article of psychology. methods. psychology of sensation and perception. olena smashna

Article of psychology. Methods. Article of psychology. Methods. Psychology of sensation and Psychology of sensation and

perception.perception.

Olena SmashnaOlena Smashna

Psychology - one of sciences about a Psychology - one of sciences about a person, his life and activity. The article of it person, his life and activity. The article of it is psychical activity of person, its psychical is psychical activity of person, its psychical processes, states and properties.processes, states and properties.

General psychology is science, which studies General psychology is science, which studies essence and general conformities to the law essence and general conformities to the law of origin, functioning and development of of origin, functioning and development of psyche.psyche.

l

Wilhelm WundtThe Founder of Psychology

l By the second half of the 1800s, the stage had been set for the emergence of psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. The leading proponent of this idea was a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt.

l Wundt used scientific methods to study fundamental psychological processes, such as mental reaction times in response to visual or auditory stimuli. For example,Wundt tried to measure precisely how long it took a person to consciously detect the sight and sound of a bell being struck.

The first psychology research laboratory

l A major turning point in psychology occurred in 1874, when Wundt published his landmark text, Principles of Physiological Psychology.

l In this book, Wundt outlined the connections between physiology and psychology. He also promoted his belief that psychology should be established as a separate scientific discipline that would use experimental methods to study mental processes

l A few years later, in 1879, Wundt realized that goal when he opened the first psychology research laboratory at the University of Leipzig. Many regard this event as marking the formal beginning of psychology as an experimental science

The Titchener’s approachl Titchener eventually departed from Wundt’s position and developed his

own ideas on the nature of psychology. Titchener’s approach, called structuralism, became the first major school of thought in psychology.

l Structuralism* held that even our most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental structures, or component parts, of sensations and feelings. To identify these structures of conscious thought, Titchener trained subjects in a procedure called introspection. The subjects would view a simple stimulus, such as a book, and then try to reconstruct their sensations and feelings immediately after viewing it. (In psychology, a stimulus is anything perceptible to the senses, such as a sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. They might first report on the colors they saw, then the smells, and so on, in the attempt to create a total description of their conscious experience.

*Structuralism - early school of psychology that emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences.

Functionalisml The main proponent of American psychology was one of

Harvard’s most outstanding teachers—William James. l James had first become intrigued by the emerging science of

psychology after reading one of Wundt’s articles, entitled “Recent Advances in the Field of Physiological Psychology,” in the late 1860s.

l In the early 1870s, James began teaching a physiology and anatomy class at Harvard University. An intense, enthusiastic teacher, James was prone to changing the subject matter of his classes as his own interests changed

l Gradually, his lectures came to focus more on psychology than on physiology. By the late 1870s, James was teaching classes devoted exclusively to the topic of psychology.

l James’s ideas became the basis of another early school of psychology, called functionalism, which stressed studying the adaptive and practical functions of human behavior.

Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

l In Vienna, Austria, a physician named Sigmund Freud was developing an intriguing theory of personality based on uncovering causes of behavior that were unconscious, or hidden from the person’s conscious awareness.

l Freud’s school of psychological thought, called psychoanalysis, emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality and behavior was based largely on his work with his patients and on insights derived from self-analysis.

l Freud believed that human behavior was motivated by unconscious conflicts that were almost always sexual or aggressive in nature. Past experiences, especially childhood experiences, were thought to be critical in the formation of adult personality and behavior. According to Freud (1904), glimpses of these unconscious impulses are revealed in everyday life in dreams, memory blocks, slips of the tongue, and spontaneous humor. Freud believed that when unconscious conflicts became extreme, psychological disorders could result.

John B. Watson: Behaviorism

l Behaviorism contended that psychology should focus its scientific investigations strictly on overt behavior—observable behaviors that could be objectively measured and verified. Behaviorism is yet another example of the influence of physiology on psychology.

l Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, with an automatic behavior, such as reflexively salivating to food. Once an association between the sound of the bell and the food was formed, the sound of the bell alone would trigger the salivation reflex in the dog. Pavlov enthusiastically believed he had discovered the mechanism by which all behaviors were learned.

l In the United States, a young, dynamic psychologist named John B. Watson shared Pavlov’s enthusiasm. Watson (1913) championed behaviorism as a new school of psychology. Structuralism was still an influential perspective, but Watson strongly objected to both its method of introspection and its focus on conscious mental processes.

