvince (NWFP). In 1994, the Governmentrequested ADB to provide support to a projectwith an estimated investment of US$ 75million.

The first forest policy was revised in 1991,and the goals of the new policy feature thefollowing:§ Meeting the country’s environmental needs

and requirements of timber, firewood, fod-der, and other products by raising theafforestation area;§ Conserving the existing forest, watershed,

range land and wildlife resources, and devel-oping them to meet the increasing demand;§ Promoting social forestry;§ Encouraging planting of fast-growing and

multi-purpose species in irrigated plantations,riverine forests, and private lands;§ Generating opportunities for income and self-

employment;§ Promoting NGO and voluntary organisations’

support to public education programmes.

A National Conservation Strategy wasadopted in 1992 and had an important effecton the forest policy. The emphasis on meetingthe country’s environmental needs was a directresult of the policy for conserving naturalresources. Growing concern for environmentalprotection was reflected in the policy forconservation of forests and trees. In line withprivatisation and deregulation policies, a higheremphasis was given to private sectorintervention in forestry development. However,no forest area owned by a public sector forestindustry has been privatised so far.

As a follow-up to UNCED, and given theconcern about the environmental impact ofindustrial projects, environmental protectionagencies were created at the provincial andfederal levels.

The most notable change in forestry


administration was the creation of cells/wingsin provincial forest departments for theimplementation of social forestry programmes.The staffs of these cells approach farmers toexplain the benefits of tree planting. Lecturesare arranged in connection with congregationprayers. Occasionally, seminars are held whichfarmers are encouraged to attend. Farmer’sDays and Farmer’s Conferences are heldperiodically. Plantation Weeks are organisedtwice a year. Cash and other prizes areawarded to farmers who plant the most trees.NGOs are also active in the field, encouragingfarmers to plant more trees.

Progress in increasing the forest area hasbeen limited due to financial and socialconstraints. The only way to increase theforest wealth is to extensively grow trees onfarmlands. In order to involve the farmingcommunity in tree growing activities, socialforestry programmes have been launchedthroughout the country with attractiveincentives in the form of a subsidised supply ofplanting stock, partial payment of planting cost,free protection of planned areas for a limitedperiod of time, and a fair return to thefarmers. As a result, farmers have beeninduced to take up tree growing on 47,000 haof farmlands annually under various socialforestry and watershed management projects.During tree plantation campaigns in 1997,238.4 million plants were planted. Due to thepolitical situation, the country has drawncriticism from abroad. Multilateral and bilat-eral institutions/ donors withheld their dulypaid financial commitments. WB and ADB alsosuspended the already agreed upon loans withthe previous government. Consequently, prog-ress in the forestry sector development isbecoming stunted.

Country wide survival rates of seedlings/saplings were reported at 63% to 81%. Inaddition to increasing planting trees, researchin forestry should focus on:§ methods for creating economic incentives for

responsible stewardship of forests byintegrating forest management with other

activities, such as agriculture and livestockhusbandry;§ education and training to teach the local

people the methods and benefits of inte-grated forest management.

In line with the policy that more focus begiven to community participation, the forestrydepartment staff have been re-oriented to-wards effective people’s participation throughextension and training programmes. During theprocess of implementing the social forestryprogrammes, it was found out that the existingforest policies and acts would not allow fullcommunity participation in the government-owned and managed forests. To overcome theseproblems, institutional and policy reforms arecurrently under way in some provinces.

The present environmental legislation is byand large considered adequate. The laws forcontrolling illicit cutting and damage to eco-systems need to be enforced strictly.

Biodiversity conservationGovernment statistics show that there are 10

national parks with a total area of 954,246 ha,82 wildlife sanctuaries on 2,749,054 ha, and82 game reserves on 3,535,284 ha. However,protection and scientific management of theseareas are not adequate. In the majority ofthese reserves, grazing by domestic stock,collection of fuel wood, cutting of trees, andillegal hunting and poaching are common andalmost nothing is done to preserve theecosystem.

The development of a wildlife park at LoiBher district will be continued. Development oftourist facilities at Ayubia National Park andthe wildlife extension programme will also becarried on.

Pakistan is a signatory to several interna-tional conservation conventions, includingConvention on International Trade in Endan-gered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna(CITES), the Convention on Wetlands ofInternational Importance (RAMSAR), theWorld Heritage Convention and the Conventionon Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild


Animals (Bonn). In addition, Pakistan is amember of the World Conservation Union(IUCN), the International Waterfowl andWetland Research Bureau, and the World WildFund for Nature (WWF)

A national plan for conservation ofbiodiversity is being prepared. All species ofwild plants and animals which are consideredthreatened or endangered species will be giventhe highest priority for conservation in thisplan. The preparation of the plan will beginwith the preservation of habitats and makinginventories of populations under threat. Thewelfare and interests of the local people willbe considered of highest importance in themanagement plans of nature reserves throughthe rural support programme.

Combating desertificationA major part of Pakistan lies in the arid and

semi-arid zones. The total area represented bythe arid and semi-arid zones is 70 million ha,including 11 million ha of sandy deserts in Thal,Cholistan (Punjab), Thar (Sindh), and ChagaiKharan, and also the coastal belt of Mekran,Gwadar, and Lasbela (Balochistan).

Desertification is an ongoing process andrecognised as a severe problem associated withagriculture and grazing animal husbandry insemiarid lands. Measures being suggested tominimise desertification include:

§ controlling desertification by regulatingdevelopment of cropland and livestock;§ maintaining an ecological balance between

livestock numbers and grazing land;§ absorbing excess populations into other

economic activities;§ developing and popularising new energy

sources such as: solar energy, bio-fuels,electricity, fuel wood plantations, and localcoal sources;§ reconverting marginal croplands by changing

land use regulations;§ developing land use patterns that integrate

grazing lands, woodlands, and croplands; and§ developing and applying an integrated master

plan.

Constraints

The main constraints in implementing theforest policy are the lack of funds and thesocio-economic conditions prevailing in forestand rural areas. Funds are scarce, andplanners are reluctant to divert them toforestry projects. The people are poor andilliterate, and are not in a position to co-operate in efforts to conserve forest re-sources.

No changes have taken place in forestrylegislation since the 1990-1992 period. It hasbeen generally recognised that forestry lawsand rules have become irrelevant to the currentsituation, making their revision and updatingessential.

Although the need is clearly recognised toenlist the private sector in forestry pro-grammes, no legislative measures have beenadopted in this regard. New legislation wouldbe necessary in order to achieve the MasterPlan goal of afforestation on private land.

Future actions§ Activate and review the implementation of the

MPFD.§ The expansion of farm and social forestry

planting, involving Governments institutionsand NGOs, with assistance from internationalbanks and aid agencies.§ Planting trees on farmlands to reclaim salt-

affected and waterlogged areas.


Focal pointRafiq AhmadInspector General of ForestMinistry of Food Agriculture and LivestockIslamabad, PakistanPhone: 251- 221246Fax: 9251-213959

*****

Give me fire and I will give you light.(Arab proverb)

Any of us will put out more and better ideas if our efforts are fully appreciated.(Alexander F. Osbon)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Palau144

Palau

Country dataTotal land area (ha) 48,800Total natural forest area 1990 (ha) % of total land 35,100/ 72Reported plantation area 1990 (ha) 180Population 1994 17,000

Source of data: Government statistics

General informationPalau consists of 343 islands, of which

only nine are inhabited. The country is dividedinto 16 States, each having relative autonomy.Agroforestry is the traditional agriculturalpractice in the country. The main crops are:pineapple, banana, taro, cassava, papaya(grown among coconut), breadfruit, mango,betel-nut, and leguminous trees.

Tourism is a major and growing industrywith some 40,000 visitors per year. As a TrustTerritory of the USA, about 95% of thecountry’s national budget comes from the USA.An environment strategy is presently beingprepared with assistance from UNDP.

Forestland is owned by private landowners,communities, or State Governments. Thenational Government does not own or manageforest lands. Plantations of mahogany wereestablished during the 1930 's, but most of theolder plantations have already been harvested.A tree planting programme was started in 1970.Currently, the Forestry Department is plantingabout 10,000 mahogany seedlings and 5,000seedlings of other species per year.

Forestry is a weak sector. It is a branch ofthe Division of Agriculture and Mineral Re-sources and is supervised by a Head Foresterwith a very limited staff. The responsibility forthe management and conservation of naturalresources, including forest resources, lies withthe State Governments. There is a fairly goodinformation base on soil, vegetation and timber.A forest inventory for the island of Babeldaopwas conducted in 1987. A soil map on the scaleof 1:10,000 is available.

The watershed is the most importantelement of forest management for a sustain-able, clean and healthy water supply for thereef and marine ecosystems for tourism andfisheries development.

Since the late 1960s, the USDA ForestService has been providing technical assistanceincluding: a vegetation survey, a review oftimber resources, a forestry plan, an inventoryof ecotourism, a fire protection and firefighting training, and a soil survey.

Policy and planningA preliminary information mission to seven

countries to launch a sub regional NationalForestry Programme (NFP) in the South Pacificregion was carried out in April 1994. Sincethat time no action has been taken for thelaunching of a Forest Policy and StrategicPlanning Process following the Basic Principlesand Operational Guidelines on National ForestProgramme. The mission reported thatinformation on conservation, land tenure, andland ownership is limited. Rehabilitation ofdegraded land and savannah in Babeldaob areimportant aspects that should be covered in astrategic planning exercise. Institutionalaspects, i.e. organisation and human resources,are also weak.

Since the country is very dependent on itsmarine environment and marine resources forthe fisheries and tourism industries, theforestry strategy has to be developed withstrong linkages to these sectors.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Palau 145

The primary focus of forestry in Palau willbe on reforestation and afforestation forwatershed management. Acacia spp. is the maintrees planted because they outperform otherspecies in establishment and growth. However,the native species are beginning to be planted.The nursery capacity has been enlarged tomeet the need for seedlings.

Focal pointHead of Forestry, Division of AgricultureMinistry of Resources and DevelopmentKoror, PalauPhone: 6809-488 147

*****

Make the other person feel important-and do it sincerely.(Dale Carnegie – How to enjoy your life and your job)

If you can’t be a highway, then just be a train;If you can’t be the sun, be a star;It isn’t by size that you win or you fail-Be the best of whatever you are.(Dale Carnegie – How to enjoy your life and your job)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Papua New Guinea146

Papua New Guinea

Country dataLand area 1966 (thousand ha) 45,286Total forests 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land 36,939/81.

6Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 36,909Annual Change in Forest Cover 1990-95 (thousand ha) / annual rate (%) -133/ -0.4Population 1997 (millions)/Annual Rate 1995-2000 4.5/ 2.2Rural population 1997 (%) 83.4GNP per person 1995 (US$) 1.160

Source of data: FAO- State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationAgriculture is the dominant sector in the

Papua New Guinea economy, accounting for35% of the GDP, 40% of exports, andproviding the main source of livelihood for85% of the population. Approximately 55% ofagricultural production comes from cash cropproduction. Three main tree crops (coffee,palm oil, and copra) account for 90% ofagricultural exports. Two-thirds of the treecrop production comes from small-holderfarms.

Minerals are also important commodities,particularly copper and gold. However, miningin PNG is an enclave activity. Most investmentexpenditure goes to imported capital goods.Forward linkages to the rest of the economyare weak, particularly in employmentgeneration. The country must, therefore, lookto other major non-mineral resources fordevelopment.

Some key constraints, which have to betaken into account by the Government whenlaunching development programmes, include:

§ The rugged topography and spread ofislands;

§ The cultural and language diversity (some700 different languages and dialects arespoken);§ Shortage of skilled labour and limited labour

capacity of public institutions;

§ Lack of infrastructure (especially for inter-nal transport); and

§ The fact that 97% of the land is held byclans and tribes under a customary tenuresystem.

The ecological value of biodiversity isenormous, with a rich diversity of Malay andGondwanaland flora and fauna. The floracomprises more than 11,000 species, including2,000 ferns. The lowland forests feature2,000 timber species.

The forestry sector plays an important rolein the subsistence economy of the ruralpopulation. It is a major source of food,provides fuel wood for rural energy needs, andmeets other domestic consumption require-ments. Population pressure on the highlandareas has created local shortages of fuel woodand other forest products. The sectoremployed about 7,500 people, representingabout 4% of the total formal employment. Inmany cases logging companies are responsiblefor providing roads, infrastructure andwelfare services to the landowners. In general,most companies have a poor record of meetingthese obligations.

Forest resourcesThe current estimate of total potential

sustainable production from forest projects isapproximately 3.13 million m3 per year. It is

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Papua New Guinea 147

estimated that 4.4 million ha of forestland willbe converted to agriculture over the next 50years, or an average of 2.6 million m3 per yearover those 50 years. Thus, the annual logharvest (from forestry and conversionprojects) will be approximately 5.73 million m3per year.

The plantation resources are only of minorimportance. There are, at present, three mainprivate plantations, all operated by Japanesecompanies. A chip mill is operating at the GogolPlantation. In 1995, 705,000 BDUs of woodchips were exported. As of 1999, the totalreforested areas amounted to 58,000 ha, ofwhich 35,200 ha were developed by the privatesector. It was reported that some plantationswere unsuccessfully developed due to thefollowing problems: land tenure, resourcesownership, poor management, and a lack offinancial commitment to the project. To avoidduplication of mistakes, these problems shouldbe overcome in order to develop successfulprojects in the future.

It was also reported that there are largeamounts of available information from the pastplantation research works; however, these needto be collected and documented. In addition,there is no specific revenue system or taxationregime in place, which would be suitable toencourage investment from the private sector.To make the plantations competitive andcommercially sound, a major policy review isneeded concerning the place, format, andnature of plantations within the forestrysector, including employment creation andimprovement of deforested grassland.

Policy and planningThe National Forest Plan was approved by

the National Forest Board on 8 May 1996 andsubsequently ratified by Parliament in July1996. The Plan is now official and all futureForestry Projects shall be developed under thisPlan as required under Section 34 of theForestry Act.

The National Forest Policy was approved in1990. The two main objectives of the policyare:§ Management and protection of the nation’s

forest resources as a renewable naturalasset;

§ Utilisation of the nation’s forest resources toachieve economic growth, employmentcreation, greater Papua New Guineanparticipation in industry, and increasedviable onshore processing.

As indicated in the PNG Forest Authority(1998), Corporate Plan of 1998-2001, thecorporate objectives of the Forest Authority isbased on the principles of Sustainable ForestManagement (SFM) as defined by ITTO. Togive weight to its policy of sustainable forestmanagement and to achieve sustainabledevelopment in the forest sector, the followingobjectives are being pursued:§ to formulate and maintain the National Forest

Plan and the National Forest DevelopmentProgramme as defined under the ForestryAct;§ to maintain sustained yield management of

the country’s commercial forest resourcesthrough acquisition of timber andmanagement rights under Forest ManagementAgreements and management of thePermanent Forest Estate;§ to effectively control and monitor harvesting

and export operations to ensure compliancewith the Forestry Act and associated Gov-ernment policies, guidelines and procedures;§ to promote resource owner participation in

the management and utilisation of theirforest resources;§ to provide advice to the Government and

potential investors on forest resourceutilisation options;§ undertake research programmes and data

collection aimed at improving the knowledgebase for sustainable forest management andreforestation;§ to promote a fair and equitable forest

revenue system that provides for fair returnsto landowners, industry and government anda self funding mechanism for the ForestAuthority, which will ensure efficientoperations;§ to promote and facilitate forest plantation

development;§ to promote through extension, public

understanding of the multiple value of trees


and forests for income generation andlivelihood; and§ to invest in sound organisational development

so as to maximise the Forest Authority’sresource utilisation to meet the abovecorporate objectives.

The major problems that the ForestAuthority faces when implementing these policyobjectives are inadequate funding and lack ofcompetent manpower. Lack of suitablelegislation and regulations, including thoserelating to commercial development andbiodiversity protection on customary ownedlands, is another problem faced by the ForestAuthority.

To respond to the international initiativeson sustainable forest development and toarrest deforestation, a National Forests andConservation Action Plan (NFCAP) exercise wasprepared in 1988-1989. The NFCAP identifiedsix major programme areas and priorities foractions:

§ Resource assessment with rapid resourceappraisal and re-inventory of resources;§ A new resource management structure,

including a National Forestry Board,Standing Committees, four National ForestryBoards, a new Forest Service and a newfinancial framework;§ Maximising returns from logging with a

comprehensive review of royalties, exporttaxes, and other revenues from log exports,and by inviting marketing firms to raise theirlevel of activity;§ Industrial development prospects with a

review of the log export ban and theconducting of feasibility studies forsawmill/ board plants, wood chipping andpulp mills;§ Conservation and land-use including a World

Heritage proposal, a national conservationstrategy, rehabilitation of the existingnational parks, an improved ecological andmonitoring programme, training of localpeople, support to NGO activities, and afeasibility study for the establishment of aland-use research council;

§ Institutional and human resource develop-ment.

Through external assistance, notably underthe auspices of the NFCAP, the ForestAuthority has moved forward in implementingits guiding policy of sustainable forestmanagement. Some positive results have beenachieved, including the following:

§ Sustainable forest developmentAs of 1993 onward, all new forestryoperations have a cutting cycle of 35 years.Two approaches have been adopted asfollows: as existing projects come out forreview, they are being renegotiated to allowfor a permitted annual harvest volume basedon a 35-year sustainable logging cycle; andnew projects are only being granted with anannual sustainable harvest volume.§ Acquisition of timber rights

Land ownership in PNG is vested withcustomary owners. The acquisition orpurchase of forest management rights fromthe customary owners is a prerequisite for aforestry development to take place. Theacquisition consists of the following steps: a)conduct a forest inventory of timber areas;b) conduct land awareness and incorporationof land groups under the Incorporation ofLand Group Act; and c) compilation andexecution of a Forest Management Agree-ment. Major constraints and problemsinclude: a) the procedures are lengthy; b)due to a capacity problem, land groupdocuments may not be adequately assessedfor compliance; and c) defining landboundaries is an extremely difficult task dueto lack of proper documentation.§ Landowner Companies

The Landowner Company (LOC) concept wasdeveloped in order to increase nationalparticipation in the forestry sector under the1979 National Forest Policy. It is good intheory. However, most of the LOC’s havebeen plagued by mismanagement, corruption,and in fighting between different landownerfactions. The main problems are the lack ofeducation and business knowledge by themajority of the landowners, difficulties in

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Papua New Guinea 149

successfully structuring the LOC’s due to thecomplex land tenure system, and theproliferation of landowner’s groups.§ Improving the level of monitoring and

surveillance of log harvesting and exportoperationsThe standard of monitoring of forestryoperations in the field has been set. Thisincludes the engagement of a privatesurveillance company – SGS (PNG) Ltd tomonitor all log export operations. § Domestic processing policy

A study to review the domestic processingpolicy options and to recommend the mostefficient package of measures to encourageits development was completed in July 1998.The Government is yet to evaluate therecommendations of the study. It is realisedthat as a matter of urgency the Governmentmust establish a clear domestic processingpolicy for the forestry sector which isachievable and sustainable. Currently, theofficial Government policy is for a log exportban by the year 2000. Clearly this will not beachieved. The reality is that with thecountry’s current financial difficulties, theGovernment is eager to retain the financialbenefits from log exports.§ Plantation sector

There is huge potential for rural employmentgeneration through plantation development,particularly on the large areas of deforestedgrasslands.§ Code of Logging Practise

The PNG Logging Code of Practise wasfinalised in February 1996. As of July 1997,it becomes mandatory. There were someproblems faced for the full implementationof the Code. The AusAid project on humanresource development that commenced in1995 has had a positive impact on theeffectiveness of field staff. It is expectedthat all the forestry training in PNG will beoverhauled, including the training of industryfield staff.

