Art Worlds as Communication NetworksArt Worlds as Communication Networks

Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, original (left) and recreations of lost 1917 “Original”

Who decides what is art?– the artist, experts, publics??

Art & Society exampleArt & Society example

Videoclip: Excerpt from Cai Guo-Qiang interview: Videoclip: Excerpt from Cai Guo-Qiang interview: Art:21(Art in the 21st Art:21(Art in the 21st Century) Century) PBSPBS

Olympic Ceremony Controversy (enhancement of Guo-Qiangs’s Olympic Ceremony Controversy (enhancement of Guo-Qiangs’s Footprints of Footprints of History” History” firework performance firework performance

http://blog.art21.org/2008/08/22/cai-guo-qiang-responds-to-olympics-fireworks-controversy/

Today’s Class Session ScheduleToday’s Class Session Schedule

Continue introduction to theories of Art worlds—Continue introduction to theories of Art worlds—art & artists in relation to notions of reality, truth, art & artists in relation to notions of reality, truth, knowledge, ‘types’ of artists & art worldsknowledge, ‘types’ of artists & art worlds

Presentation : Summary of Readings by Helma Presentation : Summary of Readings by Helma Sawatsky & video screeningSawatsky & video screening

http://www.uitzendinggemist.nl/index.php/aflevering?aflID=9617172&md5=33dbb0feedaad5c2854a52624b8000e5

Recall Overview: Internal vs. External ApproachesRecall Overview: Internal vs. External Approaches

Internal (Humanist--Internal (Humanist--aesthetics, history of the arts, aesthetics, history of the arts, critics, etc.)critics, etc.)

art=mystery, spontaneous art=mystery, spontaneous creation of isolated geniuscreation of isolated genius

importance of “aura” of importance of “aura” of individual artist for value individual artist for value of art workof art work

timeless, enduring quality timeless, enduring quality of beauty, perfectionof beauty, perfection

External (Sociological--External (Sociological--& cultural studies)& cultural studies)

Art=social production Art=social production (and reproduction)(and reproduction)

importance of social importance of social networks for creation of networks for creation of belief in the artsbelief in the arts

values change in different values change in different social & historic contexts social & historic contexts

Theories about changes in ideas about what art represents over time (J. Jurt)Theories about changes in ideas about what art represents over time (J. Jurt)

rendering of “reality” (nature), rendering of “reality” (nature), mimesis, imitatiomimesis, imitatio as world view in a specific place & timeas world view in a specific place & time as product of solitary genius (Renaissance)as product of solitary genius (Renaissance) Artists’ vision (19th romanticism)Artists’ vision (19th romanticism) made by “system” of production & receptionmade by “system” of production & reception Socio-political processes (symbolic & material)Socio-political processes (symbolic & material)

Who creates the ‘creator’? (Bourdieu)Who creates the ‘creator’? (Bourdieu) ““Unit of analysis” in art studies often wrong--Unit of analysis” in art studies often wrong--

should not study “apparent” producers (painter, writer, should not study “apparent” producers (painter, writer, actors etc.) but processes (art, artist part of broader field actors etc.) but processes (art, artist part of broader field of relationships)of relationships)

ideology of creation conceals exploitation by ideology of creation conceals exploitation by market forcesmarket forces

art trader or impressario =symbolic banker who art trader or impressario =symbolic banker who creates belief in the arts by creating belief in the creates belief in the arts by creating belief in the economic (and moral?) value of arteconomic (and moral?) value of art

Various criteria used in classifying art & artists, including:Various criteria used in classifying art & artists, including:

Position of artist in “field of production”Position of artist in “field of production” Socio-political, economic positionSocio-political, economic position ““aura” of the artist (aura” of the artist (authenticity)authenticity) -School of Frankfort, Walter -School of Frankfort, Walter

Benjamin-- “Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”)Benjamin-- “Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”)

Features of the specific ‘field’Features of the specific ‘field’ Qualities/characteristics of the artworkQualities/characteristics of the artwork

artistic category (genre, style etc.)artistic category (genre, style etc.) characteristics of the audience/public (notion of characteristics of the audience/public (notion of

consecrationconsecration)) ““highbrow/lowbrow” tastes (Levine--The emergence of a cultural highbrow/lowbrow” tastes (Levine--The emergence of a cultural

hierarchy in America)hierarchy in America) SESSES sizesize

Howard Becker’s Art WorldsHoward Becker’s Art Worlds

Arts worlds Arts worlds include all the people involved include all the people involved in art-makingin art-making

Cooperative links through shared Cooperative links through shared conventionsconventions

Study how participants “draw lines” and Study how participants “draw lines” and what art worlds dowhat art worlds do

http://home.earthlink.net/~hsbecker/

What do art worlds do together?What do art worlds do together?