The famous American psychologist B. F. Skinner

l Like Watson, Skinner believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying outwardly observable behaviors that could be measured and verified. In compelling experimental demonstrations, Skinner systematically used reinforcement or punishment to shape the behavior of rats and pigeons.

l Between Watson and Skinner, behaviorism dominated American psychology for almost half a century. During that time, the study of conscious experiences was largely ignored as a topic in psychology.

Humanistic Psychology

l Humanistic psychology was largely founded by American psychologist Rogers. Like Freud, Rogers was influenced by his experiences with psychotherapy clients.

l However, rather than emphasizing unconscious conflicts, Rogers emphasized the conscious experiences of his patients, including each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction.

l In contrast to the behaviorists, who saw human behavior as being shaped and maintained by external causes, Rogers emphasized self-determination, free will, and the importance of choice in human behaviour.

Abraham Maslow

l Maslow developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth. Like psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology included not only influential theories of personality but also a form of psychotherapy.

l Each of the schools that we’ve described had an impact on the topics and methods of psychological research.

l From the founding of Wundt’s laboratory in 1879, psychology has evolved to its current status as a dynamic and multidimensional science.

l The ideas of Carl Rogers have been particularly influential in modern psychotherapy.

l Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation emphasized the importance of psychological growth.

The Scientific Methodl The four basic goals of psychology are to (1) describe, (2)

explain, (3) predict, and (4) control or influence behavior and mental processes.

l To achieve these goals, psychologists rely on the scientific method. The scientific method refers to a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.

l Like all scientists, psychologists are guided by the basic scientific assumption that events are lawful. When this scientific assumption is applied to psychology, it means that psychologists assume that behavior and mental processes follow consistent patterns.

l Psychologists are also guided by the assumption that events are explainable. Thus, psychologists assume that behavior and mental processes have a cause or causes that can be understood through careful, systematic study.

The Scientific Method

l In striving to discover and understand consistent patterns of behavior, psychologists are open-minded. They are willing to consider new or alternative explanations of behavior and mental processes.

l However, their open-minded attitude is tempered by a healthy sense of scientific skepticism. That is, psychologists critically evaluate the evidence for new findings, especially those that seem contrary to established knowledge.

l And, in promoting new ideas and findings, psychologists are cautious in the claims they make.

General psychology studiesGeneral psychology studiesl - - structure of psychical activity of man and basic structure of psychical activity of man and basic

conformities to the law of motion of psychical processes conformities to the law of motion of psychical processes (feeling and perception, memory, attention, thought and (feeling and perception, memory, attention, thought and intellect, emotions and volitional activity, consciousness, intellect, emotions and volitional activity, consciousness, selfconsciousness, subconscious and irresponsible selfconsciousness, subconscious and irresponsible processes).processes).

l - One of basic tasks of general psychology there is a - One of basic tasks of general psychology there is a study of personality, its structure and basic displays.study of personality, its structure and basic displays.

l - In 19-20 age formed great number of separate - In 19-20 age formed great number of separate branches of psychological science, what associate with branches of psychological science, what associate with other sciences, including and medical psychology.other sciences, including and medical psychology.

Medical psychology is divided into general Medical psychology is divided into general and special.and special.

General medical psychology studies:General medical psychology studies:

· Basic conformities to the law of psychology of sick Basic conformities to the law of psychology of sick man;man;

· Psychology of relatives and near patient;Psychology of relatives and near patient;· Psychology of medical workers in relation to each Psychology of medical workers in relation to each

other;other;· Psychological aspects of intercourse of physician are Psychological aspects of intercourse of physician are

with patients and their relatives;with patients and their relatives;· Psychological atmosphere in Psychological atmosphere in treatment - prophilaxytreatment - prophilaxy

establishments;establishments;· Internal picture of illnesses, psychosomatic and Internal picture of illnesses, psychosomatic and

somatopsychesomatopsyche mutual relations; mutual relations;· Influence of personality on motion of disease;Influence of personality on motion of disease;· Psychological aspects of medical Psychological aspects of medical deontologydeontology;;· Psychological aspects of psychotherapy, Psychological aspects of psychotherapy,

psychohygienepsychohygiene and and psychoprophylaxypsychoprophylaxy..