The NFCAP exercise was reviewed by ateam in September 1994. The team assessed theeffectiveness, issues and constraints, impact,

and relevance of NFCAP, as well as NGOs anddonor agencies participation. The review teammade the following assessments andrecommendations:

§ NFCAP has been partially successful inachieving its objectives;§ NFCAP should be continued, but requires

strong and explicit commitment to sustainableconservation and a transparent administrativeand legal process, backed by adequatefinancial and human resources;§ Enhancing landowner awareness, local

capacity in management, non-wood forestproducts development and strengthening theNFCAP Steering Committee;§ Strengthening the consultation process;§ Improvement of the data-base, training, and

capacity building;§ Decentralisation of planning;§ Promote the utilisation aspect to include small

scale investment, phase out log exports, andreview the revenue system;§ Develop a code of harvesting and its aspects.

LegislationSome important legislation related to

sustainable forest management have beenexecuted, including the following:§ PNG Logging Code of Practice. The Code was

finalised in February 1996 and approved bythe Parliament in July 1996. Activities whichhave been undertaken to ensure fullimplementation of the Code include: a)Development of the key standard forselection logging; b) Development of a newset of field planning, monitoring, and controlprocedures which set out required pre-logging planning, monitoring, and controlduring logging operations, and post loggingactivities; c) Advertising the Code in allmajor newspapers; and d) Training coursesfor all field staff regarding the planning,monitoring, and control procedures of theCode.§ Forest Protection Policy. The Policy was

passed by the National Executive Council(NEC) in July 1996, and the Guidelines for


Conversion of Forest was passed in January1997.

Collaboration with partnersSeveral donors have been providing support

to the forestry sector development in thecountry including: the Japanese Government(JICA), ITTO, the New Zealand Government,Australia (AusAid), bilateral NGOs from theUSA (Mc. Arthur Foundation), WB, UNDP, GEF,and FAO.

On 28 April 1995, the Governmentannounced that it had agreed to adhere to astructural adjustment programme in associationwith the World Bank, IMF, and other majordonors and lending agencies in return forbudgetary support to overcome the nation’sfinancial problems. The programme includes thefollowing specific forestry measures: a)refrain from introducing amendments to theForestry Act of 1991; b) ensure that areas ofnatural forests which are used for logproduction are managed on a sustainable basis;c) introduce a new forest revenue systemincorporating a marginal progressive output taxscale; d) provide the

authority with an operating budget equal inreal terms to that allocated in 1995; e) ensurethat the Forest Authority formally adopts aforestry and operational code of conduct ofthe PNG’s Code of Logging Practice.

PNG is a signatory of several internationalagreements and conventions, including: a)International Tropical Timber Agreement; b)Convention on Biodiversity Conservation; and c)Convention on Framework of Climate Change.PNG is actively involved in several internationalinitiatives dealing with forest and forestry,including participating in the deliberations invarious sessions of IPF/IFF, CITES and otherinternational initiatives on forests andforestry.

Focal pointThomas NenManaging DirectorPNG Forest AuthorityNational Forest ServiceP.O. Box 5055Boroko NCD, Papua New GuineaPhone: 675-3277841/887Fax: 675-3254433E-mail: [email protected]

*****

The only way you will never be criticised is if you do nothing,say nothing or have nothing.

You will end up being a big nothing.(Shiv Khera – You can win)

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Philippines 151

Philippines

Country dataTotal land area , 1996 (thousand ha) 29,817Total forest 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of land area 6,766/ 22.7Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 6,563Change in forest cover 1990-95/ annual change in % -1,312/ -3.5Population 1997 (millions)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000(%) 70.7/ 2.0Rural population 1997 (%) 44.2GNP per person in 1993 (US$) 1,050

Source of data: FAO-State of the World’s Forest 1999

General information

The Philippines is home to 10 major culturalgroups and many ethnic minority groups. Theagricultural sector plays a dominant role in theeconomy of the country. The industrial sectorderives a large portion of its raw materialsfrom the agricultural sector. Starting in 1992,the economy saw a modest growth. TheGovernment is actively seeking to develop aneconomic framework that will create a moreattractive investment climate and stimulateprivate sector business activities. Economicindicators show that the economic situation ofthe country is improving. This economic devel-opment was brought about by macro-economicstability, increasing foreign exchange, tradeliberalisation, regulatory reforms, and privati-sation.

The overall land use pattern of the countryin 1999 was as follows (in million ha):§ Alienable or disposal (A or D) 14.145§ Forest lands 14.766§ Unclassified public lands 1.089

Over the past several decades, the countryhad become one of the most active producersand exporters of logs and other wood productsin the Asia Pacific Region. These importantcontributions to the economy were notsustainable due to the massive conversion toother land uses, forest fires, and illegallogging, among other reasons. Regarding trade,the country had a wood and wood products

export and import ratio in 1984 of 91:11, whichchanged to 51:49 in 1994. In 1998, the countrywas a net importer of wood and wood prod-ucts; the total value of logs, lumber, plywood,and veneer was US$ 43.0 million, while importstotalled US$ 17.291 million.

The Government has crafted the PhilippineStrategy for Sustainable Development (PSSD)as the basic framework for the country’sdevelopment to promote economic growthwithout putting into jeopardy the existence ofthe country’s biological resources and itsbiodiversity, vital ecosystem functions and theoverall environmental quality. The PSSD has thefollowing core activities:§ integration of environmental considerations

in the decision making;§ proper pricing of resources;§ proper right reforms;§ establishment of an Integrated Protected

Areas System;§ rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems;§ integration of population concerns and social

welfare in development planning;§ inducing growth in rural areas;§ promotion of environmental education; and§ strengthening of citizen’s participation and

constituency building.

The Department of Environment and Na-ture Resources (DENR) is the governmentinstitution for the management of nationalparks, and other protected areas. At themoment, there are 69 terrestrial areas desig-

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Philippines152

nated as national parks, of which 59 are underthe control of DENR and the rest are under thePhilippine Tourism Authority (PTA).

Forest resourcesThe estimated area of natural forests was

about 5.39 million ha, or roughly 18% of thecountry’s total land area as follows (in millionha):§ Dipterocarp Forests 3.54§ Pine forests 0.23§ Mangrove forests 0.11§ Mossy forests 1.04§ Submarginal forests 0.47

StrategyThe forest development programmes,

strategies and approaches have to be geared tothe PSSD, of which the following threedevelopment strategies have been crafted:Master Plan for Forestry Development; Com-munity - Based Forest Management Strategy;and the 14-Strategies of the present Admini-stration.

1. Master Plan for Forestry DevelopmentThe Government launched the Master Plan

for Forestry Development (MPFD) at the end of1988. It is a nation-wide and aggregateblueprint for the development of the forestrysector across a 25-year horizon. It presents aholistic approach to the multi-dimensional con-cerns in forestry. The function of the MPFD isto point the direction that the country'sforestry sector should take, and to draw thesupport needed to move the sector in theprescribed direction. The international roundtable meeting to discuss the MPFD implemen-tation was held in October 1990. The exercisewas supported by the Asian Development Bank(ADB) and FINNIDA.

The general goal of the MPFD is to achievethe following conditions:§ equitable access for all Filipinos to opportu-

nities for the development and managementof the forests and their benefits;§ scientific management, conservation and

utilisation of forest resources by a mix ofmanagers from the private sector and local

communities in partnership with the Govern-ment; and§ fulfil, on a sustainable basis, the people's

needs for forest-based commodities, servicesand amenities.

The objectives of the MPFD are:§ to conserve the forest ecosystem and its

diverse genetic resources;§ to meet the needs for wood and other forest

products by placing all the country'sproduction forest under sustainable man-agement;§ to protect the land and its resources against

degradation such as desertification, soilerosion, floods and other ecologicalcalamities through proper land managementand practices;§ to contribute to the production of food,

water, energy, and other basic needs byproperly managing upland watersheds;§ to promote social justice and equity, and

recognition of the rights of indigenouscommunities (ICCs) in the management,conservation and utilisation of forest re-sources; and§ to contribute to employment and growth of

the national and local economies throughfully developed forest-based industries.

The plan proposes 15 programmes, groupedunder three umbrella programmes (fiveprogrammes in each umbrella pro-gramme):§ man and the environment;§ forest management and products develop-

ment, which encompasses the management andutilisation of forest resources to meet theneeds of people for products, employment,and economic development; and§ institutional development to address the

relevant concerns to ensure that forestdevelopment proceeds in a planned and wellprepared manner. A major focus of the MPFDhas been to provide opportunities forpeople's participation in forestry develop-ment, management, and utilisation so they willbecome dedicated advocates of forestconservation.


The MPFD exercise has been blended andincorporated into the country's medium-termdevelopment plan for the period 1993-1998 andPhilippine Agenda 21. Future programs,projects, investment planning, and implemen-tation will be tied-up with the MPFD and mustbe incorporated in the five-year developmentand annual plans. The aggregate cost of the 15programmes is US$ 76.06 billion over the 25-year period 1991-2015.

Mechanisms to direct the implementation ofthe plan have been institutionalised. A formalplanning organisational structure was evolvedand serves as a focal point for forestryplanning in the country, including the creationof four groups: the National Planning Group,the Regional Planning Group, the ProvincialForestry Planning Group, and the CommunityEnvironment and Natural Resources ForestryPlanning Group. In addition to the abovegroups, other relevant agencies, includingNGOs, private organisations, organisedcommunities and beneficiaries of the Plan willactively participate in the overall planning andimplementation through a continuous dialogueof consultation and mobilisation.

Drastic structural changes and policyreforms have been implemented since theadoption of the MPFD. A number of laws,executive orders and administrative orderswere issued to guide implementation offorestry programmes, projects, and activities insupport of the MPFD. Laws were also issued tosustain development strategies that evolvedfrom the progressive turn of events anddemands in the country, including thefollowing:

§ Department Administrative Order (DAO) No.24, series of 1991 prohibits logging of theold growth, effective from 1st January 1992.Logging is banned on slopes of 50% gradientand over 1,000 meters above sea level.Demarcation of boundaries for permanentforests is nearing completion. Protection ofthese areas is being intensified under thenewly institutionalised Forest ProtectionInformation System (FPIS).

§ Republic Act 7586, known as the NationalIntegrated Protected Area System Act,protects and conserves the country's forestresources, and addresses the problem ofenvironmental degradation.§ Republic Act No. 7161 imposes a forest

charge equivalent to 25% of the FOB pricefor all timbers extracted from the forests;§ Department Administrative Order (DOA)

No.3, series of 1993 prohibits the use of thehighland yarding system in the dipterocarpforests.§ DAO No. 60, series of 1993 provides for the

conversion of the existing timber licenceagreements (TLAs) to industrial forestmanagement agreements (IFMAS) under aproduction/profit sharing agreement.§ Executive Order No. 263 adopts community-

based forest management as the nationalstrategy to ensure sustainable developmentof the country's forestland resources.Consistent with the paradigm of shifting fromcommercial corporate utilisation, thisenvisions that organised local communitieswork together with the Government in thesustainable management of the forestresources.

A New Forestry Code (NPC) and anEnvironment Code (EC) designed to support theimplementation of the MPFD wereinstitutionalised. The Government, through theDENR, entered into a joint Memorandum ofAgreement with the Department of Interior andLocal Government, Department of Public Worksand Highways, and the Civil Service Commissionfor urban greening, through an Adopt-a-Street/Park Programme.

Policy reforms streamline forest resourcesdevelopment. Among these policies are:§ a ban on logging in the old growth forest and

critical areas;§ a ban on the export of logs and lumber;§ integration of all community-based forest

management programmes and projects;§ the sustainable management of residual

forests;§ application of appropriate technology on

forest harvesting;


§ improvement of forest-based industries;§ capability strengthening for forest protec-

tion and support institutions;§ establishment of a centre for forest pest

management and research;§ inclusion of gender concerns in the develop-

ment process;§ integration of environmental impact assess-

ment;§ research and development.

One of the important MPFD long-termpolicy recommendations is that all the forestresources should be under efficient andequitable management, conservation, andutilisation for the needs of the people forforest-based commodities and services throughappropriate means and on a sustainable basis.Among the important policy reforms are thepeople-oriented forestry programmes andforest plantation development programmes.

Under the people-oriented forestry pro-gramme are several components such as: theIntegrated Social Forestry Programme (ISFP),Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA),and Community Based Forest Management(CBFM). The ISFP recognises the needs of theforest occupants for the land they till bygranting them a Certificate of StewardshipContract, which provides them with a maximumof 7 ha of land with a tenure security for 25years, renewable for another 25 years basedon performance. FLA is a production-sharingcontract entered into by the government and afamily, community, or corporation for themanagement of plantation areas that have beenestablished under the contract reforestationscheme. CBFM is a concept of allocating aportion of the public forest to a givencommunity to manage.

Under the industrial forest plantationsystem, the government encourages privateinvestors to engage in industrial forestplantations. Incentives available for investmentin plantations include, among others:§ income tax exemption for three years after

the start of commercial harvest;§ tax and duty-free importation of capital

equipment;

§ tax credit on domestic capital;§ deduction for labour expenses after the tax

holiday;§ exemption from wharfage dues and export

taxes and duties; and§ exemption from the contractor’s tax.

Recently, the Socialised Industrial ForestManagement Programme (SIFMP) was launchedwhich recognises the individual rights ofequitable access to natural resourcesdevelopment and utilisation. The Programmeintends to enable individuals, families, co-operatives or corporations to engage inplantation establishment ranging from one ha to500 ha. Qualified individuals/ groups would begiven the following incentives:

§ the right to harvest, sell and utilise plantationcrops;§ export of logs, lumber and other forest

products harvested from SIFMP in accor-dance with the government allocation system;§ exemption from payment of forest charges;

and§ entitlement to appropriate and reasonable

compensation for the developments in thearea.

It must be remembered that the MasterPlan was formulated in 1988 and that severalnew international and national initiatives havetaken place since Rio, 1992, including theIntergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) andthe Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF).Several partners are of the view that the MPFDneeds to be assessed or reviewed for itsachievements, usefulness, weaknesses, threats,issues and problems. As requested by DENR,the UNDP Global Programme on Forests(PROFOR) commissioned a two-member factfinding mission in July 1999. The mission hadthe opportunity to meet with partners, includingDENR, representatives from NGOs, business,academia, and bilateral and multilateral donoragencies. The objectives of the mission were tomake a quick appraisal of the status of theMPFD in the context of current national andinternational policy environments relevant tothe forest sector, and advise on future actions.


The main important outcomes of the reportinclude the following:§ The country now has the lowest per capita

forest cover in the region, i.e. 0.08 ha percapita; the deforestation rate of about100,000 ha per year is considered to be veryhigh. The causes have been a mix of badpolicies (indiscriminate and uncontrolledlogging) and the rapidly expanding populationpressure (upland deforestation by settlers).§ The MPFD is very comprehensive and de-

tailed in terms of its annual work activities.Following the MPFD, regional and provincialplans were also drawn up. The quantitativetargets are the basis for its projection overthe plan period (1991-2015), while focusingon capacity building in its immediate-termobjectives. The MPFD does not clearly linkhow different programmes are co-ordinated,and how they will lead to achieving higherlevel objectives;§ Almost all of the first ten component

programmes contain institutional componentsin the last five programme components.Therefore, there is some duplication andconfusion amongst the components of theprogrammes;§ Due several reasons, the mission faced some

difficulties in the process of collectinginformation on the status of the MPFDimplementation. These include no annualtargets; some programmes have accumulatedtargets for each period; several changes havebeen made under the people-orientedforestry programme (the largest programmein MPFD); and the formats for targets areinconsistent with the accomplishments.§ Implementation of some of programme

components was below the targets. Someprogramme components exceeded the targets,including the following:∗ People-oriented forestry exceeded the

target, i.e. 4.3 million ha against a target of2.9 million ha;

∗ the total number of projects under soilconservation and watershed management isalmost nine times more than what wastargeted in the MPFD;

∗ the buffer zone management area wasthree times greater than the target i.e.26,500 ha against 9,000 ha; and theprotected area system coverage was overeight times over the target, i.e. 1.4 millionha against a target of 0.17 million ha;

∗ urban forestry was able to establishmany times more mini parks/ forests androadside plantings than were targeted

∗ forest protection areas of about 10million ha were placed under effectiveprotection; the DENR has been equipped ahelicopter and a vessel, and constituted206 forest protection committees to effectsurveillance and prevent illegal logging.

In addition to the above assessment,substantial consultations have taken placeconcerning the reformulation of the MasterPlan to gear to the new international andnational initiatives toward sustainable forestdevelopment.

2. Community Based Forest ManagementStrategy (CBFM)

The Government has adopted the CBFM asthe national strategy to ensure sustainabledevelopment of the country’s forestlandresources pursuant to the provisions ofExecutive Order No. 263 of 19 July 1995. TheCBFM provides mechanisms for the efficientand sustained management of forestlands andcoastal areas through responsible development,protection, conservation, and utilisation offorest resources by organised and empoweredlocal communities.

CBM applies to all areas classified asforestlands, including allowable zones withinprotected areas not covered by prior vestedrights. It includes the following features:§ security of tenure – The CBFM agreement

entitles forest communities to use and de-velop the forestland resources for a durationof 25 years, renewable for an additional 25years;§ social equity – social justice is a basic

principles underlying CBFM in grantingforest communities, tenure and comprehen-


sive rights to use and develop forestresources;§ DENR and Local Government Units (LGUs)

partnership is vital to the success of theCBFM. DENR and LGUs , in activecollaboration with other sectors, are workingtogether to help strengthen local forestcommunities in managing forest resources;§ investment capital and market linkage – CBM

helps participants gain access to investmentcapital, identify markets, and buildmarketing capabilities.

3. Fourteen-point strategies of theAdministration

Of the 14 strategies under the presentAdministration, 10 are directly focused onforest resources management as follows:

§ delineation of the permanent forest bound-ary;§ effective protection of existing forest

resources and rehabilitation of degradedlands;§ development of an integrated land use plan;§ revitalisation of the forest-based industries

and enhancement of private investment in theforestry sector rehabilitation activities;§ strengthening the implementation of

community-based forest management;§ upgrading the capability and encourage

private sector support to the natural re-sources and environmental research sector;§ strengthening the partnership between DENR

and LGUs ;§ simplifying the EIA process;§ strengthening collaboration with UN agencies

and donor communities in environmentalprotection and sustainable use of naturalresources; and§ promotion of sectoral complementation.

Major programme/ projectsThere are several programmes/ projects in

the forestry sector development, including thefollowing: 1) National Forestation Programme;2) Forest Protection; and 3) Special ForestryProjects.

1) Forestation programme

Tin July 1986, the Government launchedthe programme that aimed at the rehabilitationof 1.4 million ha of denuded forestlands from1986 to 2000 at a rate of 100,000 ha annually.Some of the major activities are as follows:§ Government Sector Initiatives, which is

composed of several activities as follows:∗ Regular reforestation activities. There

are 229 regular reforestation projectswith a total area of 1,128,841 ha. Inaddition, there are 43,368 ha of planta-tions carried out by the Government andNGOs.

∗ Urban and roadside forestry. In 1998there were 114 mini-forests establishedthroughout the country with an area of 139ha. In the same year, nation-wide plantingwas also conducted with an accomplishmentof 269 km.

∗ Watershed rehabilitation/ managementprogramme. Major activities undertakeninclude reforestation, protection anddevelopment of natural forests, community/social forestry, erosion control andenhancement of environmental resourcesand an information and educational cam-paign.

∗ Forest sector project. This project isfunded by ADB/ OECF.

∗ Let’s go green. It aims to revitalise andoperationalise the greening of national/provincial/city/municipal highways and theriver/stream banks stabilisation nation-wide.

∗ Other Government agencies initiative.§ Private sector initiatives are composed of

several activities as follows:∗ Industrial plantation programme. As of

June 1999, there were 192 IFMAs/ ITPLasand 469 SIFMAs with total areas of502,276 ha and 9,599 ha respectively, ofwhich 120,434 ha have been planted.

∗ Private forest plantation development. Asof June 1999, there were 42 privateplantation developers covering an area of2,922 ha.


∗ Mandatory plantation development. Theplantation activities were in line with theissuance of forestland grazing leaseagreements and forestland grazing permits,which was started in November 1982.

b) Forest protectionIt covers several activities, including

forest law enforcement and resources controlmonitoring through the deployment of forestrangers in critical areas and by the use ofaircraft for aerial surveillance, mapping andtelecommunications; integrated pest controland management to provide protection to thenatural and plantation forests against pest anddiseases; and forest fire control to reduce theincidence of wildfires in fire-prone areas andregions.

