as ict notes info2

8/6/2019 As Ict Notes Info2

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ICT SYSTEMS AND THEIR COMPONENTS

ICT: Information Communication Technology is the use of technology for the input,processing, storage, and transfer of data and the output of information; for example,traditional computers doing tasks such as sales processing by entering sales data to

produce output information such as an invoice.

A System: Any activity that involves the capture of data as input, the processing ofdata into information and the production of information as output.

Input: The capturing of Data. Data is input via an input device such as a keyboard.

Processing: Converting data into information. Calculations, queries and otheroperations are performed during the process stage.

Output: The production of information. The results of processing are sent to an

output device such as a monitor.

An ICT System: An ICT system is a system where the output from the systems goesdirectly to a human being or into another ICT system. They are designed for andused by people and are commissioned for a particular purpose.

How and Why we use ICT systems: Most modern organisations use ICT systems tohelp them fulfil their goals, but the exact purpose of the ICT system depends on whatthose goals are.

It is commonplace for many organisations to use ICT systems to produceinformation that would traditionally have been produced by paper-based systems.This might include receipts, invoices, sales, reports and wage slips.

Expert System/Knowledge-based system: Computer programs that analyse dataabout a specific type of problem. NHS Direct is a good example of an expert system.

How the DVLA check insurance and the MOT test certificates: When the customerapples for a tax disk on the DVLA website the vehicles insurance will beelectronically checked with the Motor Insurance Database (MID). The database alsochecks that the vehicle is insured and, if applicable, has a new-style MOT testcertificate.

The Components of an ICT System:

People: no computer system can work without people being involved at variousstages.

Data: Any raw facts or figures or a set of values.

Procedures: Most organisations have a code of practice which governs the way inwhich their ICT system can be used by their employees.

Software: The programs that make the computer a useful tool by carrying out theprocessing.

Hardware: The type of computer and peripherals chosen will depend on the type ofprocessing and output that is intended for the task (Input devices, processors CPU,

output devices, ports and cables parallel, storage devices Information: The final output is the information produced.


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DATA AND INFORMATIONData: Data represents raw facts and figures or a set of values. A set of data mightconsist of 2, 4, 3, 5, and 6. Another familiar set might be data collected from

examination results, such as 23, 45, 67, 98 and 78. Data itself has no meaning;however, it can be input to a computer to be processed into information.

How Data can arise: Data can arise in many different forms including text, still andmoving images, numbers and sound.

Whatever the type of data being input, computers store and process this datausing binary numbers. A single unit of binary is called a bit which stands for binarydigit. Computer memory is measured in bytes. One byte is made up of eight bits andone byte can store one character; for example, the letter A is represented by01000001.

Coding Data: Some data is coded on collection before being entered and thischanges the original data into a shortened version by assigning a code. This isnecessary in order to be able to process data effectively. Value judgements are agood example, asking 100 people to rate a restaurant on a scale of 1 to 5, only asingle digit needs to be fed into the computer rather than asking them how good theythink that restaurant is which is time consuming and hard to enter as data. Anotherexample is changing gender to M for male and F for female.

Adv of Coding Data: Coding data takes up less memory.

DisAdv of Coding Data: When data is coded it loses some of its accuracy and it canbe difficult to remember the codes.

Encoding data: Encoding is used by computers to convert data into machinereadable form. All computers understand is binary, 1s and 0s, therefore in order forpeople to use computers, the data they use must be encoded into binary for acomputer to process and share. A way of encoding text is by using ASCII torepresent each character as a binary number.

Bar Codes: A set of data that play a leading role in stock control and customerordering for web-based commerce in warehousing. The most common in the UK are

EAN 13 (European Article Number 13 digit) and EAN 18. A series of bars andspaces represent the code numbers which are read by a bar-code scanner.Barcodes are very versatile and have the advantage of being able to be read

from different angles and even when upside down. One of the key features is that anautomatic check is made for any data-entry errors using validation.

There are no details of the product stored in the number only a country oforigin and a sequence code.Some examples of the application of barcodes are student cards, products in awarehouse and supermarkets, etc. this might be when the products details areidentified from searching the companys database after scanning at a point of sale.The output will include the product description and price which will be shown on the

monitor and printed out on a receipt


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Processing: The work the computer does on the data to convert it into information.This might involve calculations, logical operations such as sorts and queries, etc.processing is required to enable information to be produced from data.

Information: Data that has been processed into something meaningful. For example,in a supermarket, the data scanned from a barcode is processed to produce areceipt with the item names and prices included.

Examination results are another example; the raw examination marks couldhave been entered in as data, the processing would involve converting those marksto standardised scores and allocating the appropriate grade before presenting themin graphical format as information. This information makes it easier to assess theperformance of the group than using the raw data.