The special medical psychology studies:The special medical psychology studies:

· Features of psychology of patients are with the Features of psychology of patients are with the boundary forms of boundary forms of nervous - psychiatricnervous - psychiatric disorders disorders which actually are the object of activity of doctor of which actually are the object of activity of doctor of any speciality;any speciality;

· Psychology of patients on the stages of preparation, Psychology of patients on the stages of preparation, conducting of surgical interferences and in a conducting of surgical interferences and in a afteroperative period;afteroperative period;

· Features of psychology of persons are with different Features of psychology of persons are with different diseases (cardio-vascular, infectious, oncologic, diseases (cardio-vascular, infectious, oncologic, gynaecological, leather, gynaecological, leather, nerve - psychicnerve - psychic););

· Psychology of patients with the defects of organs Psychology of patients with the defects of organs and systems (blindness, deafness, deaf-and-dumb and systems (blindness, deafness, deaf-and-dumb and etc.);and etc.);

· Medic-psychological aspect of labour, military and Medic-psychological aspect of labour, military and judicial examinations.judicial examinations.

Industries of psychology:Industries of psychology:

l 1). Psychology of labour - studies the psychological 1). Psychology of labour - studies the psychological features of labour activity of man, scientific features of labour activity of man, scientific organization of labour.organization of labour.

l Tasks - research of professional features of man:Tasks - research of professional features of man:l conformities to the law of development of skills of conformities to the law of development of skills of

labours;labours;l influence on the man of production situation, placing influence on the man of production situation, placing

of machine-tools.of machine-tools.l Psychology of labour has a row of sections:Psychology of labour has a row of sections:l engineering psychology is a problem of order and engineering psychology is a problem of order and

concordance of functions between people and concordance of functions between people and machine;machine;

l aviation psychology, space psychology.aviation psychology, space psychology.

2). Pedagogical psychology: study of psychological 2). Pedagogical psychology: study of psychological conformities to the law of studies and education of man.conformities to the law of studies and education of man.

Its sections:Its sections:l it is psychology of studies (bases of didactics, it is psychology of studies (bases of didactics,

programmable studies, forming of mental actions).programmable studies, forming of mental actions).l psychology of education (psychology of education psychology of education (psychology of education

of student's collective).of student's collective).

3). Medical psychology, psychological 3). Medical psychology, psychological aspects of activity of physicians, patient:aspects of activity of physicians, patient:

· neuropsychologyneuropsychology: correlation of the : correlation of the psychological phenomena with psychological phenomena with physiology of cerebral structures;physiology of cerebral structures;

· psychopharmacypsychopharmacy;;· psychotherapy: facilities of the psychical psychotherapy: facilities of the psychical

influencing for treatment of a sick;influencing for treatment of a sick;· psychoprophylaxypsychoprophylaxy and and psychohygienepsychohygiene

measures for providing of psychical measures for providing of psychical health of people.health of people.

4). Legal psychology is realization of right4). Legal psychology is realization of right

· judicial: psychological features of judicial: psychological features of conduct of participants of criminal conduct of participants of criminal process;process;

· psychology of testimonies, conduct of psychology of testimonies, conduct of accused, requirements to the accused, requirements to the interrogation;interrogation;

· criminal: conduct and formings of criminal: conduct and formings of personality of criminal, reasons of personality of criminal, reasons of crime;crime;

· community-service psychology.community-service psychology.

· 5). Military psychology.5). Military psychology.· 6). Sport psychology.6). Sport psychology.· 7). Trade psychology (including 7). Trade psychology (including

influencing of advertising).influencing of advertising).· 8). Psychology of scientific creation.8). Psychology of scientific creation.· 9). Psychology of artistic creation (in 9). Psychology of artistic creation (in

literature, art) and aesthetically literature, art) and aesthetically beautiful perception.beautiful perception.