Around 288 illegal logging hotspots wereneutralised, and 499 check-points were estab-lished. These led to the confiscation of illegalcutting of 8,655.26 m3 in 1998, and a total of5,912 m3 for the first semester of 1999.

c) Special forestry projectsOn 10 October 1996, DENR integrated and

unified all the people oriented forestryprogrammes of the government under CBFM. Asof June 1999, a total of 4,075 sites coveringan area of 5,040,342 ha were establishednation-wide. Of these, CMFM tenurial instru-ments covered 3,926,266 ha. The specificprogrammes/ projects integrated under CBFMinclude the following:

§ Forestry sector project (FSP). It is beingimplemented through financial assistancefrom ADB, Japan-OECF, and the PhilippinesGovernment. At present, the FSP is beingimplemented in 207 subproject sites coveringan area of 117,000 ha. As of June 1999, atotal of 38,482 ha had been planted underthe ADB component, or 103% of the target.Meanwhile 27,186 ha have been plantedunder the OECF component out of 80,000 hatargets.§ National Resources Management Programme

(NRMP). It was conceived for the purpose ofhelping DENR develop a policy environmentconducive to ecologically sound and

sustainable economic growth in collaborationwith local government units, communities,NGOs and the private corporations;§ Community Forestry Project. It is funded

through a grant from the German Government.It started in 1997 and will end in 2001. Theproject aims to attain the sustainabledevelopment of the entire province of Quiriothrough agroforestry, community forestry,land use planning and resource management,rural financing and capacity-building oflocal government units and DENR personnel.§ The Low Income Upland Communities Project

(LIUCP). It is an integrated area developmentundertaking in the province of Oriental andOccidental Mindoro. It was initiated inJanuary 1990 and will be terminated inDecember 2000. The main activities includecommunity organising and co-operativesdevelopment, resource access andmanagement, agroforestry, reforestation andlivelihood, and infrastructure and socialservices delivery.§ The Watershed Resources Development

Project (WRDP). It aims to formulate anational watershed strategy and long-termprogramme of investment for the sustainablemanagement of watershed areas in thecountry.

Trade and industriesDuring 1960s and 1970s, the export of

logs and wood products contributed to gen-erating foreign exchange earnings. From 1990to 1999, there was a significant decrease inthe number of timber licence agreements(TLA), from 75 in 1990 to only 18 in August1999. Consequently, the annual allowable cut(AAC) declined from 4.7 million m3 to only 0.5million m3, or by 89.4%.

There were 55 active sawmills, of which 11operated with timber concessions, with annuallogs requirements of 904,000 m3 in 1998. Thenumber of active sawmills gradually decreasedfrom 1990 to 1998 at a rate of 9.8% perannum, due to the insufficient supply and high


cost of raw materials. The average recoveryrate of the sawmills was estimated at 60%.

In 1998, the country had 19 veneer and 33plywood plants with a total annual logrequirement of 2,953 thousand m3.The exports of major forest productsdrastically declined from 1991 to 1999. Therewas no export of logs in 1998. Export bans onlogs and lumber were imposed in 1986 and1989, respectively. These policies haveencouraged the development of value-addedproducts for export market.

Unlike exports, imports of wood and woodproducts have increased significantly. In 1998,the total import of logs was US$ 4,875 million,and imports of lumber and plywood were alsoincreased substantially. Table 1 shows exportand import data of the country. In 1998, thecountry was a net importer of wood and woodproducts.

Table 1: Exports and imports (in 1000 US$)

1991 1998ExportsLogs 142 -Lumber 16,634 5,543Veneer 9,457 11,748Plywood 41,761 80ImportsLogs 29,960 54,875Lumber 2,135 71,188Veneer 824 16,586Plywood 486 661

Focal point

Jose D. Malvas, Jr.Director, Forest Management BureauDepartment of Environment and Natural ResourcesVisayas AvenueQuezon City, the PhilippinesTelephone: 632-927-4788Fax: 632-920-0374

*****

You love him, although you have not seen him, andyou believe in him, although you do not now see him.

(quoted from I will return to the Father)

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Samoa 159

Samoa

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 283Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land 136Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 127Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha) -8Population total 1995 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000(%)

0.2


Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forests 1999

General informationSamoa is composed of four inhabited and

five uninhabited islands. Upolu is the mostdeveloped and densely populated (72% of thecountry's total population) while Savai'i is thelargestin area. More than 70% of the land isunder customary ownership. The country's eco-nomic potential lies primarily in agriculture,tourism and small and medium-scale industry.

The main agricultural commodities arecopra, taro, fish, bananas, cocoa, beef, pork,passion fruit and poultry. Industrial productionis based on agriculture raw materials, some ofwhich are imported from Tonga and elsewhere.These products include coconut oil, electricity,beer, cigarettes, timber, coconut cream, softdrinks, soap, copra meal, corned meat, veneer,matches and paints.

In the past, the forests supplied the ma-jority of the country’s sawn timber needs,poles, building materials, fire wood, certainfood and medicines. Paid employment in theforestry sector supported 10% of the labourforce.

Over the past 20 years the forests haveprovided export earnings. Notable achieve-ments of forestry functions and the contribu-tion to the socio-economic welfare include theNational Forest Policy, the National Environ-ment Management Strategy, Village Conserva-tion Agreements, and the setting up of environ-

mental NGOs. Thus, the support to forestry

development from politicians, policy makers,business persons, and urban and ruralcommunities had been quite encouraging.

Forest resourcesThe Samoa land use pattern is predomi-

nantly one of indigenous forests rather thanagricultural cultivated lands. Forest in Samoais unique in its biodiversity. It supports 775vascular plant species, of which 30% are foundnowhere else. There are more native floweringplant genera than in any other archipelago inPolynesia. There are 21 butterfly species and11 species of reptiles, including 7 lizardspecies and 1 snake type. There are 43resident bird species, of which 8 are foundnowhere else.

The overall land use of the country ispresented in Table 1.

Table 1: Land use

Land type Area (ha) %Merchantable forest 13,574 4.8Forest protected under villageconservation agreement

3,089 1.1

Watershed areas 31,992 11.3National parks and reserves 2.800 3.6Land available forreforestation

10.000 3.6

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 33, Samoa160

Agriculture and crop land 98,000 34.7Recent lave flows 11,433 4.1Unproductive forest areas 111,112 39.4Total 282,000 100.0

Note % = of the total land area

Due to the termination of the New Zealandbilateral assistance forestry development inSamoa was reduced to a new level ofoperations. Therefore, the emphasis has beenon the accountability of output performancemeasures. The level of plantation developmenthas also been reduced by about 4%.

Policy and legislationThe Government has approved the National

Environment Management Strategy (NEMS). Inaddition, the Village Forests ConservationAgreement has been approved andenvironmental NGOs have also been setting up.These are evidence of the Government’s andthe people of Samoa’s commitment in theirefforts to conserve the forests and theenvironment.

The principal forestry legislation are theForest Act, 1967 and the Forest Regulation,1969. Other related Acts include the LandsSurvey and Environment Act, 1989, NationalParks and Reserves Act, 1974, Alienation ofCustomary Lands Act 1965, Lands Act, 1964,and the Water Act, 1965. On the basis of theselegislation and other national managementplans, two policy documents have beenformulated and have been approved by theGovernment, i.e. the National Forest Policy,1995 and the Watershed Protection and Man-agement Regulations, 1992.

Five guiding principles provide the founda-tion for the forestry policy:§ Optimal and sustainable use of the forest

resources;§ Forest protection;§ Basic human needs;§ Individual and collective responsibility; and§ Economic development.

The formulation of the Forest Policy, 1995followed a long process and several phases,including the following:§ review and consultations (June-July 1991);

§ policy formulation (July-September 1991);§ post-cyclone re-assessment and consultations

(1992);§ final draft (April 1994).

The Forest Policy will be used as the basisfor the formulation of programmes andprojects to strengthen the forestry sector andto seek donor support and national funding.The sector analysis should take into accounton-going programmes and related activities.

Forestry is one of the Divisions under theMinistry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries, andMeteorology. The Forestry Division is responsi-ble for the implementation of Governmentpolicies related to forestry development in thecountry. There are 4 main sections under theForestry Division, i.e. Reforestation, Research,Indigenous Forest Monitoring, and WatershedProtection and Management.

The country has supported the Code ofLogging Practice (COLP). This is one of theimportant steps towards the implementation ofsustainable forest management. The draft isalmost completed. In addition, the ReducedImpact Logging Guidelines (RIL) have beendrafted to complement the COLP implementa-tion. However, intensive training and awarenessprogrammes for all the stakeholders have to beundertaken.

The SPC/GTZ/Pacific Regional Forest Pro-gramme is currently implementing a sustainableindigenous forest management project inSamoa. An area of 400 ha of natural forest hasbeen identified and demarcated, and pre-inventory has been completed. A logging systemwill be developed based on the principles ofsustainable forest management

The policy related to indigenous forestryproduction has been given a higher priority thatcalls for the sustainable utilisation andmanagement of the remaining merchantableindigenous forests. The following strategieswere adopted by the Government:§ Liaise with industry, landowners, timber

merchants, and end users on the implicationsof the forest policy;§ Increase the royalty rate;

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Samoa 161

§ Prescribe an administrative levy to reflectthe cost of Government supervision on log-ging;§ Strict enforcement of logging and utilisation

standards, with higher penalties for non-compliance;§ Lower duty on imported timber; and§ Fire protection.

A National Environmental ManagementStrategy (NEMS) is also being completed withassistance from UNDP, UNEP, and WWF.Another achievement in the field of policy andlegislation was the adoption of the WatershedProtection and Management Regulation, 1992,which created a better legal framework andco-ordinating mechanism among agenciesinvolved, directly or indirectly, in the protec-tion and use of water resources.

In addition, conservation farming using theconcept of agro-forestry is being practised atthe demonstration level under the on-goingwatershed management and conservationeducation project. Tree planting on individualfarmer's plantations located on or adjacent towatersheds is being promoted.

Research and extensionThere are plans to strengthen forest

research and development with the appointmentof professional staff to redefine objectivesand priorities. Among the new objectives arethe management of indigenous forest andnatural resources, watershed management, andcommunity forestry.

A complete National Ecological Survey,finalised in 1992, identified 14 key sites forconservation of biodiversity in the coastallowlands. Recently, a non-governmental agencywas established, and two conservation agree-ments with villages have been negotiated.

Several research studies have beenundertaken with support from several bilateral

institutions, including the following: a) theestablishment of field trials for priority treespecies in collaboration with SPRIG; b) slowrelease fertilisers and testing other alternativegrowing media studies in collaboration withACIAR; c) testing of silvicultural systems ap-propriate for natural regeneration; d) assess-ment of indigenous tree species suitable in lineplanting; e) community forestry; and f) weedcontrol.

In regard to community participation,considerable efforts had been made toencourage people in tree planting. Workshopsand meetings with farmers and villagers havebeen conducted. In the near future it is hoped“to develop and establish an effective, well-structured community forestry extensionsection, with programmes and services thatprovide the delivery of reliable, professional,technical information, training and sharedexperiences and supports the needs of thecommunity for both environmental andeconomic gains”.

In regard to training, substantial financialsupport has been provided by NZODA, ADBand UNDP/FAO, for both long- and short-termtraining using overseas and local teachinginstitutions.

Focal pointMalaki IakopoAssistant Director ForestryMinistry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries, andMeteorologyP.O. Box 1874Apia, SamoaTel (685) 22565

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National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Solomon Islands162

Solomon Islands

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 2,799Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land area 2,389/ 85.4Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 2,371Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)Annual rate of change 1990-95 (%)

-23-0.2

Population total 1997 (millions)/Annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 0.4/ 3.2Rural population 1997 81.9GNP per person 1995 in US$ 910


General informationThe Solomon Islands gained its

independence from the British Government in1978. The country’s population is a multi-racialmix with 94% Melanesians, 4% Polynesians, 1.4Micronesians, 7% Europeans, 2% Chinese and3% others. The country is composed of manyislands with the main chain comprising:Choiseul, Shortlands, Vella de Vella, Renonga,New Georgia group, Russell Islands group,Florida group, Guadalcanal, Isabel, Malaita,San Cristobal, Santa Cruz and Outer Islands,and outlying atolls. The country form amountainous and atoll archipelago stretchingover 1,400 km into the Pacific to the south ofthe British Commonwealth. There are over 300islands.

The Solomon Islands economy reliesheavily on natural resources exports such astimber, fish, copra, palm oil, cocoa, otheragriculture products, and gold. The country isstruggling to cope with lack of domesticcapital, lack of infrastructure, difficulttransport and communication logistics, lowliteracy rate, rapid population growth anddeliberating internal ethnic tensions. Thecombination of improved timber prices and thereduction of log supplies from Malaysia andIndonesia in 1990, resulted in a dramaticupsurge of logging activities in the Solomons.The Government is undertaking a massivereform programme aiming to increase effi-ciency in the public service and in themanagement of economy.

About 88% of the total land area of theSolomons is under customary ownership. Themajority of the rural population rely on forests

to supply many of their needs: timber, poles,rattan, building materials, fruits, medicines,oils, honey, nuts, leaves, firewood, etc. Theforest is central to the lives of many SolomonIslanders and needs to be conserved if theirpresent way of life is to continue.

The forest resources are of primeimportance to the economy. Direct forestrypaid employment, rivals agriculture as thelargest employer, with an estimated 2,700people employed in the forest industries.

Forest resourcesThe Solomon Islands has around 2.4 million

ha of natural forest (85% of the total landarea) and almost all are in custom ownership;but only about 10% is considered suitable forcommercial exploitation. The non-commercialareas are situated on steeply sloping land orscattered across many small islands and arepresently not economically feasible to log.

The interim results of the recent naturalforest inventory indicate that the total amountof harvestable wood is approximately 13 millionm3, which at current logging rates would beexhausted within 16 years. Reducing harvestingto sustainable levels and improving loggingpractices are two major issues which need tobe tackled. But, recently there is addedconcern over the high population growth andpressure may be exerted on land and forests,9% of which have been degraded due toagricultural activities, swidden subsistencefarming, logging, and damaged by natural

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Solomon Islands 163

disasters such as cyclones.

Where necessary to protect a watercatchment area, the Minister may declare anyare as a forest reserve. This power allow forrestriction of the rights of owners to affectthe values of the land as a catchment. Publicland whether freehold or leased may bedeclared to be a State Forest with theconsequences that there is security of tenurefor forestry developments such as state ownedplantations. Similarly state forest reservationcan be used to protect important conservationvalues.

At present, there are 91 logging licenses ofwhich 19 are operating. These provide 50% ofthe country’s export revenue earnings. Thelargest of these are foreign owned, providingcapital and expertise, but also resulting in asignificant share of profits offshore. Thereare also more than 50 smaller licenses, eachcut only a small amount of timber, generatecash at local level and supply timber primarilyfor local uses. Rapid population increase andthe desire to build permanent housingconstruction resulted in the increasing demandfor timber is constantly growing.

Over the next several years the cost oftimber extraction will rise because theremaining resources will be increasinglydifficult to access. The current harvesting rateis about double of the long-term sustainablerate.

Policy and planningBritish ODA provided technical assistance

for the preparation of the Policy Formulationand Strategic Development Plan. A planningexpert was recruited for two years starting inApril 1994. The exercise aimed at integratingthe various past and on-going projects - e.g.national forest inventory, timber control unit,extension forestry programme (supported byNew Zealand, British ODA, and the EuropeanUnion), forest plantations programmes(supported by AIDAB) - into a developmentplan for sound, long-term and sustainable usemanagement and development of forestresources. The Government terminated theNFAP in October 1995, and then the ForestPlantation Inventory Project and the TimberControl Unit Project.

A National Environmental ManagementStrategy was prepared in 1991. Forestry

issues, as well as raising public awareness ofthe important role of the forestry sector, wereconsidered major priorities.

In 1979, most “Timber Rights” were givento logging companies in the alienated lands.Since 87% of the land is under customaryownership, the logging companies have toacquire the “Timber Rights on Customary Land.Companies which have been carrying outlogging operations and establishing plantationsin the Solomon Islands are from New Zealand,the United Kingdom, several Europeancountries, Korea, and Japan.

In early 1995, when the new Governmenttook over, one of its policies was to privatiseall Government plantations.

There are 70 registered Non-GovernmentAgencies in the country under the umbrella ofthe Development Services Exchange, but onlysix are engaged in forestry sectordevelopment. They are quite active in assistingresource owners in land use planning anddevelopment, and they also provide sometraining in timber grading, surveying,sawmilling, and marketing.

Representatives of NGOs from the SolomonIslands participated at a meeting of forestersand non-government organisations (NGOs) fromfour countries: PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,and Fiji. The meeting was organised in Fiji inSeptember 1995, to discuss forestry projectsand plan how they could work better together.The NGOs’ philosophy focuses on the resourceowners as a target group. At the meeting, theNGOs’ presentations were grouped into:§ Ensuring fair return, especially monetary;§ Owners having effective control of their

forests;§ Reducing the adverse environmental impacts;§ Importance of working with resource

owners, Governmental agencies, and otherNGOs.

In the Solomon Islands, the SIDT(Solomon Island Development Trust) is runningtwo projects i.e. the Eco-Forestry Unit, whichconcentrates on teaching chainsaw-milling andforest management, and the Conservation inDevelopment Project, which is developing eco-tourism and Ngali nut oil production.

The National Co-ordinating Unit haspromoted the Strategic Planning process andestablished liaisons with representatives of the

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Solomon Islands164

forestry sector, NGOs and the donorcommunity. Relevant forest sector informationhas been gathered and stored and the mainforestry issues have been written up into an"Issues Paper". Several studies have beencommissioned and a number of proposals havebeen made for forest sector initiatives.

LegislationA national forestry conference was held in

late 1994, during which about 100 delegatesfrom all provinces discussed the proposed newforest law and main forestry issues. Therecommendations were published andpresented to the previous Government. ASteering Committee was formed to guide theprocess of finalising the draft, comprisingrepresentatives from various ministries, theprovincial governments, landowners, the forestindustry, NGOs, and the National Council forWomen.

A national forest policy, which supersedesall previous policies, was formulated in the lastquarter of 1994, and approved by Governmentcaucus on 16 December. The policy declaresthe need for sound forest management,maintaining the forests in perpetuity, improvingforest industry production, increasing the levelof domestic processing, enhancing employment,privatising forest plantations, and supportingresearch and training.

The Policy and Evaluation Unit of theOffice of the Prime Minister has beeninstrumental in the drawing up of the currentpolicy, which supersedes all previous policies.The objectives of the current Forest Policy“PP4/94, Development of the Forest Sector andrelated Industries/ Resource are to:§ ensure sound forest management, toward

sustainable development;§ improve efficiency of forest industries and

maximise market value of logs and sawntimber;§ support research to promote the appropriate

end-users;§ promote the involvement of forest owners in

the operations;§ enhance employment opportunities and

undertake manpower planning and training;§ setting up a forestry college or institute in

Solomon Islands:§ promote public education and awareness of

the dangerous affects of the environmentpollution and destruction;

§ encourage diversification of the timberindustry, including downstream processing,and the banning of logs exports by the year2000; and§ strengthening the Timber Management and

Extension Section of the Forestry Division.

A new Forest Act was passed by theParliament in June 1999 and implemented withRegulations on 29 February 2000. It wasrequired because the previous law wasinadequate to deal with modern forestrypractice. Since its consolidation in 1969, theForest Resources and Timber Utilisation Actwas amended nine times, including two majoramendments in 1977 and 1990. The ForestDivision is still coping with the multitude ofdisputes and disappointments caused by thecomplexity of the Act and by abuse of itsprocesses.

The objectives of the Forests Act 1999 areas follows: a) to ensure proper management offorest resources in an efficient and effectiveways and ecologically sustainable manner; b) topromote the development of a timber industrythat ensures maximum benefit to present andfuture Solomon Islanders; and c) to protectand conserve forest resources habitats andecosystems. These objectives are explainedand established through a set of principles,which guide the Minister and the Commissionerof Forests in the exercise of their power,include: a) sustainability of resourceutilisation; b) the rights of custom owners; c)application of the precautionary principle tomanagement decisions; d) the balancing ofeconomic and ecological objectives; e) theprotection of biodiversity; f) consistency withinternational treaties and obligations; and g)consistency with the national policies forforest resource conservation and timberindustry development.