Supermarket Loyalty Cards: Supermarket loyalty cards capture data when they areused. The customer number, date and time of purchase and codes of products

bought are captured when the card is used at the checkout. The data can beprocessed to provide information about purchasing habits, and the supermarket canuse that information when deciding what special offers to tempt you to spend more atthe store.

Quality of Information: Accuracy: Thorough error checking and must take place and regular updates

must be applied if the information is to remain accurate. Complete: If information is not complete then it loses value. i.e. if information

being produced about a householder for insurance purposes does not include

the amount of money the house is being insured for, then it is incomplete. Up to date: Certain information only has value within a specific timescale, forexample, information on consumers tastes will invariably change andorganisations must ensure they have up-to-date information.

Reliable: Because of the lack of control on the content included on Internetwebsites this can often reduce the value of the information obtained,therefore, it needs to be obtained from a reliable source.

Relevancy: Information is only valuable to someone who has a use for it. Timely: I


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PEOPLE AND ICT SYSTEMS

ICT Systems Design and Purpose: The systems that are used by organisations have beendesigned to be used by people and commissioned for a particular purpose. It is important to

appreciate that different users have different needs. The client, end user and audience mayall have slightly different requirements from the system, and each of their requirements needto be considered.

Characteristics of Users: Physical Characteristics Experience Environment of use Task to be undertaken Age

User Interface: The link between the user and the technology that they are using; it involves

both hardware and software.

How Users Interact with ICT Systems: Users interact with ICT systems through the hardwareand software components of the user interface. Most standard systems rely largely on akeyboard, mouse and monitor for their interface.

The most common interface type is the graphical user interface (GUI). The standardconvention of left-click to select and right-click for information and double-click to load meansthat users can usually use the basic functions of software without too much difficulty,especially if the icons are clear and well designed.

Graphical User Interface: The most common user interface used today; it uses icons or picturesthat are easily understood by the user and can be clicked using an input device.

Benefits and Limitations of GUI: GUIs tend to be user friendly, making software more intuitive for inexperienced users.

GUIs may be frustrating for experienced users, who may resent having to workthrough three or four levels of menu before they can use the feature they require.

GUIs are also quite demanding in terms of system resources such as hard diskspace and memory.

WIMP Windows, icons, menus and pointers: Most GUIs make use of these four basic features.

Menu-driven Interfaces: Menu-driven interfaces can be useful in situations where the user needsto be restricted to a limited choice of actions. Originally menus were usually chosen by entering a

single number or letter chosen from a simple text-based list. For example, press 1 for sales and 2for stock control. This method is still used for automated phone systems.

Benefits & Limitations of Menu-Driven Interfaces: Often combined with graphics and can be used effectively with touch-screen systems. Options available to the user can be restricted allowing ease of choice and less

confusion/complication, for example, in interfaces for use by the public. However, this can slow down the use of the systems as every user has to follow set

routes they have to click on an appropriate choice at each menu stage and it can takesome time to reach the correct option.

Command-Line Interfaces: Not used much by non-expert users, because they are more

difficult to learn to use than other types of interface. A CLI relies on a user typing in text-


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based commands for the computer to execute, and so the user has to know the commandsin the first place.

Benefits & Limitations of Command-Line Interfaces:

Far less demanding in terms of system resources due to the fact that they do not use

graphics. Generally reserved for expert users, as they demand considerable knowledge.

Interface design for Effective Communication: The most important factor to bear in mind isthe principle of trying to make the interface fit the user rather than the other way around.

Interfaces that minimise the number of times a key is pressed or a mouse is clickedalso minimise the strain on the users wrists and fingers.

- Simulators used for training can have sensitive gloves that respond to touch, as ifthe operator is taking part in a real event, such as a medical procedure.

- Multimedia Tools such as sound and video can be used to demonstrate featuresof software, for instance by showing them what to do next rather than working itout.

- Configuration of Interfaces: Some packages allow the user to configure the userinterface for themselves, by adding and deleting buttons from toolbars so that thefeatures they use are readily available.

- Keyboard shortcuts may be available as alternatives to menu commands,speeding up the process for more experienced users.

The Need for the Provision of Appropriate Help and Support for Users:

Tutorials: Multimedia presentations can provide tutorials to teach new skills, andmany excellent software training packages build in the users response to judgewhether the user is ready to move on.

o There are many tutorials provided by software houses, third parties and by

user groups that use multimedia facilities to support new users. Search facilities: The more traditional help supplied within programs can usually be

accessed in this way; the user types in the feature they need help with, or context-sensitive help may be available, where the help information offered depends on whatthe user was doing when they pressed the help button . For example, if the user wastrying to set up an input mask on a database management system, pressing helpwould bring up an article on input masks.