Develop conventions & Develop conventions & shared practices related to shared practices related to creation (ex. musical creation (ex. musical notation systems) notation systems)

Mobilize resources Mobilize resources (material resources, (material resources, training personnel, training personnel, networks, organizations)networks, organizations)

Develop Distribution Develop Distribution SystemsSystems

Different types of artists/artworlds (Becker)Different types of artists/artworlds (Becker) TypesTypes

Integrated professionalsIntegrated professionals MavericksMavericks Folk artistsFolk artists Naïve artistsNaïve artists

Classification according to how they fit in Classification according to how they fit in art worlds (degree of integration, consensus art worlds (degree of integration, consensus about the ‘rules of the game’, degree of about the ‘rules of the game’, degree of standardization, and in some cases– like standardization, and in some cases– like folk art-- «uses»)folk art-- «uses»)

Ranking Artists/Art Worlds (Becker’s 4 types)Ranking Artists/Art Worlds (Becker’s 4 types) according to different ways according to different ways

of working & career patternsof working & career patterns

1. 1. integrated professionalsintegrated professionals fit with accepted fit with accepted

conventions & canons conventions & canons held by organizationsheld by organizations

well-trained --technical well-trained --technical skills, shared traditionsskills, shared traditions

2.Mavericks2.Mavericks

innovative rebels against innovative rebels against “system”“system”

begin as conventional begin as conventional “novices” but “novices” but deliberatelydeliberately violate norms of art worldviolate norms of art world

techniques for success-- techniques for success-- develop alternate systems for develop alternate systems for distributiondistribution

do not totally lose touch with do not totally lose touch with world of their mediumworld of their medium Kopyright Liberation Front’sKopyright Liberation Front’s

Bill Drummond at the “Brit Bill Drummond at the “Brit Awards”, 1993Awards”, 1993

3. Folk Art3. Folk Art

link with community practiceslink with community practices ex. Duck decoys, ex. Duck decoys, quilts, chain-gang songs, , chain-gang songs,

Christmas pagentsChristmas pagents

art serves needs, part of daily activitiesart serves needs, part of daily activities follows aesthetic conventions, using follows aesthetic conventions, using

established procedures (ex. Sorting established procedures (ex. Sorting scraps by colour)scraps by colour)

often part of well-organized community, often part of well-organized community, with informal trainingwith informal training

4. Naïve Art4. Naïve Art

aka. “primitive” naïve, grassrootsaka. “primitive” naïve, grassroots indiosynmcratic indiosynmcratic

ex. James Hampton, Throne of the ex. James Hampton, Throne of the Third Heaven of the national Millenium Third Heaven of the national Millenium General AssemblyGeneral Assembly

ex. Art of children and the insaneex. Art of children and the insane

outsidersoutsiders N.S. artist Maud Lewis, Henri Rousseau, N.S. artist Maud Lewis, Henri Rousseau,

Grandma MosesGrandma Moses

Van Laar and Diepeveen on “The function of Artists in Society”Van Laar and Diepeveen on “The function of Artists in Society”

Another typologyAnother typology Five roles:Five roles:

Skilled workerSkilled worker IntellectualIntellectual EntrepreneurEntrepreneur Social criticSocial critic Social healerSocial healer

Other dimensionsOther dimensions Ex. Wittkower “Under the Sign of Ex. Wittkower “Under the Sign of

Saturn”Saturn”• Transformation from craftsperson to Transformation from craftsperson to

brooding geniuss brooding geniuss • Later to status of intellectual in Later to status of intellectual in

humanistic professionhumanistic profession

F. De Goya. Saturn devouring his son, c. 1821

Conceptual & practical problems in studying artists & artistic careersConceptual & practical problems in studying artists & artistic careers