10). If to take the psychological aspects of 10). If to take the psychological aspects of development for basis, distinguish:development for basis, distinguish:

· age-old psychology: (child, age-old psychology: (child, psychology of teenager, adult, psychology of teenager, adult, herontopsychologyherontopsychology););

· psychology of anomalous psychology of anomalous development;development;

· olygophrenopsychologyolygophrenopsychology;;· surdopsychologysurdopsychology (defect of ear); (defect of ear);· typhlopsychologytyphlopsychology ( (badseingbadseing and and

blind).blind).

11) 11) Comparative psychologyComparative psychology is research is research of of filogenicfilogenic form of psychical life, form of psychical life, comparison of psyche of animals and man;comparison of psyche of animals and man;animal psychology.animal psychology.

12). Social psychology: 12). Social psychology: mutual mutual relations of people from the different relations of people from the different organized and unorganized groups of organized and unorganized groups of communities:communities:

l makromakro environments; environments;l mіkromіkro environments. environments.

Methods of psychologyMethods of psychology

In psychology distinguish:In psychology distinguish:l basic methods: supervision and basic methods: supervision and

experiment;experiment;l auxiliary: method of expert auxiliary: method of expert

estimations, analysis of products of estimations, analysis of products of activity, methods of questioning activity, methods of questioning (conversation, questionnaire, (conversation, questionnaire, interview;interview;

l method of supervision;method of supervision;l method of tests etc.method of tests etc.

1). Supervision:1). Supervision:

Advantages - conducted in a natural ordinary Advantages - conducted in a natural ordinary situation situation

does not change behavior of persons;does not change behavior of persons;l it is possible to look after one person or it is possible to look after one person or

group of persons;group of persons;l very comfortable in the group of preschool very comfortable in the group of preschool

or in a school class, student group;or in a school class, student group;l supervision and fixing of single displays of supervision and fixing of single displays of

psychical properties insufficient for reliable psychical properties insufficient for reliable conclusions.conclusions.

2). Experiment: laboratory and natural.2). Experiment: laboratory and natural.Advantages: - it is possible specially to cause a certain psychical Advantages: - it is possible specially to cause a certain psychical processprocess

it is possible to trace dependence of the psychical phenomenon on it is possible to trace dependence of the psychical phenomenon on changeblechangeble external conditions. external conditions.

3). Methods of questioning:3). Methods of questioning:

Method of conversation: use on the different stages of research both for Method of conversation: use on the different stages of research both for a primary orientation and for clarification of conclusions, got with the a primary orientation and for clarification of conclusions, got with the help of other methods (supervision).help of other methods (supervision).

4). Method of 4). Method of interviewinterview. Questionnaire. . Questionnaire. Difference:Difference: The method of interview foresees greater freedom of The method of interview foresees greater freedom of polled in forming of answer. polled in forming of answer.

5). Method of expert estimations:5). Method of expert estimations: widely use widely use personality psychology. As experts can come forward competent personality psychology. As experts can come forward competent persons which know explored well: educators of preschool, schools-persons which know explored well: educators of preschool, schools-boarding-schools, leaders of classes, masters on a production, leaders boarding-schools, leaders of classes, masters on a production, leaders of scientific collectives, sporting trainers and otherof scientific collectives, sporting trainers and other

6). Method of introspection:6). Method of introspection: widely used in empiric widely used in empiric psychology of a 18-19 agespsychology of a 18-19 ages

7). Method of tests:7). Method of tests: tests, that the brief studies of properties of tests, that the brief studies of properties of personality are more or less standardizedpersonality are more or less standardized

Are you able to own the emotions?Are you able to own the emotions?

·· Are you able to influence on other? Are you able to influence on other?

·· Are you understood in Cosmetology? Are you understood in Cosmetology?

·· Are you able to get dressed? and etc Are you able to get dressed? and etc

8). Concrete methods of psychological 8). Concrete methods of psychological inspection:inspection: there are very much and depends on a purpose. For there are very much and depends on a purpose. For example, study of age-old changes of attention (to firmness), normal example, study of age-old changes of attention (to firmness), normal and morons children.and morons children.

Experimental method

The experimental method is a research method used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between changes in one variable and the effect that is produced on another variable.