In regard to promote the sustainableforest management, a code of forest practicehas been drafted. The code is an importantcomponent to achieve the objectives of theForest Act. Attention to the code is mandatoryunder the new legislation and there aresignificant punitive powers. The first priorityfor implementation is to update the currentdraft code. Training of officers and licenseswill also be important. Similarly, the knowledgeof the community concerning forest andforestry and the code should be improved.

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Solomon Islands 165

The Code should not be taken as a meansto punish offenders, but rather as a set ofguidelines to safeguard the environment,resources owners, operators, and sustainabilityof resources. The guidelines contained in thedocument are binding and will apply to allnatural forest harvesting operations. The majorpart of the Code is comprised of: theAdministrative, Policy and legislativeframework, land use management, harvestingplanning, construction work for timberharvesting operations, harvesting operations,weather limitations, rehabilitation of loggedover areas, bush and camp hygiene, Heli-logging, and evaluation.

For the implementation of the Forest Act1999, including re-equipping and re-training,AusAID/SIG has provided funds of AUS$ 16.5million for a forest management programme forthree years, which was started in August 1999.The programme has 6 components as follows: a)providing policy regulatory and legalframework for a sustainable forest industry;b) improving forest monitoring and revenuecapture; c) improving infrastructure formonitoring; d) improving institutionalarrangements; e) crafting policies forincreasing domestic processing; and f)improving inventory and silviculture.

For issuing of a license, a procedure hasbeen formulated that it will ensure theproposed harvest area is suitable for the

purpose through a determination of potentialforest uses. This involves an assessment of thecapability of the land to support a commercialtimber harvesting. This will prevent unrealisticexpectations being raised and will ensure thatforest harvesting is not permitted in areas ofspecial environmentally sensitive.

Procedures are included to ensure thatlandowners are properly identified andnotified of any application. Negotiationbetween logging companies and landownersmust in future be in accordance with the newprocedures.

Where the wood is for custom or domesticpurposes and not for sale, no licence isrequired. If forest owners would like to selltimber, there are local timber harvestinglicence and community timber harvestinglicence available. A community may combinetheir efforts to cut up to 2,000 m3 per yearunder a community timber harvesting licence.The new legislation treats large-scale landclearing in the same way as timber harvesting,i.e. a permit is required. Traditional clearingfor garden sites and village use does notrequire a permit.

Focal pointPeter SheehanCommissioner of ForestsForestry DivisionMinistry of Natural ResourcesP.O. Box G 24Honiara, Solomon IslandsTel: (677) 21521Fax (677) 21245

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National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Sri Lanka166

Sri Lanka

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha)Total forest area 1995(thousand ha) / % of total landTotal change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha) / annual rate (%)Population 1997/annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%)Rural population 1997(%)Gross Domestic Product (GDP per capita) 1995 US$

6,4631,796/27.8

-101/-2018.2/1.0

77.3700

Source of data : FAO- State of the World’s Forest 1999

General information

Sri Lanka consists of a highland area in thesouth central part of the island, which rises toabout 2500 m above sea level, and the lowlandplains surrounding it. The climate is tropical andmaritime. Three major climatic zones can berecognised based on the rainfall pattern: thewet zone (over 2500 mm/year); theintermediate zone (1900-2500 mm/year); andthe dry zone (1250-1900 mm/year), which has amarkedly seasonal rainfall regime and wheredry conditions prevail from May to September.Mean annual temperatures vary from about 28°C in the lowlands to 18 °C at around 2000 m. Inthe wet zone, the tropical rain forest is theoriginal vegetation type with a gradual changein composition moving from the south-westernlowlands to the central mountains, at elevationsranging from 1,000 to 1,800 m. The originalvegetation is classified as "tropical highlandrain forests". At the still higher elevations, withlower temperatures and higher humidity,tropical mountain forests occur.

It is widely accepted in Sri Lanka thatdeforestation is one of the major environmentalproblems and that unless planned action istaken, the demands for various forestryproducts and services will outstrip theproductive capacity of the remaining forestresources. Sri Lanka's varied topography andtropical island conditions have given rise toextremely high levels of biological

diversity and endemism. Sri Lanka has greaterbiodiversity than most Asian countries whenmeasured per unit area. More than 3,650species of flowering plants, 300 species ofpteridophytes, about 400 birds, almost 100mammals and more than 160 reptiles can befound in Sri Lanka. And 26% of the floweringplants, 76% of land snails, 60% of amphibians,and 49% of the reptiles are endemic to SriLanka.

The rate of plantation establishment peryear has been in the range of 3,000 ha. Inaddition to plantation establishment, enrichmentplanting of degraded natural forests andprotective planting by the Forest Department,village reforestation through selected farmerson a short-term 4 year lease agreement sup-ported by payment of incentives was carriedout under the Participatory Forestry Programme(PFP). The activities under the PFP programmewere home garden development, raising offarmers’ wood lots, and miscellaneous planting.A new approach was launched in 1995 i.e.establishing forest plantations on barren statelands through long-term 30 years leases toprivate individuals and institutions.

The adaptation of new technology forforest mapping enables the preparation of1:50,000-scale maps. The computerised forestinventory data base has enabled the preparationof five management plans for the mainplantation species such as teak, pinus,eucalyptus, and mahogany. All plantations will

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Sri Lanka 167

be managed according to these managementplans by 1998.

Since August 1994, the management ofwildlife under the Department of WildlifeConservation is no longer under the purview ofthe Ministry in charge of forest. A projectsupported by the Global Environmental Facility(GEF) is being implemented to upgrade thefacilities of the Department of WildlifeConservation. So at present, forestry andwildlife management are administered by twoseparate departments under two ministries. Asthe follow-up to the commitment to theInternational Convention on Biodiversity, aBiodiversity Action Plan is being prepared.

Forest land useTo ensure sustainable use of forests and

related aspects, strategies to promotesustainable land use for forestry have beendrawn up. The logging ban, which was enforcedin 1990, is still in effect. Harvesting is done inforest plantations of mainly eucalyptus,mahagony, and pinus.

In regard to forestland use, the stateforestland will be classified into the followingcategories based on the relevant managementobjectives as follows: a) Class I: these forestsare conserved and preserved to protectbiodiversity, soils and water and historical,cultural, religious and aesthetic values; only nonextraction uses, such as research andrecreation, are allowed in these areas; b) ClassII: non extraction uses, such as scientificresearch, protection of watersheds andhabitats of wildlife and regulated nature-basedtourism, are allowed, and collection of NWFPsand firewood by local people living adjacent toforests is also permitted; the broad managementobjectives of Class II would be the same as inClass I; c) Class III: these forests are to bemanaged for multiple use production purposesfor sustainable production of wood for thenational needs and NWFPs for the benefit ofadjacent communities; d) Class IV: these forestsconsist of forest plantations and agroforestrysystems in state lands for production of wood

and NWFPs by the state and non state sectors,including deforested and degraded state landssuitable for plantation forestry andagroforestry development.

Forest resourcesAccording to the Government Statistics, the

dense natural forest cover represents around23.9% of the land area of the country; if thesparse forests are included, it becomes 30.9%s. The total forest plantation areas coveredaround 135,000 ha in 1998, of which teak,mahagony, eucalyptus, Acassia auriculiformisand Pinus caribaea were the main species.

During the dry periods, occasional forestfires cause significant damage to forestplantations. The occurrence of fires in naturalforests is very rare. Records are kept of nodiseases that cause damage to forest trees.

The total area of protection forests(conservation forests), which are managed bythe Forest Department and Department ofWildlife Conservation, is around 271,000 ha.

Policy and planningThe First Forestry Master Plan (FMP) was

prepared during 1983-86 by the ForestryPlanning Unit of the Ministry of Lands & LandDevelopment under the Forest ResourcesDevelopment Project funded by FINNIDA andIDA of the World Bank. It was a product of itstime and was a classic investment programme.However, this was the first meaningful steptaken towards providing a coherent, compre-hensive long-term framework for the develop-ment of the sector. As a result of the justifiedcriticisms made towards the FMP, anenvironmental component was added to the five-year investment programme.

In order to implement the FMP, a projectcalled the Forest Sector Development Project(FSDP), co-financed by the World Bank,FINNIDA, ODA, and UNDP\FAO, was launchedin 1990. Because of its comprehensiveness, thisproject can be regarded as a landmark projectin Sri Lanka’s forestry sector. It has been thekey vehicle in implementing the FMP. The


revision of the FMP was included as one of itsproject components. The main components of theFSDP were:

§ Environmental management in forestrydevelopment;§ Forest Management;§ Plantation establishment and maintenance;§ Forestry education and training;§ Research and information; and§ Institutional development.

The inclusion of the environmental manage-ment component in the FSDP was a significantmilestone in this country's forestrydevelopment. This enabled the setting up of twoenvironmental management units in the ministryand the Forest Department (FD). Theenvironmental management unit set up in the FDinitiated the National Conservation Review(NCR) for making a hydrological and bio-diversity appraisal of all the major naturalecosystems in the country. The NCR, which atpresent is nearing completion, is an attempt toidentify the minimum conservation area networkin which the biological diversity of thecountry's forests is fully represented. Based onthe results of the NCR, 13,000 ha of wet zoneforests have been set aside for conservationand the management plans for these areas arebeing formulated. The work done in this regardhas also helped to establish a comprehensiveenvironmental database, covering both faunaand flora. The FSDP was successfullyconcluded in 1996.

The revision of the Forestry Master Plan,which was called the Second Forestry MasterPlan, commenced in July 1993 with assistancefrom FINNIDA. Although only a revision wasenvisaged at the beginning, due to thedeficiencies of the first FMP, and the fact thatmore detailed work had to be completed andalso on the present emphasis on the "sector",the final output of this exercise can beregarded as the preparation of a ForestrySector Master Plan (FSMP).

This plan, accepted in July 1995, is theresult of a national exercise carried out jointlyby senior staff and also including numerous

NGOs. This can be cited as one of the rareexamples of a successful joint effort in supportof strategic planning, where the officials of theMinistry in charge of forestry, the ForestDepartment, NGOs, and other relevant agencieswere fully involved in its preparation.

The first FMP was a classic investmentplan. In contrast the Second FSMP is a policy,strategy, and programme-oriented plan. TheNational Forestry Policy (NFP) forms thefoundation of the Second FSMP.

The main objective was to prepare acomprehensive long-term development frame-work which, when implemented, will ensure thatthe forestry sector can provide environmentalservices and various forestry products to meetthe needs of the people and also contribute, ina sustainable way, to the nation's economic andsocial development. The Plan covers the period1995-2020.

The immediate outputs of the Master Plancan be summarised as follows:

§ a comprehensive, NFP Proposal to reflect thepresent and foreseeable development priori-ties to provide the basis for legislative reformand guide the development efforts;§ a feasible long-term action plan and strategy

for the implementation of the NFP;§ ten development programmes outlining im-

mediate-, short-, medium-, and long-termactions, and providing a clear framework fordetailed formulation and implementation ofprojects;§ development of organisational and institu-

tional frameworks for successful impleme-ntation of development programmes;§ the setting up of a database to facilitate

future planning efforts; and§ institutionalisation of long-term sectoral

planning capabilities within the relevant Gov-ernment agencies.

The FSMP development programmes havebeen divided into two categories: developmentprogrammes which will deal with bio-physical,technical, social, economic, and environmentalaspects of forests and land resource


management for the production of variousoutputs; and institutional support programmeswhich strengthen the sector's capacity to makethe best use of available basic resources.

One of the most important items under theFSMP is the formulation of a NFP for SriLanka. An NFP has been drawn up to provideclear directions for development. It reflectsconsultations lasting for almost a year, involvingthe Ministry in charge of forestry, the FD,other key Government agencies, universities,research institutes, NGO representatives, andthe general public.

The key areas of emphasis in the policyadopted in March 1995 by the Government are:a) high priority on conservation of biodiversityand soil and water resources; b) empoweringlocal people and communities in the managementand protection of forests, mainly for their ownbenefit; c) building partnerships with localpeople, communities, NGOs and the privatesector in all forestry development activities,including the management of natural forestsand protected areas; d) the establishment andmanagement of industrial forest plantations onthe State lands will be entrusted progressivelyto the private sector; and e) developing homegardens and other agroforestry systems as amain strategy for meeting the increasingsubsistence and industrial demand for wood.

The focus of the policy is on forestry in abroad sense. Forestry covers biophysicalcomponents such as land and biologicalresources found in natural forests, forestplantations and tree crops such as home gardensoutside the forest; environmental componentslike those concerned with the conservation ofwildlife and bio-diversity, soils and watersupplies, and the mitigation of atmosphericpollution and global warming; socio-politicalcomponents such as those concerned with orhaving a stake in policy making, legislation,administration, management, utilisation, andother operations concerning the biophysicalresources; and economic components such asthose concerned with the production,processing, marketing, and utilisation of forestproducts.

The policy acknowledges concern forsafeguarding the remaining natural forests forposterity to conserve bio-diversity, soil, andwater resources. It also emphasises theimportance of retaining the current naturalforest cover and increasing the overall treecover. A large part of the forests should becompletely protected for the conservation ofbiodiversity, soil, and water. Multiple-useforestry is to be promoted. The natural forestsoutside of the protected area system should beused sustainably to provide for the growingdemand for bio-energy, wood and non-woodforest products, and various services,especially for the benefit of the ruralpopulation, with due attention to environmentalconcerns.

The policy recognises that home gardensand other agro-forestry systems and trees onother non-forest land, have a crucial role insupplying timber, biomass energy, and non-woodforest products. It recognises that the Statealone, or its Forest Department, cannot protectand manage the forests effectively. People'sparticipation in forestry development andconservation are to be promoted. The policyemphasises the need to develop partnershipswith local people, communities, NGOs, and theprivate sector. The proposed policy aims atbroadening the institutional framework forforest management, with clearly defined rolesand responsibilities for the various partners.Farmers, community organisations, NGOs, andsmall and medium-scale commercial enterprisesshould all have a role in activities such asprotecting the forests and growing trees tomeet household needs, supplying raw materialfor wood-based industries, harvesting,transporting, processing, and distribution ofvarious forest products.

An important new trend, which has arisensince the early '80s in the forestry sector, isthe recognition of the need for people'sparticipation in forestry activities forsustainable development. Programmes underwayemphasise people's participation in tree plantingon leased State land, private land, and theestablishment of nurseries. Sri Lanka also


participated in the Training of TrainersProgramme on Gender Analysis and Forestry inAsia, which resulted in qualified nationaltrainers in this important dimension of planningand programme/project formulation.

A National Conservation Strategy (NCS)has been prepared by a special task force. TheNCS identifies constraints to conservation andlays out a plan of action to remove them. It alsoprovides guidelines for the implementation andmonitoring of the action plan. The NCS includesdirections for the establishment of acomprehensive system of protected areas and inthe forestry sector, for the identification offorests for protection by the State.

A National Environmental Action Programme(NEAP) was prepared by the Ministry ofEnvironment and Parliamentary Affairs and isthe first comprehensive document regardingenvironmental planning in the country. TheNational Environmental Steering Committee andNGO's were involved in the formulation of theNEAP.

Institutional linkages have been establishedbetween the Government agencies concernedwith forestry development (FD, Department ofWildlife Conservation, State TimberCorporation/STC etc. and the Ministry ofPower). These linkages will strengthen progressin wood energy development.

In the Plan, the programmes have beenseparated into two categories: developmentprogrammes which deal with the bio physical,technical, social, economic, and environmentalaspects of forests and land resourcemanagement for the production of variousoutputs; and institutional support programmeswhich strengthen the sector's capacity to makethe best use of available basic resources.

The FSMP development programmes are notready for implementation as such, but prioritiesbetween various development programmes andproposed activities have to be set and detailedprogrammes/projects have to be developedbefore implementation can start. AnIdentification Mission was launched in 1995 toidentify key programmes for implementation

during the next five years. The IdentificationMission took into account the short- andmedium-term development strategies suggestedin the FSMP and came up with components andactivities that are very crucial to thedevelopment of the sector.

The Indicative Five Year ImplementationProgramme is not a comprehensive document,and hence the preparation of a detailed FiveYear Implementation Programme (FYIP) has tobe prepared, which was initiated in 1997. TheFYIP highlighted the need for expediting thelegislative reforms, including the drafting ofregulations, and institutional re-orientation andstrengthening of forestry institutions. The aimof the FYIP is to develop and conserve forestsand enhance the forest sector contribution tothe welfare of the rural population and thenational economy with particular attention toequity and economic development. A ProjectPreparation Team (PPT) comprising seniorofficials of the Ministry in charge of forestry,the Forestry Department, a few internationals,and national consultants was involved in thepreparation of the FYIP.

As in the case of the preparation of theFSMP, a participatory process was followedwhere all the stakeholders were given a chanceto be involved in the exercise. A large numberof workshops, discussions and meetings wereheld to discuss the programme components andthe various activities.

The purpose of the FYIP is to conserveforests and enhance the forest sector’scontribution to the welfare of the ruralpopulation and the national economy withattention to equity and economic development.The component and activities of the FYIP are asfollows:§ Forest conservation

∗ Development of institutional capacity,legislative capacity, and legislative frame-work for management planning.

∗ Establishing and management of aneffective protected area system.

∗ Systems to monitor biodiversity, and soilsand water development.


§ Forest land allocation and macro-level zoning∗ Establishment of a categorisation system.∗ Identification and allocation of all forest

land.

∗ Survey and demarcation of priority forestland.

§ Commercial plantation development∗ Management of existing plantations im-

proved.∗ New commercial plantations established.∗ Creation of suitable environment for non-

state sector involvement in commercialforestry.

§ Multiple-use management of natural forests∗ Improvement of institutional capacity for

forest management planning∗ Development of participatory forest man-

agement planning procedures and manage-ment systems.

∗ Forest management plans prepared andimplemented.

§ Social forestry/ agro-forestry and extension∗ Provision of effective extension service.∗ Identification and mapping of suitable

land for social forestry.

∗ Development sustainable models for socialforestry developed and replication at alarger scale.

∗ Forest management plans prepared andimplemented.

§ Forest base industry development

∗ Promotion of use of new forest products.

∗ Increased private sector involvement inforest based industries.

∗ Creation of a favourable business environ-ment.

§ Institutional development

∗ Formulate, enact, and enforce legislationand regulations.

∗ Necessary institutional arrangements devel-oped for implementing the investmentprogramme.The total cost of the FYIP is approximately

US$ 33 million. The major cost of theprogramme is concentrated in the Forest LandAllocation and Macro-level Zoning Component,accounting for 58% of the total programmecosts.

The FYIP was presented to all donoragencies, who have shown an interest inassisting the forestry sector. Several donorshave shown interest, but no firm commitmentshave been made. The FSMP and the NFP wasprepared in 1995, and the FYIP in 1997. It isimportant that the activities recommended in theFYIP be implemented without delay, as they arevery crucial for the continuation of thedevelopment efforts made over the years.

Legislation and institutionAs highlighted in the FSMP, the need for

legislative and institutional reforms requiredfor the smooth implementation of the NFP andthe FSMP was given priority by the Ministry.

Necessary arrangements were made torevise the current Forestry ordinance, takinginto account the current needs of the sector.The new forestry legislation is due to beforwarded for government approval shortly.

The need for continued legislative andinstitutional changes was also highlighted in theFYIP. The component on InstitutionalDevelopment included in the FYIP is expectedto deal with the necessary changes.

A new Ministry incorporating forestry andenvironment was created in 1994. The ForestDepartment, State Timber Corporation and theCentral Environmental Authority operates underthis Ministry. A proposal to decentralise theactivities of the Forest Department through theestablishment of 4 regional offices has beenagreed upon in principle. Each regional officewill be headed by a Deputy Conservator ofForests.

One of the main constraints of the researchdivision of the Department was the lack ofhuman resources. The scope of activities will bebroadened to include environmental forestry,forest ecology and allied subjects,agroforestry, participatory forestry and forestmanagement.