Hover Function: when the user moves the mouse over an unfamiliar control, thename of that control appears, perhaps with a further button to click for more help.

ICT professionals: People working with ICT systems tend to have qualifications, such asdegrees or other technical qualification.

Types of ICT Professions:

IT Project Manager: IT project managers oversee the development of computersystems to meet a client's business needs, making sure that projects are completedon time and within budget.

Computer Game Developer: Produce games for PCs, games consoles, the internetand mobile phones.

IT Security Coordinator: Plan and carry out security measures to protect clients'information and data from unauthorised access, deliberate attack, theft andcorruption.

IT Support Technician: Help to find and correct software and hardware problems for

computer users.


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IT Trainer: IT trainers design and teach computer courses to clients from differentbackgrounds and with different levels of ability, i.e. colleges, IT training companiesand in the training departments of larger organisations.

Web Designer : Web designers combine programming and design skills to build orrevamp websites. They must be able to picture how a site will look and also

understand how it will work. System Analyst: Employed by a company to examine their IT systems and

processes, and recommend improvements.

Software Developer: Designs and builds computer programs that help organisationsto work more effectively, for example, building administrative and financialdatabases.

Server Analyst: Server maintenance

Helpdesk technician: Provides solutions to end users in respect to day-to-daycomputer problems.

Web manager: Oversees the work of web developers in a large organisation.

Essential Skills for the ICT Professional: Good Written Communication Skills Professionals must have the ability to write

technical documentation and end user guide. They must take into account that theend user guide will be read by users with different levels of ICT skills form novice-very experienced clear language is essential.

Good Oral Communication Skills Professionals must be able to communicateeffectively with users and colleagues, e.g. finding out exactly what an IT problem isand develop potential solutions responding to the needs of the end users, takingaccount of the skill levels of the users and asking appropriate questions to get thecorrect user requirements to ensure that the correct system is implemented areessential here.

Problem-Solving Skills The ability to analyse and solve problems is useful in manyICT jobs. Logical thinking is essential for programmers and system designers computers rely on logic to process data.

Patience All ICT professionals need to have patience and be approachable toprevent end users from becoming flustered or anxious about the fact that they mayhave a lower skill base. They need to be able to stick at a problem and explain aprocedure several times.

Willingness to work Flexible Hours Being willing to see a task through to the end.ICT problems can take many hours to solve and the professional cannot just walkaway and leave the problem at the end of their shift.

Teamwork few ICT projects are completed by a single individual and so teamworkskills are vital.

Characteristics of an Effective Team: The team leader must ensure that the team members work together in an organised

ad effective manner to ensure deadlines are met.

An appropriate structure must be in place to ensure that the standard practices of theorganisation are followed. Team members may change due to unforeseencircumstances and any replacement to the team must be able to step in and carry onthe project in as seamless a manner as possible

There must be some form of monitoring of task progress to ensure that the project iscompleted to schedule as delays in projects can be very expensive. Monitoring willensure that team members are working at the appropriate pace and remain aware of

deadlines.


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It is essential that costs for completion of the project are monitored throughout toensure that money has not been misused and to keep within budget.

All individuals within the team must possess good communication skills so that theyare able to share ideas with each other and with end users outside the team.

The balance of the team should allow people with different skills and knowledge to

work together effectively, i.e. programmers, analysts, and designers, to maximise theefficiency of the team as a whole.

TRANSFER OF DATA IN ICT SYSTEMS

Computer Networking: Linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose ofsharing data, communicating, software and peripherals.

Local Area Network (LAN): A network that covers a single site and can be linked by the useof cables. A school site is an example of a LAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that covers a large geographical area and could belinked by cables, microwave or satellites. The Internet is an example of a WAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that covers an area like a town or city andcould be connected by cables, microwave or satellites.

Advantages of Sharing Resources:

When using a network you share the software resources from one drive and cansave your work to that network drive rather than locally on the computer that you areusing.

Peripheral devices like printers and scanners can also be shared, saving time, by nothaving to go to a certain computer, and money, by cutting down on the number ofperipherals that have to be purchased.

Intranet: A private network serving a single organisation, modelled after the Internet, allowingusers access to almost any information available on the network. Unlike the Internet,intranets are typically limited to one organisation, with little or no access to outside users.

Limited areas of the intranet can also be linked to the Internet and the use of emailfacilities to enable effective communication with customers and suppliers and others outsidethe organisation.

Extranet: The part of an organisations network that can be made available to outside users,for example, customers or suppliers, giving them limited access to company resources andinformation.

Peer-to-Peer Networks: Two computers linked together so that they can share files and perhaps a printer. All

computers present in this network have similar rights.

Each computer needs a network interface card and the connection is made eitherusing a crossover cable or wirelessly.