Conducting an experiment involves deliberately varying one factor, which is called the independent variable. The researcher then measures the changes, if any, that are produced in a second factor, called the dependent variable. The dependent variable is so named because changes in it depend on variations in the independent variable.

To the greatest degree possible, all other conditions in the experiment are held constant. Thus, when the data are analyzed, any changes that occur in the dependent variable can be attributed to the deliberate variations of the independent variable. In this way, an experiment can demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Sensation and perceptionSensation and perception l SensationSensation is a psychical process of is a psychical process of

reflection in our consciousness of separate reflection in our consciousness of separate properties of objects and phenomena of the properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world, which arise up at their direct objective world, which arise up at their direct influence on sense-organs.influence on sense-organs.

SensationSensation

l – – the most the most elementary stage, elementary stage, which reflects which reflects separate quality of separate quality of subject, which is acting in right moment to sensory organs.subject, which is acting in right moment to sensory organs.

l ClassificationClassification : :l According to modality:According to modality:l InteroceptiveInteroceptive – give signal about condition of our inner world: – give signal about condition of our inner world:

warm, cold, hunger, uncomfortability. These sensastions don’t warm, cold, hunger, uncomfortability. These sensastions don’t have localisation, outside proection, closely connected with have localisation, outside proection, closely connected with emotional processes. emotional processes.

l ExteroceptiveExteroceptive – 5 sensation organs: smell, taste, sight, – 5 sensation organs: smell, taste, sight, hearing, tactile.hearing, tactile.

l ProprioceptiveProprioceptive – information about body position, movement in – information about body position, movement in space, everything which makes body scheme.space, everything which makes body scheme.

1. Exteroreceptors (external).1. Exteroreceptors (external).

Distances:Distances:l a) an organ of sight - an eye;a) an organ of sight - an eye;l b) an ear - is external and middle ears and b) an ear - is external and middle ears and frizz;frizz;l c) organ of c) organ of smell smell - nose.- nose.

2. Contacts:2. Contacts:l a) receptors of touch and pushing; a) receptors of touch and pushing; l b) receptors of heat;b) receptors of heat;l c) receptors of cold;c) receptors of cold;l d) receptors of pain.d) receptors of pain.

3. 3. InteroreceprorsInteroreceprors ( (visceroreceptorsvisceroreceptors).).

Receptors of the digestive system:Receptors of the digestive system:

l a) receptors of a) receptors of smellsmell is - is - nosethroatnosethroat;;l b) receptors of taste - are a tongue and b) receptors of taste - are a tongue and throatthroat;;l c) sensory sells of thirst - mucus c) sensory sells of thirst - mucus of throatof throat;;l d) sensory sells of hunger is - stomach;d) sensory sells of hunger is - stomach;l e) sensory sells of nausea is - stomach.e) sensory sells of nausea is - stomach.

Receptors of the system of circulation of bloodReceptors of the system of circulation of blood

Receptors of the respiratory system.Receptors of the respiratory system.

Receptors of the system of reproduction.Receptors of the system of reproduction.

Receptors of pain of all internal organs.Receptors of pain of all internal organs.

Feeling properties:Feeling properties:

· Absolute sensitiveness of sense-organs - to feel Absolute sensitiveness of sense-organs - to feel ability of man insignificant sizes of irritation.ability of man insignificant sizes of irritation.

· A feeling threshold - is a minimum size of irritant, A feeling threshold - is a minimum size of irritant, which feeling is appear (to the 16-20 hrz. for ear).which feeling is appear (to the 16-20 hrz. for ear).

· Adaptation - is a change of sensitiveness of Adaptation - is a change of sensitiveness of analyzers as a result of adaptation of sense-analyzers as a result of adaptation of sense-organs to the operating irritant (light, warmly).organs to the operating irritant (light, warmly).

· Sensibilisation -Sensibilisation - is an increase of sensitiveness as is an increase of sensitiveness as a result of co-operation (sound - light - disco).a result of co-operation (sound - light - disco).