Awareness among NGOs, CBOs and thegeneral public concerning the important role offorests for human wellbeing has been improving.


ADB and AusAid have provided support in thismatter. In addition, various programmes andstrategies have been developed to involve non-government sectors as partners in the forestmanagement and development. In this respect,several pilot projects have been implementedusing the joint forest management andcommunity/social forestry schemes.

Collaboration with partners andinternational agreementsa) Biological Diversity

The convention was ratified in 1994. TheMinistry of Forestry and Environment is thefocal point for biological diversity. Theframework and the first national report werecompleted in 1988 and the preparation of astrategy for the biodiversity action plan wascompleted in 1995.

b) Combat DesertificationThe convention was ratified in 1999. TheNatural Resources Management Unit of theMinistry of Forestry and Environment is thefocal point for the preparation of theNational Action Plan and the First NationalReport is in progress.

c) Climate changeThe convention was ratified in 1993. TheSecretariat of the Ministry of Environment isthe focal point. A study on climate changesupported by ADB was completed in 1997.

d) Montreal protocolThe protocol was ratified in 1999. The focalpoint is the same as the focal point for theClimate Change Convention.

e) Wetland conservationThe Department of Wildlife Conservation isthe focal point. The preparation of theNational Wetland Strategy and wetland sitereports for more than 30 sites have beenfinalised. A National Atlas was prepared in2000. Bundala and Lunama Kalamatiya weredeclared as Ramsar Sites

f) Migratory speciesThe Department of Wildlife Conservation isthe focal point.

g) Conservation of world cultural naturalheritageThe Forest Department and the Department ofArchaeology are the focal points. Five siteshave been declared as cultural sites and one

site (Sinharaja) was declared as natural site.h) International trade in endangered species

(CITES)The Department of Wildlife Conservation is

the focal point for the convention. The NationalWildlife Conservation policy is being amendedincorporating the legal bindings under theCITES convention. The Department is also thescientific and administrative authority forCITES and inspects, monitors and evaluates theimport and export of fauna and flora specieslisted under appendices I to III of theconvention.

Focal pointB. BulumullaAdditional Secretary (Forestry and AdministrationMinistry of Forestry and Environment82, Rajamalwatta RoadBattaramulla, Sri LankaTel: 94-1-863652Fax: 94-1-866656

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National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Thailand 173

Thailand

Country dataTotal land area in 1996 (thousand ha) 51,089Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land area 11,630/ 22.8Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 11,101Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)/annual change(%)

-1,647/ (-2.6)

Population total 1997 (millions)/annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 59.1/ 0.8Rural population 1997 (%) 79.4GNP per person 1995 2,740

Source of data: *) FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationAdministratively, Thailand is divided into

four regions: the North, Northeast, Central andSouth. There are 76 Provinces and 716Districts. The North is mainly mountainous withaverage altitudes rising above 200 m above sealevel. The Northeast comprises the KoratPlateau, which lies 100-200 m above sea level.The Central Plains are the alluvial basin ofcountry’s principal river, the Chao Phraya,which feeds the most fertile area known as“the rice bowl of Asia”. Most of the land areain this region lies below 50 m above sea leveland is prone to flooding. The SouthernPeninsula consists of a narrow strip of landwhere mountain ranges run north to southseparating the eastern coast along the golf ofThailand and the western coast along theAndaman Sea. Thailand has a coastline of morethan 2,500 km. Thai society comprises manyethnic tribes with the Thai in the majority andChinese, Khmer, Laotian, and hill tribes theminorities. Buddhism is the national religion.

Thailand is quite vulnerable to severeweather events such as tropical storms,flooding and drought. At least 2 tropical stormshave hit Thailand annually since 1991 and thenew areas affected by flooding seem to beincreasing. Most Thai people believe that theseverity of damage could be reduced if thelocal ecological systems are better conserved.A massive landslide in Southern Thailand

induced the Government to impose a loggingban in 1989.

According to the Government statistics, thepopulation reached 62 million in 1999. Thepopulation grew at an average of 1.5% per yearduring the period 1980-1997. The number ofpeople living in poverty dropped substantiallyfrom 18 million in 1988 to 7 million in 1996. Percapita real income increased from Baht 2,000per month in 1988 to more than Baht 3,830 in1996.

About 80% of Thailand's population arefarmers. The need for agricultural land isprogressively growing as a result of theincreasing population and rising demand forgoods and services. The cultivation of marginalsoils, which cannot support sustainableagriculture, is increasing, mainly throughencroachment upon state-owned land. Whencrops such as maize and tapioca are in greatdemand in the world market, forest encroach-ment intensifies.

The economy grew by between 6-11%during the early 1990s, boosted by continuedexpansion in the non-agriculture sector. Bothexports and imports grew rapidly. However, thesocial, natural resources and environment goalswere not met. Rising social inequity hasthreatened the economy and political stability.

Since the second half of the 7th NationalDevelopment Plan (1994), the economy has

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Thailand174

shown signs of slowing down. In 1997, theGovernment decided to adopt a managed floatsystem of exchange rate. Production,investment, and domestic demand collapsed,and unemployment increased as businesses andmanufacturers ceased operations, cut produc-tion costs or downsized. As a whole, theeconomy posted a negative growth rate ofabout 10% in 1998.

Thailand's forest resources have beensubjected to continuing pressure and devasta-tion. Demand for land for subsistence farming,commercial agriculture, physical infrastruc-ture, tourism and other uses remains high. TheGovernment undertook an accelerated refor-estation programme after devastating floodsdestroyed two villages in 1988.

Under previous National DevelopmentPlans, the emphasis was growth-oriented withattention focussed on whatever wouldcontribute significantly to the economicdevelopment. However, this resulted incountless social ills, including aggravatedenvironmental degradation, and created arural/ urban-rich/ poor income gap. In theEighth National Development Plan (1997-2001)the emphasis is on human resourcesdevelopment. The Government policy includeseconomic stability and confidence enhance-ment, agricultural production structureadjustment, service structure adjustment, andnatural resource and environmental manage-ment.

The main objective in forestry sectordevelopment is to preserve and rehabilitate thearea of conservation forests to at least 25% ofthe total area of the country, as well as tomaintain the mangrove area at not less than onemillion rai (400,000 acres) by the end of theEighth Plan. The development strategies fornatural resources and environment managementare as follows:§ preserve and enrich the natural resources;§ create a balanced ecology;§ protect the environment in order to improve

the quality of life and build a solidfoundation for development;§ establish a management system for the

efficient utilisation and protection of naturalresources and the environment for thebenefit of the society and community; and§ protect against and give relief from natural

disaster.To achieve the reforestation target, a

number of schemes have been introduced andcarried out by Government agencies (the RoyalForest Department, Forest Industry Organisa-tion, and the Thai Plywood Company), theprivate sector, NGOs, and people’s organisa-tions. In addition to these schemes, in order topay tribute to the Golden Jubilee of KingBhumipol Adulyadej (The Fiftieth Anniversaryof H.M. the King’s ascension to the throne), theNational Forestry Policy Committee launched a“Reforestation Campaign” during 1994-96. Thetarget area was five million rai, or approxi-mately 800 thousand ha, at the followinglocations:§ 50,000 km along the roadsides;§ around the school premises, government

offices, and religious places;§ areas such as parks, recreation areas, dams

and reservoirs, riversides; and§ existing deteriorated forests.

Forest resourcesThe first National Development Plan

formulated under the aspects of economicgrowth and basic structure development wasimplemented in order to accelerate develop-ment in 1961. Before the Plan, the forestresource was very productive with its coveragemore than 70% of the total land. Wood was theimportant export commodity and income earner,second only to rice. The Royal ForestDepartment was founded in 1896 to take incharge of forest management, which enabledthe central government to look after all logging.The forest area was 27,36 million ha, or 53%of the total land area and the total populationwas 26 million. During 4 decades, thepopulation increased considerably with aconsequent conversion of the forest area intoagricultural land.

During the period of rich forest resources,forest management was mostly focused on


logging. The forest reserve was zoned startingin 1964. Forest protection and conservationforests were introduced due to increasingforest encroachment. Afterwards, the forestvillage approach was introduced and cultivationrights land was issued. Subsequent to thetragic floods, landslides, and logging ban in1989, the Government handed over thedegraded forest reserve lands to the LandReform Office in order to release the lands tolessen people’s suffering from the lack ofcultivable land.

The Cabinet resolution of 10 and 17 March1992 was passed to carry out forest landzoning in 1,220 reserves covering an area of23.52 million ha in 63 Provinces. Forestreserves are classified into three categories asfollows: the conserved forests zone (Zone C)of 14.12 million ha; the commercial forest zone(Zone E) of 8.30 million ha; and the suitablefor agriculture zone (Zone A) of 1.16 millionha. The Royal Forestry Department (RFD)handed over 7.08 million ha of the degradedforest reserves (all Zone A and some part ofZone E) to the Land Reform Office foragricultural purposes. As the result of a jointsurvey, 0.58 million ha of land unsuitable foragriculture were handed back to the RFD.Currently, the RFD is responsible for theforest reserve area of 17.07 million ha and theLand Reform Office is responsible for thedegraded forest reserve area of 6.5 million ha.According to Government statistics (1998survey), the remaining forest area was 12.97million ha, or 25% of the total land area. Table1 shows the trend of the size of forest areasfrom 1961-1998.

The first national park and the firstwildlife sanctuary covering an area of 0.25million ha were established in 1962. After thattime, the number of parks and sanctuariesincreased, particularly during the 4th-7th

National Development Plans. In 1998, therewere 139 national parks and 59 wildlifesanctuaries, covering an area of 6.95 million haand 4.04 million ha respectively.

Table 1: Forest area 1961-1998

year Area(mill. ha)

% of landarea

1961 27.36 53.31973 22.17 43.211976 19.84 38.671979 17.52 34.151982 15.66 30.521985 15.09 29.401989 14.34 27.951991 13.67 26.641993 13.35 26.031995 13.15 25.621998 12.97 25.28

Teak plantations were started in 1956.Subsequently, several plantation projects havebeen introduced, including non-teak species,eucalyptus and other fast-growing species forfuel wood, watershed rehabilitation, communityforests and private plantations. Up to the end1999, the total plantation area was 2.10 millionha, consisting of 1.15 million ha of protectedforest rehabilitation and 0.95 million ha ofcommercial forest rehabilitation.

Non-wood forest products (NWFPs)include a diverse array of useful commoditiesin Thailand. They have been an importantsource of income and food for the ruralpeople. At least five million forest dwellershave been critically dependent on NWFPs. Noconcessions have been granted for theseproducts. Permits for some commodities havebeen issued on an annual or short-term basis.Records of harvests are scarce and incomplete.Some important NWFP commodities are:medicinal plants, edible plants, rattan, bamboo,bee products, lac, and pine resin.

Coastal resourcesIt was reported that the mangrove forests

covered an area of 0.37 million ha in 1961.However, in 1996, it was only 0.17 million ha.The causes that reduced the area were several,including conversion to other uses such asmining, shrimp farming, residential areas, roadsand public buildings. Most of the existingmangrove forest areas are found in thesouthern region, particularly along theAndaman Sea. Table 2 shows the trend ofmangrove forest area from 1961 to 1996.


All 29 cabinet resolutions concerningmangroves have been revised in order to defineclear and systematic management guidelinesthat are suitable for the real and currentsituation. The revision will be submitted to theNational Forest Policy Committee and theCabinet for further consideration.

Table 2: Mangrove area 1961-1996Year Area

(mill ha)% oflandarea

1961 0.367 0.721975 0.313 0.611979 0.287 0.561986 0.196 0.381991 0.174 0.341993 0.169 0.331996 0.168 0.33

Thailand has a coastline of more than2,500 km. The coastal areas can be dividedinto the Gulf of Thailand area, which adjoinsthe Pacific Ocean, and the Andaman Sea areaof the Indian Sea. The physical structure andnatural endowments of the Thai seas havegenerated a great variety of biological and nonbiological resources. There are more than1,000 species of fish and about 900 types ofother marine resources.

Mangrove forests and coral reefs arenatural resources vital for maintaining theecological balance of Thai seas and coastalareas. Mangrove forests are important nurserygrounds for a variety of fish. They are also animportant source of charcoal and firewood andprotect the coastal areas from soil erosion.

Policy and planningThe Cabinet Resolution of 3 December

1985 stipulated several important forestpolicies, including the following: 1) promotingforest management sharing between theGovernment and the private sector; 2)improving the administration system to make itcompatible with the changes in forest situation;3) specifying the target forest areas at 40% ofthe country’s area of which 15% areconservation forests and 25% are commercialforests; 4) the Government and the privatesector should jointly develop and manage the

forest area both for direct and indirectbenefits; 5) reducing forest destruction byimproving agricultural technology; 6)integration of the Forest Development Plan intothe National Development Plan; 7) acceleratingthe city planning process and designing forestutilisation zones in each province; 8) appointinga National Forest Policy Committee under theForest Act; 9) intensification of private forestplantations to meet the need sof forestindustries; 10) defining 35% slope areas asforest areas; 11) creating incentive privateforest plantations; 12) planning on humanresources development and settlement based ona nature conservation basis.

The important targets under the currentplan, 1997-2001, include the following: 1) aforest area of 17.07 million ha will be strictlyprotected from illegal activities andencroachment, and 3.34 million ha will beunder an intensive forest fire controlprogramme, and the productive forest areas of14.36 million ha will be managed as protectedareas in the form of national parks, wildlifesanctuaries, non hunting areas and head waterareas; 2) in order to increase the forest area,various programmes and projects on forestrehabilitation and plantation will beimplemented, including State plantations on drylands and mangrove forests, head waterecosystem rehabilitation, commercial forestplantations, community forest development, andreforestation for the Royal Golden Jubilee; 3)survey activities will be carried out in 66Provinces to solve land tenure and forestproblems and the forest boundaries will beclearly and transparently demarcated; 4)relevant officers and target groups will betrained in forest management; networks ofsubordinate agencies will be laid down, andforest maps will be produced; 5) arboretumsand botanical gardens will be continuouslymanaged and public relation and informationdissemination concerning forest conservationwill be carried out.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives has defined 3 main agriculture andco-operative strategies for the 8th National


Development Plan concerning forest manage-ment as follows: 1) Competitive competence byappropriately adjusting the agriculturalproducing structure and system to meet thepotential areas and market needs, increasingco-operation with all related agencies onresearch and development; 2) Promoting naturalresource conservation and sustainabledevelopment by encouraging environmentalfriendly activities, formulating plans formanagement and biodiversity resourceutilisation, adjusting the planning system andbudget allocation consistent with the resourcebase, decentralisation of natural resourceprotection and management, including conflictresolution in natural resources utilisation tolocal organisations and communities, emphasis-ing law and regulation improvement in order toinvolve all parties involved in sustainablenatural resources and environment utilisation;3) Developing human resources and farmers’organisations by putting down capital foreducation and technology transfer systemati-cally and compatibly with target groups, givingland tenure to poor farmers, increasingagricultural alternatives, emphasising manage-ment capacities, production and marketing, andencouraging low interest loans, andestablishing an information network utilisingboth modern technology and local knowledge.

Forest management and institutionThe mandate of the Royal Forest Depart-

ment can be summarised as follows: a)enforcing of 5 Forest-Acts and other relatedActs; b) extending and developing naturalresources conservation and forest ecologicalrehabilitation; c) studying, seeking, research-ing, experimenting and developing appropriatetechnologies on forestry, wildlife and otherrelated subjects; d) implementing authorityunder the provision of laws, ministry decreesand Cabinet resolutions.

The Royal Forest Department has definedforest conservation and development strategiesinto 5 major aspects for the Forest Action Planin the 8th national Development Plan, 1997-2001, as the following: 1) protection of the

remaining natural forests; 2) rehabilitation ofthe degraded forests and forest plantationextension; 3) reduction of forest and landresource utilisation conflicts; 4) enhancementof management effectiveness; 5) strengtheningforest research, development and extension.

In regard to forest management, newstrategies have been crafted, including thefollowing important aspects: a) Adjusting theadministrative system by introducing a forestecosystem structure, in which forest, soil,water, wildlife, human and other relatedfactors live in harmony; b) Reforming theadministration by allowing all stakeholders,including government, the private sector,academics and citizens, to participate in theadministration as a partnership; c) Defining 2main types of target areas for management, i.e.protected forests to be kept intact byimplementing habitat management, andcommercial forests to be increased byimplementing sustainable management; d)Stopping illegal logging, particularly inprotected and high risk forest areas, byestablishing an ad-hoc task force to resolve theproblems and direct investigations; co-operating with the Ministry of Defense tointensively look after the forests located at theborder areas; and in collaboration with CustomDepartment to jointly check timber imports,strictly patrolling and arresting all lawviolators; e) Motivating the officers in theirduties; f) Building people’s awareness of theimportant role of forests for the environment;g) Strengthening research and development andtransfer of technology.

A Special project to pay tribute to the 72nd

King’s Birthday called “Forest loves water” wasimplemented by campaigning to jointly plant 5million trees in 72 provinces. Due tounavoidable circumstances, the reforestationtarget of five million rai under the GoldenJubilee of King Bhumipol Adulyadej could notbe achieved as planned. However, it wasreported that about 1,416,014.92 rai wassuccessfully reforested during 1994-97.Therefore, the plan has been continued and itwas expected that the target would be reached


in 2002.Insufficient budget is one of the biggest

constraints of forest management, particularlyduring the past few years of financial crisis.The slow down of the economy resulted in themigration of the unemployed labour force backto rural areas, where those desperate peoplethen encroached upon the remaining forest fortheir sustenance. At the same time, governmentrevenue diminished, which resulted in fewerresources for forest protection andrehabilitation of degraded forestland.

About 0.41 million ha of forest reservehave been permitted for various objectivessuch as rock quarries, the mineral industry,road construction, electricity, reservoirs,government offices, religious places, andforest plantations. During 1982-1992, about1.19 million ha had been allocated and beengiven to 727,082 citizens in order to mitigatetheir land tenure trouble.

Although Thailand has imposed a loggingban since 1988, forestland is still subjected tocontinuing pressure and devastation. Demandfor land for subsistence farming and otheruses remains high. The shifting cultivationpracticed by hill tribes and refugees hasdegraded watersheds.

Forestry Sector Master PlanIn line with the efforts to arrest the

deforestation rate, the Government submitted arequest for assistance from the donorcommunity to launch a Forestry Sector MasterPlan (FSMP). The exercise began in 1991assisted by ADB and FINNIDA. The leadinstitution was the Royal Forestry Department.

The immediate objective of the FSMP is toformulate a master plan at the national levelfor the development of the forestry sector,which should be sufficiently broad-based andbalanced to cope with various sectoralproblems. The exercise aims at improvingsectoral planning skills as an initial step toinstitutionalise long-term planning in theforestry sector.

During the FSMP exercise, 22 sub-teams

were created to carry out in-depth studies ofthe forestry sector. The result was a macro-plan that spells out national-level decisions.The drafting of the FSMP called upon otherdevelopment partners to help build a nationalconsensus on policy and development directionsfor the forestry sector.

The FSMP proposes 15 sub-sectoralprogrammes grouped into three majordimensions i.e. socio-ecological, technological,and institutional. The socio-ecologicaldimension covers conservation and forest-based rural and urban development aspects.The development programmes in this dimensionare referred to as Peoples’ and EnvironmentProgrammes, and include forest protection,forest-based rural development, watershedmanagement, conservation of ecosystems,biodiversity, and urban forestry. Thetechnological dimension covers the managementof multi-purpose forests and the developmentof man-made forests to produce wood and non-wood forest products. The developmentprogrammes in this dimension includemanagement of multi-purpose forests, man-made forest and agroforestry development,fuel wood and rural energy development,wood-based industry development, and non-wood forest products development. Theinstitutional development dimension covers thesupportive framework provided by forestrysector institutions. The development pro-grammes in this dimension include policy andlegal reforms, organisations and humanresources development, extension, research,and impact monitoring and evaluation.

In the context of FSMP, fuel wood is notincluded among the NWFPs. Fuel wood iswidely used in the household sector and bysmall enterprises. Wood supplies from aroundthe houses (home garden, wood lots, and publicforests) are able to fill the demand for fuelwood.