The operating system can be used to define which resources are shared and a basicnetwork is in place.

If more than two computers are involved, a hub could be used to provide theconnectivity.

Each computer does not need its own printer, and files can be backed up from onecomputer to another in case of equipment failure.


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The main computer connects to the Internet through an ADSL modem, and it is thenconnected to a wireless router that connects the other computers via their wirelessnetwork cards.

A peer-to-peer network can use all the computers connected to it as workstations,and so it is cheaper to set up than client/server network which needs a dedicated

server. Wireless networks does bring security risks, there are many documented cases of

networks unprotected by passwords and so accessible by the entire neighbourhood.

Insufficient wireless security makes identity theft much easier to achieve.

Client-Server Networks:

In larger organisations, the network is most likely to be server based. The server is apowerful machine, usually built to a high specification, using good qualitycomponents because it forms the basis of the entire network.

The server needs a specialised network operating system that enables it to managecomplex sets of user rights and file permissions.

Usually fitted with RAID drive systems to ensure that data remains available to thenetwork if a drive fails and its data becomes corrupt.

The server is usually connected to one or more network switches. They can inspectdata packets as they are received and forward them efficiently to the connecteddevice they were intended for.

This conserves bandwidth and improves network performance compared to using ahub.

Each client, or workstation, will need the client version of the network operatingsystem to be installed.

The applications software is also installed on each workstation as this reducesnetwork traffic and load on the server only the data files are called from the serverand the network traffic is greatly reduced.

Advantages over Peer-to-Peer Networks: Managed and backed up centrally Easier to concentrate resources such as security and maintenance on one main computer. Workstations are relatively cheap and easy to replace compared to a server.

Hub: A Small, simple network device that allows multiple computers to communicate. Hubs are aninexpensive piece of equipment often found in home wired networks and small businesses.

Router: A hardware device (wired or wireless) that joins networks together at the network protocollayer.

Network Switch: A hardware device that joins multiple computers together at the data link networkprotocol layer.

Internet: A large group of interconnected computers around the world that allow the sendingand retrieval of information form one computer to another a network of networks. Theavailability of the internet has meant that users anywhere in the world can communicate witheach other in a matter of seconds by using electronic mail.

World Wide Web: A collection of multimedia resources accessible via the Internet. Webbrowser software is used to access these files through HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)which most web browsers and hardware platforms support.

Web pages are usually written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and linked

together using hyperlinks, allowing users to navigate between pages in a site and betweenone site and another.


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De Facto Standard: A de facto standard is one where no formal agreement is in place, but aparticular standard has become the one that is most commonly used in practice. Hardware,software, languages, protocols and formats that are widely used, but not endorsed by astandards organisation, can be judged to be de facto standards, e.g. GIF format used forpictures on webpages.

De Jure Standards: De jure standards are legally binding industry standards that allmanufacturers have to agree to work to. Though they place restrictions, they are beneficialfor both the manufacturers and the end users, e.g. wireless standard Wi-Fi, developed bythe IEEE.

SAFETY AND SECURITY OF ICT SYSTEMS

The Need to Protect Data in ICT Systems:

It is important to ensure that data is available to the users who depend on it,but also that it is not misused by people who should not have access to it.

Any organisation storing personal data is bound by the terms of the Data

Protection Act, which requires data to be surrounded by proper security.Threats to ICT systems:

Employees:o 50% of threats to ICT systems are caused by the organisations own

employees.o An employee selling confidential data for personal gain.

o Data could be lost and passed on through carelessness

o An employee with sufficient security rights on a network can make copies ofsensitive data quite easily and by using email attachments or removablemedia, can pass them on to an unauthorised third party.

o An employee who is unhappy with some aspect of the organisation may

commit sabotage, such as deleting or corrupting important files. Human Error:

o Failure to follow standard clerical procedures insist passwords have a mixof characters and numbers and dont use dictionary words.

o If passwords are too long and difficult to remember then employees writethem down and stick them on their monitors.

o Easy to forget that printed copies of information are also needed to be storedsecurely and shredded when no longer needed.

o Backup media need to be kept in a storage area protected from unauthorisedaccess.

o Natural disasters can make data recovery impossible if copies are not

available.o Malpractice: When an employee goes against the company ICT code of

practice, e.g. leaving a workstation logged on creating the opportunity for anunauthorised individual to access their account.

o Crime: When an individual or organisation break the law through using

computers to illegally access a computer system, e.g. to break in and changethe payroll figures on the internal database.

Virus:o Virus: A piece of malicious code that is written by programmers and used to

corrupt data and systems. It comes in different forms, such as Trojans, logicbombs and worms.