· Habituation - Habituation - is getting used, when certain is getting used, when certain irritants become so usual, that stop to influence irritants become so usual, that stop to influence on activity of higher departments of brain (a on activity of higher departments of brain (a townsman does not hear noise of cars, physicians townsman does not hear noise of cars, physicians - smell of medications- smell of medications

Perception Perception is a psychical process which consists in the is a psychical process which consists in the integral reflection of objects and phenomena of outward integral reflection of objects and phenomena of outward things under direct influence of physical irritants on the things under direct influence of physical irritants on the

receptors of sense-organs (auditory, visual etc).receptors of sense-organs (auditory, visual etc).

· Integrity of perception - is an always integral reflection.Integrity of perception - is an always integral reflection.· Selectivity - appears in the grant of advantage one Selectivity - appears in the grant of advantage one

objects, to the phenomena or their properties before objects, to the phenomena or their properties before other (the trained nurse pays attention to the signs of other (the trained nurse pays attention to the signs of illness).illness).

· A constant of perception - is less-more relative A constant of perception - is less-more relative firmness of separate properties of objects regardless of firmness of separate properties of objects regardless of terms of perception (sun illumination and electric).terms of perception (sun illumination and electric).

· The intelligentness of perception - is linked with The intelligentness of perception - is linked with understanding essence of object which is perceived.understanding essence of object which is perceived.

· Apperception - Apperception - is dependence on previous experience is dependence on previous experience and its individual features and profession.and its individual features and profession.

· Supervision - the intentional planned perception, Supervision - the intentional planned perception, conditioned by a concrete task, is integrally directed.conditioned by a concrete task, is integrally directed.

Perceptions of colors and their influence are on the Perceptions of colors and their influence are on the

psyche of manpsyche of man

l GreyGrey - neutral - estrangement from surrounding- neutral - estrangement from surroundingl Green Green - calming - stability self-affirmation- calming - stability self-affirmationl Red Red - excitant - energeticness, unrestrainedness- excitant - energeticness, unrestrainednessl Yellow Yellow - stimulant - life-breath- stimulant - life-breathl Dark blue Dark blue - calming - rest and passivity- calming - rest and passivityl BlackBlack - repressing - fencing off, promoted - repressing - fencing off, promoted

self-esteem, on occasion self-esteem, on occasion testifies to testifies to depression depression

Perception depends on:Perception depends on:

l to the state of receptorsto the state of receptorsl leading waysleading waysl cork (brain) end of analyzerscork (brain) end of analyzersl to consciousnessto consciousnessl attentionattentionl emotionsemotionsl vital experiencevital experience

Violation of sensation:Violation of sensation:--hyperaesthesiahyperaesthesia- - hypoaesthesia hypoaesthesia

- anaesthesia- anaesthesia

Sensation

l – Anesthesia – absence of 1 or more type of sensation. Analgesia – loss of pain sensation ( at acute psychopathological diseases.) Patients, who commit suicides: they cut their organs – at such moment they don’t feel anything. After some time everything comes back with recreation of psyche. ( At deep depression, progressive paralysis, brain syphillis, convulsive disorders(hysteria), anaestesia dolorosa depresia – absense of sensation).

l Hyperesthesia – subjective increasing of sensation. Hyperalgesia – increasing of pain sensastion (depression,espessially light).

Violation of perception:Violation of perception: l IllusionsIllusions: error perception or error : error perception or error

interpretation of the real external irritants interpretation of the real external irritants ((physical, physiology, psychicalphysical, physiology, psychical).).

l HallucinationsHallucinations: error perception of non-existent : error perception of non-existent

sensory stimuli, here can take place (but not sensory stimuli, here can take place (but not necessarily) delusional interpretation of the necessarily) delusional interpretation of the hallucinativehallucinative experience. Hallucinations specify in the presence of experience. Hallucinations specify in the presence of psychosis only in that case, when they are connected psychosis only in that case, when they are connected with violation of real situation.with violation of real situation.

l Illusions are perceptions that are associated with an outside stimulus, but the st imulus is wrongly interpreted. For example, lapping water may be heard as laughter. T echnically, these are not hallucinations, as they are associated with a stimulus. Illusions are frequently visual, and they are usually the result of a medical condition. The condition which most commonly causes illusions is delirium tremens (DTs), the disturbed state which can complicate alcohol withdrawal. Objec ts such as creases in bed covers may be perceived as snakes, insects or other animals. Folk law says that people in DTs see pink elephants. In clinical practice, however, small organisms are more commonly “seen”.