The Royal Forestry Department (RFD)improved some elements of the FSMP and itwas presented for consideration by theNational Forest Policy Committee (NFPC) on 30April 1997. The Committee agreed in principle


and asked the RFD to modify the FSMP to makeit up to date and relevant to the changingsituation of the country, including thepreparation of an action plan, for approval bythe Cabinet. The revised plan has beensubmitted by the RFD for consideration by theMinistry of Agriculture and Co-operativesbefore presenting it to the Cabinet forapproval.

The macro-level FSMP will be implementedthrough local-level plans drawn up for abottom-up process. This approach is currentlybeing applied on a pilot basis in two provinces:Lampang in the North and Surat Thani in theSouth. The exercise will provide excellentopportunities for NGOs, people's organisations,religious organisations, and other groups whobest represent the interests of the local peopleto participate in the FSMP exercise. Localcommunities and villagers will have decision-making powers concerning the forest resourcesentrusted to them.

Collaboration with partnersThailand is serious on forest related

international co-operation, particularly con-cerning international agreements andconventions. Many of the international conven-tions have been ratified, including

International Tropical Timber Agreement(ITTA), CITES, RAMSAR, World HeritageConvention. Unfortunately, most of theimplementation of the international agreementsand conventions has not progressed asexpected due to several constraints, includinglack of funding, unfavourable economicsituation, insufficient technology,unfavourable political conditions, and limitedpeople’s understanding.

At the moment, there are several regionalforestry programmes, projects, and activitieswith offices located in Bangkok, includingForestry Research for Asia and the Pacific(FORSPA); Regional Wood Energy DevelopmentProgramme (RWEDP); Information and Analysisfor Sustainable Forest Management; ModelForest Approach for Sustainable ForestManagement; Regional Community ForestryTraining Programme (RECOFT); Asian Instituteof Technology (AIT).

The logging ban, imposed in 1988, hasdrastically cut wood supplies. Therefore, theindustry has to rely on imported wood, as wellas on rubber and other plantation-grown wood.A review revealed that the policy, legal, andland-tenure conditions are not supportive offorest plantation development. Consequently,major private sector investors are lookingoutside Thailand for land to produce industrialwood.

Focal pointDr. Plodprasop SuraswadiDirector GeneralRoyal Forestry DepartmentPaholyothin Road, BangkhenBangkok 10900, ThailandPhone: (662) 5614292-4 ext.805Fax: (662) 5614872

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National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Tonga180

Tonga

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 72Total agroforestry/ coconut plantation land (ha) 14,540Total potential forestry plantations (ha) 23,000Total indigenous forests 8,000Population total 1997 (million)/ Annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) **) 0.1/ n.aRural population 1997 (%) **) 56.6GNP per person in 1995 in US$**) 1,630

Source of data: **) FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999 *) Government statistics, Country Report 1996

General informationTonga is composed of 170 islands, 36 of

which are inhabited. Tongatapu is the largestand most populated island (25,900 ha with64,000 inhabitants).

In the country's traditional farmingsystem, food crops, predominantly coconut, arecultivated under the canopy of trees. Thetraditional agroforestry system however, hasundergone some changes and is moving towardcommercial farming systems, thus reducing thenumber of standing trees. All land is communityproperty.

Tonga's very limited forest resourcesconsist of natural hardwood forests, exoticplantation forests, and coconut plantations.Natural hardwood forests can only supply asmall and ever decreasing part of the domestictimber demand because of over-exploitationand depletion by clearing for shiftingcultivation. It is estimated that only 4,000 haremain of natural hardwood forests. It hasbeen proposed that the remaining forest beprotected as a national park because of itsbiological diversity.

In the 1950's, land was allocated for thedevelopment of forest farms. By September1992, 579 ha of mainly Pinus caribea had beenplanted on exposed and infertile sites. Tonga'sextensive coconut plantations are its largesttimber resource and will continue to be themajor source of domestic timber production.

Fuel wood is the main source of energy:80% of the households use wood for cookingand 70% of fuel wood cut is for householdconsumption. Tonga also produces handicraftswhich require significant amounts of wood.These handicrafts are culturally important andprovide domestic and export earnings.Resources of sandalwood have declined,leaving only a short-term supply for localconsumption. Non-wood products, such as dyefrom the bark of koka trees and mangroves formaking tapa cloth, are also important.

The country has seven protected areas, aswell as nine marine and two territorial parks.Tourism has begun to play an increasinglyimportant role in the country's economy.Earnings from tourism are double those of allexports combined.

Policy and planningThe forest and tree resources in Tonga

are composed of indigenous forests, coconutplantations, agroforestry resources, andforestry plantations. The largest timberresource is found in the extensive coconutplantations and the forest plantations.

Notable timber resources are found inland areas as follows:§ Agroforestry/ coconut plantation land:

48,000 ha§ Forestry plantation land: 2,000 ha§ Indigenous land: 4,000 ha

An Environmental Management Strategywas formulated in 1992. Forestry projects in

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Tonga 181

Tonga are outlined in the Forestry Three-YearRolling Plan, which is reviewed and adjustedevery year. For the next five years, projectsare envisaged in the following areas:

§ ecology-based inventory of natural hardwoodforests and development of a managementplan;§ promotion of tree planting by encouraging

agroforestry;§ development of the Eua National Park;§ establishment of an agroforestry nursery;§ plantation area trials;§ maintenance of existing nurseries;§ inventory of coconut resources and develop-

ment of a management plan;§ development and management of the Mataliku

Sawmill Centre as a commercial operation;§ natural re-generation of logged areas;§ forest plantations;§ establishment of coconut sawmills;§ upgrading of existing sawmills

Small, portable sawmills designed to beeasily shifted around the islands have provedto be useful assets for small island groups withsufficient resources. They produce excellenttimber at a price lower than imported timber.The portable sawmill is also being adapted foruse with coconut timber.

A Tonga/New Zealand forestry develop-ment programme has been essential to themanagement of Tonga's forest resources. Theprogramme includes development of coconutsawmilling, increased emphasis onagroforestry, and upgrading of ForestryDivision skills. In 1991, the Governmentapproved the lease of 800 ha of additionalland on Fua. According to a study conducted in1996, it was recommended that to optimise thereturns from the forest, a rational policy forthe expanded forest would be to maximise thearea of the mixed regime of Sandalwood andCaribea, which is the most profitable.

In light of insufficient land for timberplantations, agroforestry offers an opportunityfor promoting tree planting such as timberspecies, fruit trees, and important cultural andindigenous species.

In the forest sector development theGovernment received support from partners,

particularly from international institutions,including: New Zealand Overseas DevelopmentAssistance; Australian International Develop-ment Assistance Bureau (AIDAB), FAO,European Community, German Technical Co-operation (GTZ), CIRAD-Foret, UNDP/SouthPacific Regional Environmental Programme(SPREP) and South Pacific Forestry Develop-ment Programme (SPFDP), and Japan OverseasCo-operation Volunteers. The support andassistance cover several fields including: training, sawmilling, nursery development,forestry plantation, agroforestry, handicraftdevelopment, training on processing andutilisation of coconut wood, research on farmtrials with alternative agroforestry systems,participatory process in forestry, coastalprotection and rehabilitation, biodiversityconservation, forestry information and promot-ing the forest and trees programmes, andinstitutional strengthening.

Legislation and institutionsThe Government recognises the important

role of the forestry sector in socio-economicdevelopment and environmental conservation,and passed a Forest Act in 1991. A majorreview of the Forestry Division was undertakenin 1991, resulting in a new organisationalstructure, i.e. establishing a Forestry andConservation Division within the Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry.

The Forestry and Conservation Divisiondoes not have a formal policy except for theforestry objectives set out in the Five YearDevelopment Plan. This Plan spells out the needto maximise the forestry contribution tonational development on sustainable basis.

The Forestry Act of 1961 is the only Actthat provides the legal status under which theForestry and Conservation Division operates.However, it is considered that the Act of 1961is too general, and does not give the legalstatus and authority required by the Divisionfor the management of the forest resources.The proposed new Act is still underconsideration by the Government.

Other Acts that relate to forest resourcesmanagement include the 1988 Parks andReserves Acts, and the proposed new

National Forest Programmes - UPDATE No. 34, Tonga182

Environment Act initiated by the Ministry ofLand, Survey, and Natural Resources. However,according to several reports, these Acts areoverlapping, thus creating confusion.

The Forestry Division views coconut treesas a forest species and is considering theinclusion of their management in the forestrydevelopment programme. It has estimated that20,000 ha could be replanted over the next 20years.

Currently, the Forestry and ConservationDivision is understaffed as a result of thetransfer of 8 staffs from the Division to theForestry Sawmills.

In 1976, a Parks and Reserves Act wasadopted to protect natural forests by creatingnational parks and reserves. The Parks andReserves Authority is responsible for theallocation of land for parks and reserves. InJuly 1992, a 449.4 ha area in Eua wasdeclared a national park.

Constraint

The Forest Act of 1961 is limited in itsapplication with respect to allowing theGovernment to set up forest reserves andcontrol forest use, and needs to be amended.The Forestry Division is understaffed. At leasteight additional well-trained staff memberswith degrees and diplomas will be needed forforestry activities over the next ten years.

Formulation of a conservation strategy forthe remaining natural forests is needed inorder to safeguard rare plants and the habitatsof important animal species such as theredbreast musk parrot. An appropriate multi-purpose agroforestry system, based on thetraditional system, is urgently required.

Focal pointTevita Faka’ OsiDeputy Director Forestry and Conservation Division /Head of ForestryMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and ForestryP.O.Box 124Nuku’alofa, TongaFax 676-24271

*****

Never leave till tomorrowwhich you can do today

(Benjamin Franklin)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, The United Sates of America 183

The United States of America

Country DataTotal land area (thousand ha) 915,912Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land 212,515/23.2Natural forest area 1995 (thousand ha)Total change in forest cover 1990-1995 (thousand ha)/ annual change (%)Population total 1997 (million)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000 271,6Rural population 23.4GNP per person total 1995 in US$ 26,980

Source of data: FAO- State of the World’s Forest 1999

Forest history and trends

Many U.S. forests, particularly those inthe eastern U.S., were heavily depleted dur-ing the 19th century due to agricultural landclearing, logging and massive wildfires. Theforest conservation policy framework thatemerged after 1900 to address these con-cerns included the following efforts: 1) topromote and encourage the protection of for-ests and grasslands, regardless of their own-ership, from wildfire; 2) to acquire scientificknowledge on the management of forests andwildlife and on the more efficient utilizationof wood products; 3) to reserve remainingpublic lands for permanent use, management,and protection, e.g. national forests, nationalparks, national wildlife refuges, etc.; and 4) toimprove the management and productivity ofprivate forests and agricultural lands throughresearch and technical and financial assis-tance to landowners.

The means for implementing this conser-vation strategy included public and privateresearch and extension, establishment ofprofessional forestry and natural resourcecolleges and universities, and a variety ofpublic and private partnerships, e.g. co-operative fire protection involving federal,state and private entities, among others.

A snapshot of current conditions is as fol-lows:§ After two centuries of decline, the area of

U.S. forestland stabilized around 1920 andhas since increased slightly. The forestarea of the U.S. is about two-thirds what itwas in 1600.§ The area consumed by wildfires each year

has fallen 90%; it was between eight and

twenty million ha (20-50 million acres) in theearly 1900s and is between one and two mil-lion ha (2-5 million acres) today.§ Nationally, forest growth has exceeded

harvest since the 1940s. By 1997, forestgrowth exceeded harvest by 42%, and thevolume of forest growth was 380% greaterthan it had been in 1920.§ Nationally, the average standing wood vol-

ume per acre in U.S. forests is about one-third greater today than in 1952; in theEast, the average volume per acre has al-most doubled. About three-quarters of thevolume increase is in broadleaved or decidu-ous trees.§ Populations of many wildlife species have

increased dramatically since 1900. But somespecies, especially some having specializedhabitat conditions, remain causes for con-cern.§ Tree planting on all forestland rose dra-

matically after World War II, reaching re-cord levels in the 1980s. Many private for-estlands are now actively managed for treegrowing and other values and uses.§ Recreational use of national forests and

other public and private forestlands has in-creased many fold.§ American society in the 20th century

changed from rural and agrarian to urbanand industrialized. This has caused a shiftin the mix of uses and values the publicseeks from its forests (particularly its pub-lic forests). Increased demands for recrea-tion and protection of biodiversity aredriving forest management. This has causedthe timber harvest from federal lands todecline by more than 60% since 1990. Inspite of this shift, today's urbanized nation

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, The United Sates of America184

is also placing record demands on its for-ests for timber production.

Demand and supply situation of timberThe U.S. is the world's largest consumer

of forest products and the second largestproducer (after Canada). The U.S. accountsfor 15% of the world trade in forest prod-ucts. The forest products sector, althoughsmall in comparison to the rest of the U.S.economy, is significant on a global scale, asdemonstrated by the fact that the U.S. ex-ports and imports of wood products total$150 billion yearly.

Forests in the U.S. are considered pro-ductive and provide for much of the country'sneeds. In 1997, the U.S. produced 512.5 mil-lion m3 of forest products (including woodfuel) and consumed 563.3 million m3.

Between 1990 and 1997, the timber har-vest from U.S. federal lands, which formerlysupplied about 25% of the U.S. softwood ti m-ber production, declined from about 66 millionm3 per year to 24 million m3. This has causeda shift in harvest to U.S. private lands and toCanadian forests. Between 1990 and 1997,U.S. softwood lumber imports from Canadarose from 42 to 63 million m3, increasingfrom 27 to 36% of the U.S. softwood lumberconsumption. Imports of panel products fromCanada increased as much as lumber. Much ofthe increase in lumber imports has come fromthe native old-growth boreal forests of east-ern Canada. In Quebec alone, the export oflumber to the U.S. has tripled since 1990.

U.S. consumption, by major product, in-cluded: lumber - 263 million m3 (47%); pulp-wood-based products - 178 million m3 (32%);plywood and veneer products - 35 million m3(6%); wood fuel - 72 million m3 (13%); andother products - 14 million m3 (2%).

U.S. wood product consumption has in-creased by 50% since 1965, from 374 to 563million m3 annually.

Forest policy and institutional frame-work

The U.S. has a basically decentralizedsystem of policy-making for forests that re-flects its mix of forestland ownership.

The federal government has a direct man-agement and policy responsibility for the fed-eral forest estate. In addition, the federalgovernment has one of the largest forestry

research organizations in the world, which,among other duties, carries out regular inven-tories and assessments of conditions andtrends of all U.S. forestlands, regardless ofownership. The federal government also pro-vides the states with funding to help supporttechnical and financial assistance to privateforest owners to improve management of thevast private forest estate. The federal gov-ernment is involved in providing assessmentsof insect and disease and wildfire problemsand the funding to help address them, re-gardless of ownership.

All fifty states are individually responsi-ble for guiding and regulating management ofthe 71% of the productive non-reserved for-ests that are privately held. Each state has astate forester and forestry organization toprovide direct technical and financial assis-tance to private forest owners, to protectforests from fire, insects and disease, and toimplement state laws affecting the use andmanagement of these lands. Many states alsomanage public forests. At the local level, hun-dreds of counties and many cities own andmanage forest, park and municipal watershedareas.

Federal, state and local governmentsspend $6.4 billion annually on forest manage-ment, including $3.2 billion by the U.S. ForestService, which alone manages 77 million ha ofnational forests and rangelands and employs32,000 people.

In view of decentralized forest regula-tions and extensive private forest ownership,the actions of state and local governmentsand non-government parties, such as smallnon-industrial forest owners, industry andlocal communities, are the principal factors inhow private forests are managed in the U.S.All U.S. citizens are part of the natural re-source public decision-making process at thelocal, regional and national levels.

Current forestry issuesThe success of the U.S. conservation poli-

cies put in place in response to public con-cerns at the turn of the century left the U.S.well positioned to implement UNCED's Agenda21. An extensive educational, management andpolicy infrastructure now exists to supportscientific forest management. Government,universities and industry are all actively in-


volved in research to produce faster and bet-ter growing forests. New and innovative waysare constantly being developed to use woodproducts more efficiently.

Under the Forest and Rangeland Renew-able Resources Act of 1974 (RPA), the U.S.Forest Service publishes an "Assessment ofUS Forests" every ten years, with five-yearupdates. Current assessments of the healthand conditions of U.S. forests show that insome cases resource conditions are not satis-factory. Problems include: habitat fragmenta-tion due to residential subdivisions and urbandevelopment; loss and deterioration of theforest and grassland habitats that once werecreated by frequent, low intensity fires; re-duction and fragmentation of late succes-sional and old-growth forest habitats due totimber harvesting; loss and degradation ofriparian and wetland habitats; and effects ofair pollution on forests in some areas, to namea few. Of particular concern are rare andunique ecosystem types and species with spe-cialized habitat requirements that are associ-ated with them.

One significant general threat is from in-troduced exotic plants, animals and diseases.There is a long history of heavy damage toU.S. forests and loss of species from intro-duced biological agents, including white pineblister rust, chestnut blight, Dutch elm dis-ease, gypsy moth and, more recently, hemlockwoolly adelges, beech bark disease and theAsian long-horned beetle. Increasing worldtrade in forest products and of internationaltrade in general only increased the opportu-nity for such introductions. Introduced exoticanimals also pose a significant threat to dis-place and out-compete domestic wildlife spe-cies.

Policy initiativesOn October 13, 1999, President Clinton

announced plans to protect 16 million ha ofNational Forest System land from roadbuilding and commercial development. A year-long process soliciting pubic comments willdetermine the specific areas selected.

In September 1999, the U.S. ForestService established its new planning regula-

tions that will give greater emphasis to thesustainable management of National ForestSystem lands. The regulations provide direc-tion for working towards the goal ofsustainability and encourage the use of "cri-teria and indicators" for sustainable forestmanagement, emphasizing monitoring activi-ties designed to develop a desired futurecondition.

In 1998, the U.S. Forest Service incorpo-rated sustainable resource management intoits National Forest policy agenda. In June1998, the U.S. Forest Service also committedto prepare a comprehensive national assess-ment of the status and trends of U.S. forestconditions and management based on theMontreal Process criteria and indicators(C&I) for sustainable forest management. InJuly 1998, the Chief of the U.S. ForestService initiated the Roundtable on Sustain-able Forests, bringing together representa-tives of federal, state and local governmentagencies, non-governmental organizations andindustry to discuss how best to implement theMontreal Process C&I for both public and pri-vate forests. Follow-up workshops areplanned. The report will be released in 2003as part of the mandated five-yearly assess-ment of all forestlands and trends in the for-est sector, which the U.S. undertakes withinthe framework of the Resources Planning Actof 1974. The resulting Presidential report toCongress will be organized using the MontrealProcess C&I. In the meantime, the 2000 As-sessment will be organized utilizing the Mont-real C&I format as an important step in along-term commitment to developing compre-hensive quantitative and qualitative informa-tion on the sustainability of U.S. forests.

Respect and recognition of traditionalrights of indigenous people, including NativeAmericans, Native Hawaiians and Alaska Na-tives, is an ongoing effort by the U.S. gov-ernment. Since 1992, numerous actions havebeen taken by the government, including issu-ance of Executive Orders regarding consulta-tion and coordination with Indian governmentsand Indian sacred sites, and of directives ongovernment-to-government consultations withfederally recognized tribal governments.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)is involved in the implementation of conserva-tion and management programs for NorthAmerican forest-dwelling neotropical birds.FWS has developed partnerships with dozensof federal and state agencies, private conser-


vation organizations and local governments torestore and manage forest habitats for thesemigratory species. The Texas Gulf CoastWood Lot Initiative (important to migratingbirds crossing the Gulf of Mexico) and the12-million ha Tennessee Valley Project areworking examples.

State Foresters are responsible for theestablishment of State Stewardship Commit-tees in every state, which include representa-tion from a range of natural resource disci-plines as well as the public and private sec-tors. Each state has also developed and is im-plementing state resource plans, which willultimately bring millions of hectares of non-industrial private forestlands under steward-ship management.