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o Some viruses do little or no harm; perhaps simply displaying a message onthe screen. Others can delete data or use up system resources to make thecomputer so slow it is virtually unusable.

o Viruses can be introduced by removable electronic media such as memorysticks or from an external source via the Internet, either via a download or

from an attachment on an email.o Once the virus is resident, it can replicate itself into other files, and internal

computer security tools are required to detect and recover from the virus.

Spyware:o Software that obtains information about a person or organisation without their

knowledge or informed consent and reports such data back to a third party.o Passwords for internet banking might be stolen, by monitoring keystrokes

made by the user when logging on to the banks website.

Reasons for Security Breaches:

For the satisfaction of doing it to try to show off to others and prove they are

skilled enough to breach security. Personal gain for example, for a student to change their grades in an

examination to achieve university entry.

Financial gain if an individual were to change the bank accounts of a largenumber of a large number of customers by small amounts and add them all totheir own account.

Sabotage to damage the reputation of a competitors organisation byproving their security is weak.

Types of Threat: Data Access Threats the data is accessed while being communicated

across a network illegally and is changed by individuals or organisations thatdo not have access.

Service Threats designed to stop the data being used by the organisation itbelongs to by disrupting the normal running if the software being used.

Means of Control of Threat:

Password-based login procedures Deny access to all but authorised usersand screening logic is designed to detect and reject worms, viruses and othersimilar attacks

Firewalls Restrict access to intruders by securing data access ports.

Data Encryption Scrambling the data so that it cannot be understood if it isintercepted. An encryption key is used in conjunction with the transformationto scramble the message before transmitting and unscramble it when itarrives at its destination. The process of a Conventional Encryption is asfollows

o Plain text or original message is fed into an algorithms input.o A secret key is input to the algorithm and all transformations and

substitutions depend on that key.o The encryption algorithm performs various substitutions and

transformations on plain text.o A ciphertext scrambled message is produced as outputo To decipher the message, a decryption algorithm is run, producing the

original message.


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Algorithm: List of instructions for solving a problem; in ICT and computer science,usually means a small procedure that solves a recurrent problem.

Ways of Protecting ICT Systems:

Hardware Measures: Not allowing CD or DVD drives on the computers, so that no important data is

removed, or restricting access to such ports. Computers can be fixed to work surfaces or locked in cabinets. Restrict access to computer rooms using ID methods such as smart cards, or

biometric technology such as retina scans instead of keys. Simple locks and alarms for out of hours.

Software Measures: Allocation of user names and passwords, to control access and try to prevent

security attacks. Control of access rights once a user has logged on allowing only a read only

access or to add new data but not delete existing data. Network security software to track down security abuses of the network set

to record which user logged onto a specific computer at what time and date,and when they logged out.

Software can also be set up to automatically save files every few minutes oreach time a new record is entered or insists data is saved. This prevents lossof data caused by the user forgetting to save.

Data encryption can protect data that is being transmitted from one computer

to another. Anti-virus software. Firewalls should be in place to reduce the possibilities of the system being

attacked by unauthorised access.Procedures: It should be made clear to employees during induction training what their

responsibilities are as regards to data security and the penalties for breakingthese rules.

Security procedures should be part of the companys ICT code of practice andTraining staff about these may reduce such security risks.

Breaches of security procedures should be covered by disciplinaryprocedures.

Data Protection Act 1998: This Act regulates how personal data is used and protects datasubjects from the misuse of their personal data.

If a data user wishes to store personal data about individuals , they must register withthe Information Commissioner, stating what data they want to hold, how long theyintend to keep it for what they intend to do with it, and who they might pass it on to.

Data Subjects have the following rights:o To see what data is being held about them (there may be a charge for this).

o To have any errors corrected.

o To refuse allow data to be processed for direct mail.o To refuse to allow data sensitive data (e.g. political views, ethnic origins) to be

processed.


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o To complain to the data protection commissioner about any abuse of the act.

o To claim compensation if they have been caused any damage by the misuseof the act.

Getting access to the data: on written request, you are entitled to be provided with acopy of all the data an organisation holds about you. You must be able to prove your

identity by means of some form of identification. Exemptions to the Act:

o You cannot demand to see that data that might affect national security orhinder police investigations.

o Some data has to be publicly available, and you cannot refuse to allow itspublication, e.g. the Electoral Roll.

Role of the Information Commissioner:o Enforcing and overseeing the Act.

o Raising awareness of the Act and its implications.

o Investigating complaints.

Computer Misuse Act: Under this act the unauthorised entry into ICT systems andthe introduction of viruses is made a criminal offense. The act identifies 3 specificoffences:

Level 1 Offence - Unauthorised access to computer material (Data orprogram), even just to prove that it is possible to gain access or just lookaround is a level 1 offence to attempt to gain access to a system for whichyou are not authorised.