“Hallucinations” in healthy people

l Briefly, there are differences between the voices heard by healthy individuals and the hallucinations of those with mental disorders. In healthy individuals, the voice is usually as if from one person, speaking comprehensibly, in a helpful and comforting manner.

l Auditory hallucinations in mental disorders, in contrast, often involve more than one voice, sometimes arguing, sometimes commenting about the patient, frequently making little sense, often in a threatening and frightening manner.

PERCEPTION - PERCEPTION -

l --

l Auditory or heard hallucinations are usually of v oices, however “non-verbal” auditory hallucinations do occur, and include clicking and mechanical noises, muttering or mumbling and music. (In musical hallucinations the patient often hears a complete piece of music.)

l In the case of verbal auditory hallucinations, one or more voices may be heard simultaneously.

l They may come from inside or outside the head. Two or more voices may speak at the same time, or they may conduct a conversation between themselves .

l Voices may instruct or command the patient to pe rform an act. Usually this is a trivial act such as making a cup of tea, but it may be to injure him/herself or others.

l Visual hallucinations may occur in a range of disorders, and may occur more frequently than auditory hallucinations in the organic mental disorders. In some types of epilepsy visual hallucinations may form complex scenes such as two trucks and a rickshaw driving through the room.

l Tactile hallucinations are the experience of being touched or of a crawling sensation under the skin. These are common in drug withdrawal states, but may occur in schizophrenia.

l Somatic hallucinations are the sensation of things happening inside the body, such as organs moving from one part of the body to another. These are rare, but may occur in schizophrenia.

l Gustatory hallucinations, the hallucinations of taste and smell , are more common in medical conditions, particularly epilepsy, but may rarely occur in schizophrenia.


l S-m Lippman, s-m Ashaphenburg, s-m Reyhardt.S-m Lippman, s-m Ashaphenburg, s-m Reyhardt.

ANOREXIA NERVOSA (AN)


l DSM-IV Diagnostic criterial A. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a

minimally normal weight for age and height (e.g., weight loss leading to maintenance of a body weight less than 85% of that expected)

l B. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight.

l C. Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self -evaluation, or denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight.

l D. In postmenarche females, amenorrhea (the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles).

Practical advices Practical advices ·1.In 1.In asthenicasthenic patients the thresholds of feelings are reduced. That is why it patients the thresholds of feelings are reduced. That is why it is necessary to create all proper terms in relation to warning of action of is necessary to create all proper terms in relation to warning of action of superstrong for a sick man irritants (noise, vowel language, strong smells, superstrong for a sick man irritants (noise, vowel language, strong smells, protracted visits of visitors and others like that).protracted visits of visitors and others like that).· 2. At the care of patients it is needed to take into account the processes of 2. At the care of patients it is needed to take into account the processes of adaptation, adaptation, habituation and sensibilisationhabituation and sensibilisation. SO, the process of adaptation to . SO, the process of adaptation to the stationary terms lasts mainly three-four days. the stationary terms lasts mainly three-four days. HabituationHabituation lasted more lasted more characteristic for patients from rural locality, and characteristic for patients from rural locality, and sensibilisationsensibilisation - for the - for the habitants of city.habitants of city.· 3. At the care of patients and socializing with them it is necessary to take 3. At the care of patients and socializing with them it is necessary to take into account the sensitiveness of analyzers: more loud to speak to the into account the sensitiveness of analyzers: more loud to speak to the persons with the reduced ear, to heed after operating of hot-water bottle on persons with the reduced ear, to heed after operating of hot-water bottle on areas bodies, staggered paralyses or paresises, to darken a chamber, areas bodies, staggered paralyses or paresises, to darken a chamber, where patients which pupils were medicinal extended and others like that where patients which pupils were medicinal extended and others like that are.are.· 4. It is needed to take into account influence of colors on the state of 4. It is needed to take into account influence of colors on the state of psyche of patient: green and blue - calm patients, and the red and orange psyche of patient: green and blue - calm patients, and the red and orange excite the nervous system.excite the nervous system.· 5. Illness strengthens selectivity of perception.5. Illness strengthens selectivity of perception.

l Thank you for your Thank you for your attention!attention!