In June 1999, the Office of the U.S.Trade Representative and the White HouseCouncil on Environmental Quality sponsored aninitial study on the potential economic andenvironmental effects of tariff liberalizationin the forest products sector. The study wasreleased in October 1999.

Other effortsThere are numerous organized advocates

and partners in the U.S. for forest conserva-tion that have a profound effect on U.S. for-estry and forest policy.

The Nature Conservancy (TNC), an NGOdedicated to preservation of the nation'sbiodiversity, has accumulated over 3.64 mil-lion ha of wildlife habitat and manages over1,500 reserves. TNC is currently focusing ondeveloping agreements with the businesscommunity and has come to an agreement withthe timber company Westvaco to conduct abiodiversity inventory of its 562,000 ha ofland.

In October 1994, the American Forestand Paper Association (AFPA), which repre-sents 95% of the industrial forestland in theU.S., approved a set of Sustainable ForestryInitiative Principles and Guidelines (SFI),which includes performance measures for re-forestation and the protection of water qual-ity, wildlife, visual quality, biological diversityand areas of special significance. In 1998, theprogram was expanded to include public andnon-industrial private lands.

The U.S.-based International Wood Prod-ucts Association (IWPA), which representsmajor timber exporting and importing compa-

nies, has established membership-approvedvoluntary "Codes of Conduct" for trade inwood products and forest management, simi-lar to the SFI.

There are a number of standards and cer-tification schemes, such as the InternationalStandards Organization and the Forest Stew-ardship Council, involved in a growing trendfor wood products certification. This trend isreflected in the growing number of lumbermills seeking and receiving "chain of custody"certificates and a number of large corporateretailers such as Home Depot, the world'sthird largest lumber retailer, selling certifiedwood products. To date, about 179 companiesthroughout the U.S. carry FSC chain-of-custody certification and 52 U.S. forest man-agement companies are FSC-certified.

International activities in generalThe U.S. has major interests at the in-

ternational level. The U.S. provides substan-tial forest-related assistance to developingcountries and countries with economies intransition through the U.S. Agency for Inter-national Development (USAID) and otherfederal agencies, as well as through contribu-tions to international organizations and finan-cial institutions such as the World Bank, andvarious innovative debt reduction initiatives.Several of the largest multinational forestand paper companies are U.S.-owned, andmany U.S.-based environmental organizationsand academic institutions undertake forestfield activities and projects abroad.

The U.S. is active in a wide variety of in-tergovernmental agreements, organizations,initiatives and other fora that undertake for-est-related work and policy discussions. Keyamong them is the Intergovernmental Forumon Forests (IFF). The U.S. is a member of the12-country Montreal Process Working Groupon Criteria and Indicators for the Conserva-tion and Sustainable Management of Temper-ate and Boreal Forests and hosted the 11th

Meeting of the Working Group in November1999 in Charleston, South Carolina. The U.S.initiated the G-8 Action Program on Forests,which world leaders launched at the DenverSummit in 1997 and endorsed a year later. Aprogress report on implementation of the G-8Action Program will be submitted to G-8 lead-ers at the Okinawa Summit in 2000.


In July 1998, the President signed intolaw the Tropical Forest Conservation Act(TFCA), which authorizes the reduction ofofficial debt owed the U.S. by countries withtropical forests in exchange for forest con-servation measures. The law expands the1992 Enterprise for the Americas Initiative,which led to the signing of agreements withseven Latin American countries that were un-dertaking macroeconomic and structural ad-justment reforms to cancel $875 million intheir official debt, generating substantiallocal currency for child survival and environ-mental projects. Seven countries have re-quested debt buy-back or debt-for-natureswaps under the TFCA; many more have ex-pressed interest in debt reduction shouldfunding become available.

The U.S. is actively pressing the G-8 andother industrialized countries to establishenvironmental guidelines for export creditagencies along the lines of the "EnvironmentalProcedures and Guidelines" used by the Ex-port-Import (EX-IM) Bank of the UnitedStates to evaluate applications for financialsupport for foreign projects sponsored byU.S. business. Proposed forest sector proj-ects, such as pulp and paper mills, area evalu-ated by EX-IM for ecological soundness andmitigation measures. Project sponsors arerequired to develop forest management plansthat consider, among other things, impacts onwater resources, endangered/threatenedspecies, and local communities from construc-tion and operation.

International activities in the Asia-Pacific Region

Reduced impact harvestingThe U.S. Forest Service is collaborating

with the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission(APFC) to promote reduced-impact harvestingin the Asia-Pacific region. Numerous work-shops and meetings have been held to developand implement a Code of Practice for ForestHarvesting in Asia-Pacific. An internet-basednetwork, RILNET, has been established todisseminate information. A workshop isplanned to gather information on the currentstate of reduced-impact harvesting and shareit with policy makers, managers andimplementers. Through USAID and U.S. For-est Service support, the Tropical ForestFoundation has placed a field person in Indo-nesia to help provide training and support to

reduced-impact harvesting in the region. Astudy is also planned to gather information onthe economic benefits/cost of employing re-duced impact harvesting techniques.

Underlying causes of firesIn partnership with the Center for Inte r-

national Forestry Research and the Interna-tional Center for Research in Agroforestry,the U.S. Forest Service is assisting in an as-sessment of the underlying causes of the1997/98 fires in Indonesia. The U.S. ForestService's Remote Sensing Applications Centerhas been active in analyzing satellite imageryof the areas burned on the Indonesian islandsof Sumatra and Kalimantan. The final resultswill be disseminated throughout Indonesiawith the aim of assisting the Indonesian Min-istry of Forestry and Estate Crops and othergovernment agencies in policies that wouldprevent wide scale forest burning and pro-mote sustainable forest management.

Fire managementThe U.S. Forest Service is building ca-

pacity in Indonesia for fire suppression andmanagement in cooperation with the Indone-sian Ministry of Forestry and Estate Cropsand the Association of Southeast Asian Na-tions (ASEAN). Assistance has been providedsince August 1998, and is in the form of shortto medium-term assignments of fire manage-ment specialists. The U.S. Forest Service as-sisted in the implementation of a workshop tofoster interagency coordination for fire sup-pression at the provincial level. This activityspecifically meets the goals of and builds thecapacity of the Indonesian Ministry to decen-tralize authority.

Invasive speciesInvasive species are a serious global bio-

logical and economic problem. Yet, usually lit-tle is known of the severity, life history, oreffective control measures for the invasivepests until they are already well established.The U.S. Forest Service has been workingwith countries in the region to identify prior-ity invasive species to control and explore ef-fective measures to control these invasivespecies. This includes studying the pest's lifehistory, biological control, chemical control,and monitoring and evaluation. Some of thepests of interest to the United States in-clude: Asian longhorned beetle, kudzu, beechbark scale, Oracella acuta (mealybug), mile-a-


minute weed, hemlock wooley adelges, and redturpentine beetle.

Erosion modelingA GIS-Based Soil Erosion and Sediment

Transport Model is being developed in col-laboration with the Beijing Forestry Univer-sity to validate a new geographic informationsystem based on soil erosion and transportmodel using data collected from the Quxi wa-tershed in the Yangtze River Basin in South-ern China.

Nature based tourismA brochure is being developed in collabo-

ration with the Forestry Bureau in ZhongdianPrefecture, Yunnan Province. The brochurewill highlight the natural features of the areaand incorporate environmental ethics such as"tread lightly" and "leave no trace." The bro-chure will be developed in both Chinese andEnglish and completed by the end of 2000.

A workshop is being planned in Sichuanwith the Sichuan Forestry Department to dis-cuss the components of nature-based tourism,especially ecotourism. Additionally, it willserve as an opportunity for park and reservemanagers to share experiences and try to de-velop a group to address issues of mutual in-terest. The workshop is tentatively scheduledfor the fall of 2000.

The effect of removing forests fromtimber production

The Forest Service is supporting a studyby the International Forestry Sector Analysisof the effects of removing natural forestsfrom commercial timber production, in col-laboration with FAO and professional for-estry personnel from selected countries inAsia.

Information sources onlineInformation concerning marketing and

trade of timber and timber products in theU.S., particularly import from the Asia PacificRegion has been regularly presented at theITTO Tropical Timber Market Report websiteat:http://www.itto.or.jp/market/recent/mns120199.html.

The Year 2000 RPA Assessment is ex-pected to be published by October 2000.Supporting technical reports and analyses arein various stages of completion and severalhave already been published on the followingwebsite at: http://www.fs.fed.us/pl/rpa/.

Forest inventory data for the U.S. can beaccessed online at USDA/Forest Service'sforest inventory website at:http://www.srsfia.usfs.msstate.edu/wo/wofia.htm.

Many other Forest Service publicationscan be accessed online at:http://www.fs.fed.us/links/pubs.shtml .

For a summary overview on U.S. forestsvisit the "State of the Nation's Ecosystems"website at: http://www.us-ecosystems.org/and click on "Forests".

Focal pointGary Man

International Programme

Asia-Pacific Programme Co-ordinatorUSDA Forest Service, 1099 14th St.

NW Suite 5500 W, Washington DC 20005Telephone: 202-2734740

Fax: 202-2734750

E-mail: [email protected]

*****

All component man should have some ambition, for ambition is like the temper in steel.If there’s too much the product is brittle, if there’s too little the steel is soft,

and without a certain amount of hardness a man can notachieve what he sets out to do.

(Dwight Eisenhower)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Vanuatu 189

Vanuatu

Country dataTotal land area (thousand ha) 1,219Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha)/ % of total land area 900/ 73.8Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 893Total change in forest cover 1990-1995 (thousand ha)/annual change (%) -38/ -0.8Population total 1997 (millions)/annual growth rate 1990-95 (%) 0.2/ 2.5Rural population 1997 (%) 80.9GNP per person 1995 in US$ 1200


General informationVanuatu is a small island, made up of 82

islands, 70 of which are inhabited. Two majorislands account for half of the total land area.Customary land represents the vast majority ofland holdings. The majority of the ruralpopulation live in a subsistence economy. Thelargest components of the GDP are the agri-cultural and industrial sectors and tourism.Offshore financial services are also important.The major agricultural commodities are copra,beef, and cocoa.

The Government’s development prioritiesfor the coming years are geared to the rationalutilisation of natural resources and the expan-sion of the cash economy through an increasedcontribution of the private sector.

The economy is essentially agriculturalwith about 80% of the population primarilyengaged in subsistence farming of food cropssuch as taro and yams. Agriculture wasdominant in export earning accounting forabout 85% of the nation’s export income.

Forest resourcesA draft National Land Use Plan was

compiled during 1998. It recognises that landis Vanuatu’s heritage and the key to its peaceand prosperity. The national goal for land useis to develop land resources in a sustainableway for the benefit of all ni-Vanuatu now andin the

future.Forestry is the responsibility of the

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisher-ies. The Department of Forestry, officiallyestablished in January 1980, was recently re-structured with the creation of a ForestResearch Division and an Extension ForestryDivision (responsible for all reforestation,afforestation and small-scale sawmillingprogrammes). Forestry is quite important torural communities. It is one of their mainsources of cash income. In addition to thecommercial forestry operations, the forestsprovide a wide range of products for thesubsistence lifestyle of most ni-Vanuatu.

Almost 75% of the land area is covered bynatural vegetation, with around one thirdcovered by forest. However, the quality ofnatural forests in terms of commercial forestryis low. According to the inventory carried outin 1993, there were a total of 205,000 ha ofmid height forest (>20 m tall) and 234,000 haof low forests. However, only about 20% ofthe total forest resource is commerciallyavailable, owing to the steep slopes, dissectedlandform, low density and cultural reasons.The National Forest Policy has adopted thesustainable yield of 68,000 m3/year. Thismeans that a greater proportion of the timberresources can be harvested if a combination ofmobile sawmills and conventional logging is

National Forest Programme – UPDATE No. 34, Vanuatu190

used. The Policy allocates 70% of the availabletimber resources to large processing plants and30% to mobile sawmills.

The tree plantations are dominated by onespecies, i.e. Cordia alliodora, and range in agefrom 14 to 22 years. The National Forest Policysets a target of establishing 20,000 ha ofplantations over the next 20 years.

Small scale farmers plant trees, but thenumber of hectares can not be accuratelymeasured due to the small scale and scatteredlocations. In 1998 and 1999, the ForestryDepartment supplied 7,004 seedlings and9,608 seedlings respectively to small farmers.

As of 1996, the total area under plantationwas 20,910 ha, comprised of local supplyplantations (1,160 ha); Aneityum pine planta-tions (890 ha); Ipota industrial plantations(260 ha); IFP research plantations (350 ha);and Melcoffee whitewood plantations (250 ha).

PlanningIn early 1991, the Government officially

requested assistance from FAO to initiate theForestry Planning Process. A consultant wasretained from November 1991 to January 1992to assist the Government in drafting an NFAPIssues Paper.

This document was then reviewed at theNational Round Table convened in early 1992,after which a final draft was to be preparedfor consideration by the Cabinet. The studywould aim at establishing the groundwork forwhich partners could provide support to forestand forestry development in Vanuatu. A draftreport consisting of three volumes: ExecutiveSummary, Draft Forest Policy Statement, andthe Forest Sector and Policy Options wasready in April 1992. It was suggested by theconsultant that the document be circulatedwidely for intensive discussions amongpartners in Vanuatu, including politicians at thenational and provincial levels, to seek input,acceptance, and also commitment for itspossible implementation. Due to a politicalcrisis in the government at the time and other

matters, further action on the process wassuspended. In July 1994, the process wasrejuvenated and an issues paper was submittedfor consideration by the Council of Ministers.However, since then, the process has notprogressed.

A TSS-1 proposal for a "Forestry SectorStudy and Implications on Forest Policy forVanuatu", intended to keep the momentum forthe exercise, was approved and started at endof June 95, with a duration of two and a halfmonths. Another project, "SustainableManagement of Forest Resources", which is inthe pipeline, would contribute significantly toforestry development. The result of the TSS-1study was a draft National Forest Policy. Itwas reported that the Department of Foresthas been using the draft as a guide towardsustainable forest management in Vanuatu.

The draft was submitted for approval tothe Council of Ministers in mid-1997 but,unfortunately, there is no record of theirapproval. A new Government was formed inMarch 1998, to which the Department of Forestis submitting the draft for formal ratification.

PolicyArticle 7(d) of the Constitution of the

Republic of Vanuatu is the basis for theformulation of the national forest policy, i.e.

“protect the Republic Vanuatu and to safeguardthe natural wealth, resources and environmentin the interests of the present generation andof future generations”. Therefore, theprincipal national goal for the forest sector is:to ensure the sustainable management ofVanuatu’s forest to achieve greater social andeconomic benefits for current and futuregenerations.

The National Forest Policy (NFP) wasdeveloped through a wide consultative processin 1996 and 1997. It was endorsed by theCouncil of Ministers in 1998. The NFP guidesthe work of the Department of Forests and thisprovides a clear indication to investors anddonors about how the forestry sector will bemanaged in the country. The policy is grouped


into nine main areas and sets out clear policies,objectives and strategies for each area. Theroles of various stakeholders are clearlyidentified, including national and provincialGovernments, customary chiefs, landownersand communities, forest industries and NGOs.

The NFP presents a positive vision for themanagement of the nations’ forest resources. Itis stated that “the Government will work co-operatively with the landowners and the forestindustries to achieve sustainable forestmanagement and thereby encourage revenuegeneration for ni-Vanuatu landowners,economic development for the wider communityand conservation of the country’s forestbiodiversity”.

The NFP identifies a number of issues andconstraints affecting the forest sector, whichcan hamper the achievement of sustainableforest development. There are 38 detailedstrategies to address the issues and constraintsidentified by the NFP. The main issues andconstraints are the following:§ out of date legislation;§ land disputes;§ inadequate land use planning;§ lack of forest management plans at the

regional level;§ imbalance between utilisation and reforesta-

tion/ afforestation;§ inadequate resource knowledge;§ weakness of the institutional component;§ non-compliance of the industries with the

code of forest harvesting practices; and§ inadequate funding and management of

protected areas.

Code of logging practiceA Code of Logging Practice was developed

in co-operation with Australian Aid (AusAID)and in consultation with the industry sector.The Code is designed to foster the applicationof sustainable forest harvest practices. TheCode will be a catalyst for upgrading industrystandards. The Code was developed in 1995with the assistance of the Vanuatu SustainableForest Utilisation Project. A revised version ofthe Code was prepared in March 1998incorporating minor improvements based onexperiences gained so far. The amendedForestry Act, 1997 provides a legal basis for

preparing and amending the Code andestablishing strong penalties for breaches ofthe Code.

Currently, most of the logging operationsdo not comply with all the standards containedin the Code, mainly due to lack of skilledworkers. Logging planning requiresconsiderable specialist skills. The Machineoperators and tree cutters will requireconsiderable retraining. AusAID, under theVanuatu Sustainable Forest Utilisation Project,has provided significant training over the lastfive years.

The Forest Department is developing acompetency based assessment system to licenceforest operators starting in 2000. Specialisedtraining has been provided for the loggingplanners and logging supervisors, as well as formachine and chainsaw operators. ForestOfficers and some NGOs, such as FSP, carriedout this training through their Eco-Timberproject.

Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) guidelineswere developed in 1997 as the follow up to thedevelopment of the Code. The RIL producedsupporting documents, including the improvedsilvicultural prescription using variable diame-ter species cutting limits for selected foresttypes.

The Forest Department, in collaborationwith the Pacific German Forestry Project, isestablishing a demonstration site in Santo, thelargest island that has the majority of thecommercial logging. A similar one was estab-lished in Efate in 1997.

SandalwoodSandalwood (Santalum austro-caledonia) is

an important forest product in Vanuatu. It isused for fine carvings or made into incense oroil for perfumes. There is limited informationavailable about the sustainable management ofsandalwood. In 1997, the Government intro-duced new regulations for controlling theharvest and exports of sandalwood. Taiwanwas the major buyer of the sandalwoodexports from Vanuatu.

The initial trial operation of a sandalwoodoil distillery in Vila by a company was con-ducted in 1999. It is expected that theproduction of processed sandalwood will be


increased in the years 2000 and 2001.The Department of Forestry has taken the

initiative to implement a minimum cutting limitof 15 cm diameter at 50cm up from the ground.This helps young sandalwood trees to grow tomaturity for harvesting and increases theproportion of heartwood that has higher oilcontent. The quantity of sandalwood harvestingis presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Sandalwood harvesting

Year Quantity (kg)1996 77,0001997 32,9061998 72,3561999 28,551

Biodiversity and conservationThe work on conservation and protected

areas was initiated by an ACIAR researchproject (PN 9020). This project resulted in theestablishment of a Forest Conservation Unitwithin the Department of Forests in 1995. TheUnit manages the herbarium, provides informa-tion to landowners on conservation and pro-tected areas, collects information on potentialforest conservation sites, monitors existingforest protected areas, and promotes post-logging forest regeneration through awarenessand permanent plots.

The formal concept of conservation,protected areas, and national parks is very newto Vanuatu; the placing of taboos has been thetraditional method used for conservingresources. This has assisted substantially inconserving forests. However, with the currenteconomic drive and deterioration of traditionalcultures, these methods of taboos are losingtheir importance and reducing their effect inconserving the resources, including trees.

The existing conservation reserves inVanuatu include:§ Kauri Reserve, Erramango (3,205 ha);§ Big Bay Conservation Area, Santo (4,300 ha);§ Loru Protected area, Santo (150 ha); and§ Nagha mo Pineia Area, Malakula (1,056 ha).

In addition to the above, there are anumber of conservation areas proposed bylandowners, including:§ Middlebush Tanna;§ South-west Malakula;§ East Santo;§ West-coast Santo; and§ Loh, Torres and Efate.

Some of the constraints affecting theimplementation of forest conservation pro-grammes, include the lack of resources, lack ofeffective co-ordination between the variousorganisations involved in conservation pro-grammes and the inability to implement theNational Parks Act.

The development of a Biodiversity Strat-egy and Action Plan is currently underway withassistance from the GEF and SPREP. Theplanned activities include the establishment ofthe Biodiversity Conservation Trust Fund andan inter-agency Protected Areas Group to co-ordinate and share information on protectedareas.