Level 2 Offence Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitatecommission of further offences: for example, obtaining personal data such asInternet-banking passwords, which are then used to commit fraud.

Level 3 Offence Unauthorised modification of computer material: forexample, changing the account figures in a banks computer system orintroducing a computer virus to a system.

What can happen to individuals under this law:o Level 1 (basic offence): Maximum prison sentence of six months or a

maximum fine of 2,000 or both.o Offences 2 and 3: Imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or

a fine, or both.

User Names and Passwords: Most organisations use this as a basis for security ofcomputers and networked systems. All employees have a user name and are expected to

change passwords on a regular basis. The password chosen is should be a mix of lettersand numbers and should not be easy to guess or written down on a scrap piece of paper.

Preventive Measures Computer Security:

Security Mechanism: A mechanism designed to detect, prevent or recoverfrom a security attack.

Firewall: Acts as a barrier between the public Internet and your privatecomputer or network and block threats including some viruses. A firewall is apreventive measure against external threats and is a first line defence butmust be used in conjunction with another security measure to be effective.

Anti-Virus Software: One of the main defences against online problems from

internal and external threats. It continually scans for viruses, including Trojans


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and worms and can be set to run at particular times of the day. To be effectiveit must be kept up-to-date.

Security Service: A service that enhances the security of the data-processingsystems and the data transfers of an organisation. The services are intendedto counter security attacks, and they make use of one or more security

mechanisms to provide this service.

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988: The current UK copyright law. This act applies tocomputer software as well as non-ICT-related media like music and gives the creator controlover the ways in which their material may be used.

The law covers the actual creation rather than the idea behind it. The idea for a pieceof software would not be protected, just the actual coding of the software written.

A Single-User Licence : Allows the user to install the software on a single machine.

A Multi-User Licence: Allows a number of installations, up to the maximum in theagreement. For example, if you have a 25-user licence, the 26 th person should bedenied access.

A Site Licence : Allows any number of users within that site to use the software, butforbids its use anywhere else.

PROCEDURES FOR BACKUP AND RECOVERY

Causes of Lost Data:

Human error

Software corruption

Virus attack

Hardware error

Sabotage

Natural disasters Loss of data equals loss of work, time and ultimately this will cost money to

rectify, retrieve or even start again from scratch.

Backup Strategies:

What data needs to be backed up?

How often does the data need to be backed up?

When does the data need to be backed up?

Which backup media will be used?

Who will be responsible?

Where will the data be stored?

The person who is responsible for backup needs to assess what risks apply tothe data and how likely it is that the hazards creating those risks will takeplace.

They need to think about what the effect would be on the organisation if theevent occurred.

Banks, airlines, insurance companies and hospital ICT systems are critical inbackup needs.

What Data needs to be backed up?

This will be dependent on the size of the organisation and the value that the

data has for the organisation.


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Full Backup: All the data that is stored in your files or folders that you wish toback up will be saved. They can be restored quickly if something goes wrong with your ICT

system. A full backup can take a long time, depending on the quantity of data

to be backed up. This is the reason why many organisations oftenorganise only a weekly or even monthly full backup.

Differential Backup: Only data that is different from the last full backup will besaved. This reduces the time it takes to restore data because it only uses the

previous full and differential backups. If differential backups are performed too many times, the size of the

backup can actually become larger than the full backup. This type of backup is slower than an incremental backup.

Incremental Backup: Saves all of the files that have changed since the last

backup, whether that was a full backup, differential, or incremental.

Type of BackupTime Taken to

perform Backup

Restore TimeRequired for

Backup

Storage SpaceRequired

FullA long process asall data is backed

up

A very quickmethod of restore

Large amounts ofstorage space

required

Differential

More thanincremental but canbe quicker than a

full backup

Less than anincremental but

takes longer than afull backup

Less storage spacethan a full backupbut more than an

incremental.

IncrementalThe least time

taken of the threeThe slowest restorespeed of the three

Storage space isthe lowest of the 3

How often should Data be Backed up?

It depends on how often the data changes and how much data theorganisation is prepared to lose.

The ideal is for data to be backed up as soon as it changes, and so mostserver-based systems have RAID drives that save the data onto severaldrives at the same time in a process called mirroring.

This means that if one drive fails, the next takes over and there is no loss ofdata.

When does the Data need to be Backed up?

Many systems back their data up overnight when the data files are not in use.

The backup is scheduled to start during the evening and continue overnight.

Program and system files might not change as frequently as data files, and sothey might only be backed up when they are changed.


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It is advisable that all businesses that are reliant on ICT systems put in place what isknown as disaster recovery planning. This means that the business can:

Resume trading quickly by ensuring ICT services are back online as soon aspossible.

Give customers, investors and trading partners confidence in the reliability of

the company. Retain customers who might change companies if there is a loss in trading

time.

USES OF ICT SYSTEMS

Fast, Repetitive Processing:o They can perform calculations very quickly.

o The ability to process repetitive calculations at high speed is particularly

useful in situations where large amounts of data and complex sets ofvariables are involved.o The use of ICT in making animations and other films has allowed the

production of films which would have been impossible, such as Lord ofthe Rings.

Vast Storage Capacity:o The ability to store data electronically means that records and documents

can be kept in a much smaller physical space than would otherwise benecessary.

o These records can then be made available to other interested partieswithout making paper-based copies because they can form part of a

shared database or can be attached to an email and sent electronically,e.g. census records.

Improved Search Facilities:o Modern ICT systems give users the facility to search and combine data in

many different ways that otherwise would be impossible.o The use of ICT systems allows for the processing of large amounts of data in

a very short time; doctors, for example, can find information on patients andpossibly even look up diagnoses on an expert system and receive answers toquestions in a much shorter time than would be possible without the use ofICT.

Improved Presentation of Information:


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o The use of multimedia technology means that information can be presented ina much wider variety of ways than was previously available.

o For example, the output of news information by television stations they can

use animations and computer-generated special effects to help them explaincomplex problems such as election forecasting, economic growth, or even the

weather.o They can transmit pictures and sounds via a satellite live from a war zone.

Improved Accessibility of Information and Services:o The growth of database management systems, spreadsheets and online

information services has made information and services much moreaccessible to many individuals and organisations than they were previously.

o Many organisations, including radio stations and concert or festivalorganisations use web cams to encourage people to first view what is goingon and, ultimately, try to get them to come and visit.

Improved Security of Data and Processes:o When the appropriate techniques and software are chosen this can ensure

that any processing that takes place within the ICT system is as secure aspossible, otherwise it would not be the correct way of producing theinformation from the system.

Limitations of ICT Systems:

Cost Limitations:o It may be more expensive to use ICT to solve a problem than it would do it in

another way.

There are still many things that human do better than computers, such asunderstanding speech and recognising faces.

o Human beings use opinion, for example, within forecasting systems thisdoes not always translate well with into an ICT system.

When a student watches a podcast on a topic being covered they may be able towatch it over and over again and still not understand. There is not always a teacherto ask or explain the topic in more detail to aid understanding.

The quality of information produced by a computer system is only as good as thedata put into it, and not all input errors can be picked up by validation.

New systems should always be tested, but as computer systems can be extremelycomplex, it is almost impossible to test every single aspect of them, and errors maynot be spotted.

ICT cannot model opinions so the information produced is limited. ICT cannotreplicate peoples opinions; it can only put them into categories.

ICT does not provide the best solution in a particular set of circumstances. If theamount of data to be handled is very small, it may take longer to set up a


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spreadsheet or database than produce the information by hand with a pencil and acalculator.

Types of Processing:

Batch: Where data is collected together in a group before processing takes place.o

Batch processing is best suited to regular jobs that happen at scheduledtimes and involve large quantities of data.o E.g. Payroll system all the wages are calculated and the payslips are

output.o E.g. Power supply bills for customers readings are grouped together in a

batch and then processed when all of the readings have been taken. Batch processing tends to have strong error-checking features built in, and so

information produced tends to be extremely accurate. Tends to use fewer systems resources than interactive processing, as it does

not need a live connection between the computer and the user.

Interactive: The user reacts to prompts from the computer and the computer usesthese prompts to process data. The interaction occurs in real time and the input-

process-output is controlled by the user.o The data is processed at the time it is input and output is immediate.

Transaction: Allows many users to access and update a system at apparently thesame time.

o Each transaction must be completed before the next transaction is begun.

o The main aim is to be able to work quickly with a large amount of different

transactions taking place.o E.g. Travel booking system or when purchasing cinema tickets using the ICT

booking system.

FACTORS AND CONSEQUENCES OF ICT

As ICT systems become more affordable and powerful, we as individuals, andsociety as a whole, are becoming increasingly dependent on them.

Cultural Factors:

Many people feel that sites such as YouTube and MySpace have made itpossible for lots of people to share their music, pictures and poetry with aninternational audience.

ICT can certainly improve the speed and amount of work that can be achieved

but does that mean that the culture of work and loyalty to a particular firm andorganisation can break down.

Some jobs lack the personal contact that employment used to offer:o Customers bank online and use ATMs rather than go into a bank and

speak to a real person.o Teleworking means that more people can work from home, but also

means that friendships with colleagues and loyalty to a largely unseencompany may suffer

Economic Factors:


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Investing in new ICT systems can mean that the organisations can work moreefficiently, perhaps reducing costs as they need fewer staff and less officespace than they would have done without the computer equipment.