Marketing and utilisationThe number of mobile sawmills, sometimes

called walkabout sawmills, has increasedrapidly over the past years. They have very lowproduction capacity and produce moderatequality timber, but they have the significantadvantages of employment and income oppor-tunities for local communities and minimumenvironmental disturbance. However, theiruncontrolled use can cause problems. Newregulations for controlling the use of mobilesawmills were developed and approved in 1997.

Log exports were banned from 1989through 1993. The ban was lifted in mid-1993but re-introduced in May 1994 and still appliesto date. The Government will maintain thepolicy introduced into legislation in 1994that logs (other than coconut and sandalwood)should be processed domestically. Any exportof unprocessed logs will require the approvalof the Council of Ministers.

Logging concessionaires were invited torenegotiate timber licenses based on asustainable level of harvest, and new licenseswere granted in 1995 for significantly reducedvolumes. The permissible annual cut was


206,500 m3, but the total harvest was only44,000 m3 in 1994 - less than 29% of thenational sustainable yield level. According tothe National Forest Inventory, it is estimatedthat the total area of log-able forest is onlyabout 117,000 ha, and the total forest resourceis about 13 million m3. However, only about20% of the total forest resource would becommercially available, the rest beingunsuitable due to steep slopes, dissectedlandforms, low sawlog volumes, and forcultural reasons.

Collaboration with partners andinternational conventions

Many donor agencies have been involved inthe forestry sector development in the country.They include AusAID, German Technical Co-operation (GTZ), the European Union, NewZealand ODA, FAO and UNDP.

Donors had contributed substantially tocarry out forestry activities by providingsupport of US$ 462,000; this was more thanthe Government budget of US$ 385,000, in1999. Donor funded projects in 1999 ispresented in Table 2.

The Convention on International Trade ofEndangered Species of Flora and Fauna(CITES) was ratified in 1989. The Conventionon Biological Diversity was ratified in 1993.

In the year 2000, the European Unionsupported project entitled “Landowner Exten-sion and Awareness of Reforestation Naturally(LEARN)”. Key activities include plans todevelop methods for post-harvest reforestationof natural forest in participation withlandowners.

Vanuatu became a member of the AsiaPacific Forestry Commission in August 1999. Inaddition, the Vanuatu Council of Ministers haveapproved Vanuatu’s joining the InternationalTropical Timber Organisation, expectedly inthe year 2000. Due to funding constraints anda limited ability to become effectively involvedand meet obligations, Vanuatu has had limitedinvolvement in the international discussions onforestry issues such as the IPF/IFF process.

There are some plants that have significantpotential for medicinal purposes andhistorically many plants have been used to cureand prevent diseases. However, these have notbeen protected from interested companies orcountries that may want to use these plants orpatent them. There is an urgent need to developintellectual property rights so that somebenefits can be channelled back to the peopleor the location where these plants originates.

The Department maintains a policy of openco-operation with non-government organisations(NGOs) and collaborates closely with someprogrammes carried out with NGOs. The NGOsactive in the forestry sector include:§ Foundation of the Peoples of the South

Pacific FSP);§ Industrial Development and Economic

Alternatives for Sanma (IDEAS);§ National Komunity Development Trust

(NKDT);§ Vanuatu Environment Organisation (VEO);§ Vanuatu Rural Development Rural Training

Centres Association (VRDTCA); and§ Wan Smol Bag Treatre.

In addition, Customary Chiefs have animportant role in maintaining traditional socialstructures, including consultations concerninglogging plans, identification of taboo sites, anddispute resolution.

Table 2: Donor funded project in 1999


Project Name Donors Estimated budget(Vatu)

Vanuatu Sustainable Forest Utilisation Project AusAID 21,178,780Forest Management Project GTZ 9,322,500Kauri Reserve N. Zealand 3,570,000Aneityum Erosion Control Project N. Zealand 2,314,600Mangaliliu Community Forestry Project N. Zealand 214,550Biodiversity Mapping and Training Project AusAID 8,400,000Sandalwood Inventory Project N. Zealand 587,000Genetics Project (SPRIG) AusAID 21,250,000 Total 66,837,430

Note: Exchange rate US$ 1 = 130 Vatu

Landowners will decide how their forestresources are to be managed, and they will beinvolved in harvesting and planting trees. Theforest industry will negotiate with landownersfor timber harvesting areas and implement theapproved plans.

Focal point

Adam GerrandPrincipal Forest Utilisation OfficerPrivate Mail Bag 064Port Vila, VanuatuPhone: 678-23071Fax: 678-25051E-mail: [email protected]

*****

If you treat people as they are, they will stay as they are.But, if you treat them as they ought to be, they will become bigger and better persons.

(Goethe – quoted from John Adair – Effective Motivation)

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Viet Nam 195

Viet Nam

Country dataTotal land area 1996 (thousand ha) 32,549Total forest area 1995 (thousand ha) / % of total land 9,117 / 28.0Natural forest 1995 (thousand ha) 7,647Total change in forest cover 1990-1995 (thousand ha)/Annual Change(%)

-676/11.4

Population total 1997 (million)/ annual rate of change 1995-2000 (%) 76.5/ 1.8Rural population 1997 in % 80.4GNP per person total 1995 in US$ 240

*) Source of data: FAO - State of the World’s Forest 1999

General informationThe country is administratively divided into

49 provinces, which are subdivided into 400districts, and further into communes, with eachcommune containing a few villages. The eco-nomic development policy has been changed inline with the country's move towards a marketeconomy, and it is expected that the economicactivities will change substantially.

Agriculture activities occupy 6.9 million ha,or 21% of total land area, provide a livelihoodfor more than two-thirds of the population, andaccounting for about 40% of export earnings.During the initial stages of transition towards amarket economy, the forestry sector played aprominent role in the economy and culture ofthe country, contributing 5.1% of the GNP, and5% of the total exports.

Direct responsibility for the day-to-daymanagement of the forests rests with the Pro-vincial and District administrations. The Minis-try of Agriculture and Rural Development isresponsible for providing technical guidanceand services.

The basic forest policy goals are to:§ meet the nation's needs for forest products

and sustainable environmental protection;§ increase social and economic benefits of for-

est resources through efficient utilisation;§ increase people's participation in forest

protection and utilisation; and§ improve the living conditions of the rural

population through forestry development.

In 1988, a decision was made to allocatesome forest lands formerly under the authorityof the Ministry of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment for transfer to non-State units.The amount to be transferred was initially 6million ha, then increased to 7 million ha, andrecently was reduced to 5 million ha.

National forest programme (NFP)The Tropical Forestry Action Programme

(TFAP) exercise was launched in November1988. The TFAP Issues Paper and the FinalTFAP document were finalised in August 1989and May 1991 respectively, and anInternational Round Table meeting wasorganised in September 1992. The nationallead institution during the formulation of theTFAP document was the Ministry of Forestry.

The TFAP exercise identified seven keyissues and constraints as follows:§ deterioration of living conditions for the

rural population;§ declining forest cover;§ lack of operational efficiency;§ decline in biodiversity;§ watershed degradation;§ wood imbalances; and§ lack of skilled man power.

The TFAP exercise proposed four main

National Forest Programmes – UPDATE No. 34, Viet Nam196

programmes and fourteen sub-programmes asfollows:§ Institutional strengtheningü Restructuring of the Ministry of Forestryü National planning capabilityü Training and educationü Research and extension

§ Environmental protectionü Protection of forest ecosystemü Protection forestry

§ Forest managementü Wood industriesü Industriesü Non-wood productsü Natural forest managementü Forest plantation§ Forestry in land useü Sedentarizationü Community forestryü Agro-forestry

The TFAP exercise identified 28 priorityprojects for immediate implementation with anestimated total cost of US$ 475 million.Support from partners, particularly donors, hasbeen considered substantial, coming fromSweden, Australia, Germany, Japan, theNetherlands, Finland, Italy, Switzerland,UNDP, FAO, WB, ADB, WFP, EU, and WWF.Regional Programmes/ Projects have alsoprovided support, particularly on training,methodology, policy formation/formulation,study tours, and information sharing amongdeveloping countries. The support coversseveral activities including:

§ Intensification of capacity for nationalforestry planning;§ Training and education in the forestry sector;§ Conservation of wildlife and biological

diversity;§ Land use in the watershed;§ Social and community forestry;§ Decentralised planning;§ Reforestation of denuded and degraded

lands;§ Environment training and preparation of

biodiversity plan;§ Establishment of a social forestry centre;

§ Research;§ Wood energy.

Substantial Government investment has alsobeen made in the following area:§ management and protection of protective

forests to support irrigation and hydro-powerstations development;§ plantation, management, and protection of

forests on barren hills and wastelands; and§ protection and management of national parks

and natural reserves.

Three major documents were produced tosupport strategic thinking for the implementa-tion of the TFAP:§ Renewal of strategies for forestry develop-

ment (May 1993);§ Economic realities to consider in developing

strategies for forest land use (August 1993);and§ Report on land-use management and land-use

planning (September 1993).The National Programme for Upland

Development (also known as Programme 327),established in late 1992, is still operating.During 1995, the Government allocated aboutUS $ 60 million for the Programme imple-mentation, which was carried out through 1200projects, operating within the geographicallimits of districts. The projects within theProgramme aim to increase income levels for allhouseholds through improved land usepractices, including components of social andinfrastructure development such as schoolconstruction, health stations, minor roads,markets, etc.

The Programme was initially led by threeMinistries, i.e. Labour, Social Affairs, and WarInvalids, and backed by the State PlanningCommittee. In 1993, the overall guidance of theprogramme was transferred to the StatePlanning Committee, and the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry, Industry, and theCommittee of Ethnic Minorities and MountainIssues will be the implementing agencies of theprojects.

Policy, legislation, and institutionsIn 1995, the Prime Minister decided to


review the activities of Programme 327,including the organisational structure. Thisresulted in the broadening of the vision of theprogramme to include a social and economicdevelopment programme for upland areas,involving several ministries, focusing on theconservation and restoration of naturalresources by the local people. The Ministry ofAgriculture and Food Industry, Ministry ofForestry, and Ministry of Water Resourceswere merged into the Ministry of Agricultureand Rural Development. The overall targets arethe following:§ Management of 9 million ha of forestland in

order to protect biodiversity and environment.§ Management of buffer zones surrounding

protected natural forests, including agro-forestry on denuded hills.§ Management of natural production forests,

reducing logging intensity.

In January 1994, a decree concerning landallocations to be managed by organisations,households, and individuals for long-termforestry purposes was promulgated. As thefollow-up to this decree, five million ha offorest areas have been allocated to bemanaged by about one million families living inupland areas. About 8,000 extension workersare now working in this field.

Changes in the forestry sector and policyshould be seen in the context of the on-goingtransition in the political, economic, and socialspheres in Vietnam. In brief, the policyfoundation for this transition has the followingcomponents:§ An open door policy, particularly towards the

neighbouring South-East Asia countries,resulting in Vietnam joining ASEAN;§ Reduction in the size of the Government

structure as the result of moving toward amarket-oriented economy;§ Decentralisation of planning to provinces and

districts, combined with strengthening theinstitutional capacity at the central level toimplement the overall reform process;§ Restructuring of the economy, with reduced

Government involvement in production, andincreasing the role of households and the

private sector.

This transition has been quite successful.Without experiencing serious disturbances,rapid economic advances have been achieved,including the following:§ Inflation has been brought under control;§ There has been rapid growth in the Gross

National Product, with a 6 to 8 percentannual growth rate achieved for the past fewyears;§ There has been rapid growth in exports,

initially rice followed by other commodities,and the market was broadened from mainlysocialist to other countries, in particular toSouth-East Asian and European countries;§ A balance was achieved between exports and

imports;§ Increasing flow of overseas investment,

including loans from the World Bank, theAsian Development Bank, and other institu-tions, and from direct commercial investment.

However, the formulation of a comprehen-sive regulatory framework has lagged behind.Thus, the administrative system is still weak,and the human resource-base is not well enoughtrained to operate in the new policyframework. Notable important issues are thefollowing:§ As part of the national reform process, the

forestry sector is in a strong position toinitiate work with a renovated policy frame-work for the sector. A new forest law, i.e. theForest Protection and Development Act, waspromulgated on 19 August 1991, and keysubsidiary decisions and decrees wereissued, including a decision on the provisionof funds for long-term investment in thedevelopment of forest resources (1992); adecision to create a programme for thedevelopment of upland areas and ethnicminorities (1993); and a decree on theallocation of forest land to non-State units(1994).§ The country's capacity to formulate suitable

policies for forestry development was im-proved. Previously, policies were directedtoward the forest resources; nowadays, rural


people and food security have been given ahigher priority.§ A long-term national programme for the re-

greening of bare hills and the protection offorest resources was initiated in 1992 withinthe framework of the renewed nationalpolicies, and based on the technicalconclusions reached during the implementa-tion of the NFAP. The programme is unique,since it is set up expressly to bridge the gapbetween the macro- and micro-levels in thepresent context of rapid national change. Thekey characteristics of the programme are thefollowing: a multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach; the protection of biodiver-sity and sustainability; people's participation;combining top-down and bottom-up ap-proaches; applying decentralised planningmethods; and strengthening the nationalcapacity in mobilising local resources andabsorbing external support.§ Other important issues are:ü The timber exploitation ban in specialised-

use forest and forests reserves, and alsothe limits put on logging, which wasannounced in April 1992;ü Enhanced awareness of politicians and

decision-makers of the important role offorests for the environment and economicdevelopment;ü Strengthened communication and co-

operation among sectors dealing withforestry development in the country;ü Establishment of an Information Unit to

improve co-ordination, communication, andco-operation among donors in support offorestry development.

The Government’s decision to ban theexploitation of timber in natural forestsrepresents a package of comprehensive socio-economic and technical solutions towardsprotecting natural forests, while acceleratingreforestation to ensure short- and long-termenvironmental and social security. It reflectsthe Government’s commitment to respond toAgenda 21 of UNCED 1992. The immediateobjectives of the decision to ban the exploita-tion of timber are:

§ Consolidating the protection function offorests through stricter control of theexisting protection forest of 9.3 million ha,and establishment of forest plantations, so asto increase the forest coverage to 43%.§ Contributing to the creation of job opportuni-

ties and income generation, thereby improvingthe living conditions of 24 million peopleliving in and around the forest areas. Supportwill be provided to farmers to establish 3million ha of timber plantations.§ Meeting the demand for fuel wood.

The important activities which will becarried out to achieve the above objectivesincludes:§ A ban on forest products collection from

protected areas, and restrictions on theharvesting of non-wood forest products incritical watershed areas for 30 years;§ Prohibition of commercial logging in the

remaining natural forests in NorthernVietnam, south-east of the South MekongDelta, and in the Red River Delta;§ From the year 2000, the total timber volume

allowed to be cut will be 300,000 m3 peryear. The Ministry of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment is the responsible institution toapprove the logging sites.

A meeting concerning improving aid co-ordination in the forestry sector was held inHanoi, September 1995. At the meeting a draftpaper concerning the Concept of a Co-ordination Group for Forest Development inVietnam was discussed. The meeting alsodiscussed a paper entitled Framework for aForestry Development Strategy for Vietnamtowards the year 2010.

In 1995, an "Information Unit" was estab-lished with assistance from GTZ/Germany todevelop a database for all projects funded bydonor agencies, the national budget, and NGOs.This database would be used as a platform todiscuss the concept of the establishment of aConsultative Group on Forest Development inViet Nam (CGFV). This Group was created inSeptember 1995.

The overall goal of the CGFV is to increase


the effectiveness, efficiency, andsustainability of long-term investment in forestdevelopment in Viet Nam. The purpose of theCGFV is to strengthen communication, co-ordination, and co-operation between allparties in the planning, implementation,evaluation, and further development of theNational Forestry Action Programme.

The composition of the Group is as follows:§ Representatives of the State Planning

Committee;§ Officials of the Ministry of Agriculture and

Forestry;§ Representatives of donor agencies /

countries; and§ Representatives of NGOs.

In addition, under the auspices of theSwedish-supported project: “Renovation ofStrategies for forestry Development”, anInternational Support Group, comprisingrepresentatives from the key Vietnameseagencies responsible for the use of forestresources in the country and from internationaland bilateral organisations interested insupporting the sector, has become operational.

In 1996, the government of Viet Namapproached FAO for assistance in the revisionof the forest policy. The reason was that theForest Policy and Legislation was beingovertaken by political and economic reforms,which had progressed to such an extent thatsignificant revision and modifications hadbecome necessary. A meeting was organised inJuly 1996 to discuss this assistance. An FAOsupport project TCP/VIE/6715: Support toForestry Policy and Formulation and Legislationin Vietnam was approved. A National Forum onForests was organised in Hanoi from 10-12June 1998 to identify and prioritise issueswhich need to be addressed by the futureforest policy, as well as to identify broadstrategic measures to address the issues.

Five million hectares reforestationprogramme

In support of the reforestation target of 5million ha up to the year 2010, Resolution No.08/1997/QH10 of the 2nd Session of the 10th

National Assembly and Decision No. 661/QD-TTg of the Prime Minister of 29 July 1998were issued. These regulations stipulated thatthe Government launch the National Five MillionHectares Reforestation Programme (5MHRP).The overall objective of the programme is toreforest and rehabilitate 5 million ha of forestby the year 2010. It is the Government’s majoreffort towards sustainable forest managementin line with the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21.

At the Consultative Group Meeting in Parisin December 1998, the donor community andthe Vietnamese Government agreed to establisha Partnership Support Programme in support of5MHRP. A Memorandum of Understanding(MoA) was signed in Hanoi between theMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Development(MARD) and 15 representatives of the donorcommunity and international institutions namelyUNDP, FAO, EU, WB, ADB, JICA, JBIC, WFP,WWF, IUCN, the Netherlands, Germany,Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland. Theobjective of the MoA is to reach agreement ona formal partnership between the Governmentof Vietnam and interested donors, includingNGOs, which will lead the Government anddonors to a shared sector support programmefor effective and efficient implementation ofthe 5MHRP on the basis of agreed policies,strategies, priorities and principles ofimplementation. The MoA is not a legallybinding document.

A Partnership Steering Committee wasestablished under Decision 855 QD/BNN-TCCBof 14 March 2000. A Partnership Secretariatwas established under the International Co-operation Department.

In addition, several Task Forces have beenset up as follows:


§ Task Force I: Clarification of the 5MHRPThe objectives of Task Force I are to: a)review and assess the current preparation andimplementation of the 5MHRP; b) present indetail the objectives and outputs, ways andmeans, and implementation structure of the5MHRP; and c) define core activities, therelations with other national programmes aswell as the limitations. It is expected thereport will be submitted to the SteeringCommittee in October 2000.§ Task Force II: Forest Policy, Strategy and

InstitutionsThe objectives of Task Force II are to: a)review and assess the strengths and weak-nesses of the current national forestrystrategies and policies; b) based on theanalysis, develop proposals for effectivestrategies and on how to revise the nationalforestry strategies and policies; and c) makecontributions towards the development of along-term vision for the forestrys ector inVietnam.§ Task Force III: Forestry Sector In-vestment and Assistance Needs and PartnershipSupport Structure.

The objectives of Task Force III are to: a)review and assess the future investment needs; b) recommend a financing strategy forsustainable forestry sector development andthe implementation of the 5MHRP;

The second Steering Committee meetingwas held on 22 May 2000 to discuss severalaspects of the 5MHRP, including the actionplans of the task forces, updating theinformation, status and progress of theproject, and overcoming the problems faced.

The above shows that the partnershipprogramme in Vietnam covers a wide scope ofco-ordination aspects, including the prepara-tion, planning, and mobilisation of partners toachieve a specific target.

Focal pointDr. Le Van MinhDirector General, International Co-operationDepartmentMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Development2 Ngoc Ha, Hanoï, Viet NamTel: 84-4-8437520; Fax: 84-4-7330752E-mail: [email protected]

*****

It is not enough to do our best. Sometimes we have to do what’s required.(Winston Churchill)

I am persuaded that every being has a part to play on earth:to be exact, his or her own part which resembles no other.

(Andre Gide)

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You get what you reward.(Michael le Boeuf)

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