Keeping up-to-date with ICT equipment is an expensive business for mostorganisations, as technology changes so rapidly.

Failure to embrace new technology is likely to render a businessuncompetitive and make it difficult to exist at all few major ICT retailerswould consider not having a website or not using EFTPOS at their checkouts.Many retailers have ceased to accept cheques, making card payment the onlyalternative payment method.

Environmental Factors:

Teleworking can reduce the number of journeys employees make to and fromwork, and videoconferencing can reduce an organisations carbon footprint byallowing meetings to take place between people anywhere in the world

without them leaving home. More work needs to be done in the field of recycling unwanted equipment.With some printers now costing very little more than cartridges, it has becomeuneconomical to repair equipment, and it just tends to be thrown away.

Many environmentalists now feel that ICT equipment should be reused bydonating it to projects in the UK The news three Rs:

o Reduce the amount of paper, ink and other consumables that you use.o Reuse rather than just throw away computers, printers and other

hardware or donate to a suitable project around the globe.o Recycle appropriately via the approved schemes under the WEEE

directive.

Ethical Factors:

One issue is the wasting of company time by searching the Internet for non-work related material or sending personal emails, which would go against thecompany ICT code of practice do they have the right to read emails sent toand from their employees.

o Many companies regularly audit Internet use in their organisations totry to make sure that their employees are using the web appropriately.

Anyone can post information on the World Wide Web, websites, includingthose that display photographs of children being bullied, provide informationthat most people would feel should not be displayed.

o Should these sites be policed? If so by whom? Who should have thepower of censorship? Does anyone have the right to tell people whatthey can and cant see?

Laws are different in different countries. Sites that may be legal andacceptable in their own country may be considered neither by people inanother country.

o For example, many US states have made serious attempts to restrictonline gambling sites. Do they have the right to do that?

Computers can be educational tools, but is it fair that some children frompoorer households have no access to the Internet or even a computer at


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home? Does that put them at an educational disadvantage? How much moreat a disadvantage are children from developing countries who have nocomputer access at all?

o The One Laptop per Child project aims to provide children indeveloping countries with a laptop computer at a cost of less than

$100, and the charity is funded by donations.

Legal Factors:

Any organisation should ensure that they follow all laws that govern the use ofICT and allow for that in their budget.

They must also ensure that procedures are in place and that adequatetraining has been given to staff.

The Data Protection Act, for instance, demands security of data and staffmembers need to be trained to implement the act.

Social Factors:

Teleworking has become a popular use of modern ICT systems, saving onsome of the costs of overheads for the employers and allows some flexibilityin work practice for the employee.

o Teleworkers are able to work at times that they find most suitable andcan work around the commitments they have in the home.

o However, Teleworkers can become isolated and may not feel asthough they are part of the workforce.

A potential area for ICT to improve life in our society is Healthcare.o Improvements in ICT programmes involve making use of research,

moving to electronic rather than paper-based prescriptions and setting

up a centralised system for patient records so that they can beaccessed at any time by any health professional.

Consequences of the Use of ICT to Individuals:

Many people are now sitting in front of a computer for many hours without anyreal social interaction. The falling price of computers has a lot to do with this.

Social networking sites such as Facebook have become so much morepopular and many people believe them to be an extension to socialinteraction.

o

Many employers have banned these sites because of their potential towaste both time and company resources.

Changing Employment:o Computers can replace individuals and there is no doubt that some

traditional jobs have disappeared, like the vast typing pools seen inoffices before the introduction of word processing.

o However, the use of ICT has enabled new jobs to be created and oneof the largest growth areas is through call centres which can only berun using modern ICT systems and these need to be managed andmaintained by ICT professionals.

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o With the use of ICT, certain individuals are able to do some form ofstudy or revision online via an intranet that has been set up by asubject department.

o Others who are unable to attend the traditional educational setting maybe studying for qualifications almost entirely based around using the

Internet for their learning.o Here, students are able to send work electronically, and have it

assessed online, saving resources and time.

E-Commerce:o Some companies, such as Amazon and Play, trade entirely via the

Internet using large warehouse space to store goods which areshipped out when orders are placed by the customers.

Access to Information:o Passenger information is increasingly available via networked

computers which can include train timetables, and information in

airports.o This allows for up-to-date information to be available to the public

almost instantly via laptop, PDA and new types of mobile technology.

Consequences of the Use of ICT for Society:

The increasing usage of computers in society comes with an increasing risk ofover-dependence on them, believing that computers will work in an efficientmanner and that nothing will go wrong with them.

o There may be some kind of failure within the program itself, causing itto run in an inefficient manner or not at all.

o There are also possibilities of hardware failure, and the consequences

of global communication systems failing would be catastrophic.

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