Establishing criteria for locating, identifiying artistsEstablishing criteria for locating, identifiying artists ““Irrationality” of choices (P-M. Menger)Irrationality” of choices (P-M. Menger)

Ex. Choosing poorer pay for more prestigious roles as an actorEx. Choosing poorer pay for more prestigious roles as an actor In modern times -- clash between notions ofIn modern times -- clash between notions of

career (regularities, patterns ) career (regularities, patterns ) artistic recognition (singularities, unique, break with past)artistic recognition (singularities, unique, break with past) The ‘triple game’ of contemporary art (transgressions of The ‘triple game’ of contemporary art (transgressions of

boundaries of what is art , rejection by public, integration by arts boundaries of what is art , rejection by public, integration by arts professionals)—(Nathalie Heinicprofessionals)—(Nathalie Heinich)h)

Changing views about values of art can lead to changes in the status of the artist, artwork & the social institutions & publics that support them

Changing views about values of art can lead to changes in the status of the artist, artwork & the social institutions & publics that support them

Beaune Beaune Altarpiece

PBS jazz series by Ken BurnsPBS jazz series by Ken Burns

Examples of establishing Examples of establishing “cannons” through testimony “cannons” through testimony of “experts” (ex. critics, “of “experts” (ex. critics, “stars”, ”, fans) and changing shape of fans) and changing shape of artformsartforms

Unique artists, unique art works (individual) vs. social construction of art/artists (Zolberg)

Unique artists, unique art works (individual) vs. social construction of art/artists (Zolberg)

Example: Problem of Example: Problem of Multiples Multiples negotiating artistic values in negotiating artistic values in

context of new technologies context of new technologies new ways of thinking about new ways of thinking about

connections between the artwork connections between the artwork and the “aura” of the artistand the “aura” of the artist

Walter Benjamin-- “work of art Walter Benjamin-- “work of art in the age of mechanical in the age of mechanical reproduction”reproduction”

Ways of Studying Artists & Arts professionalsWays of Studying Artists & Arts professionals

““Are Artists Born or made?”Are Artists Born or made?”

Theories about artists’ careersTheories about artists’ careers1.1.labor of lovelabor of love (art for art’s sake) argument (Elliot Friedson) (art for art’s sake) argument (Elliot Friedson)

de-emphasizes income de-emphasizes income Arendt’s notions of labour (alienating but necessary) vs. work (creative vocation)Arendt’s notions of labour (alienating but necessary) vs. work (creative vocation)

2.2.artists & arts professionals as risk-lovers, gamblersartists & arts professionals as risk-lovers, gamblers satisfaction proportionate to degree of uncertainty of successsatisfaction proportionate to degree of uncertainty of success

3. 3. Dual reward systemDual reward systemmonetary & non-monetary (psychic) gratificationmonetary & non-monetary (psychic) gratification

4. Other—couldn’t do anything else4. Other—couldn’t do anything else

Formal training IssuesFormal training Issues

qualifications—non-routine qualifications—non-routine activities depend on skills not activities depend on skills not easily transmitted or certified by easily transmitted or certified by a training systema training system impact of schooling on impact of schooling on

earnings smaller than other earnings smaller than other professional groupsprofessional groups

mentoring/apprenticeshipsmentoring/apprenticeships job matching (leaning-by-doing job matching (leaning-by-doing

process)process) occupational risk diversificationoccupational risk diversification

Problems using “income” as a way of identifying for artists & arts professionalsProblems using “income” as a way of identifying for artists & arts professionals

Irregular incomes, seasonal Irregular incomes, seasonal variations, self-emplomentvariations, self-emploment public sources (subsidies, commissions, public sources (subsidies, commissions,

sponsorship)sponsorship) ““privatization” (sales of services or works)privatization” (sales of services or works) transfer income from other employment transfer income from other employment

(multiple job holding)(multiple job holding) personal (family, friends)personal (family, friends)

Careers in the arts and rationality of risk management (Menger)Careers in the arts and rationality of risk management (Menger)

““rational behaviour model” rational behaviour model” but artistic careers are riskybut artistic careers are risky

high level of income inequalityhigh level of income inequality high chance of “failure” high chance of “failure” impermanence of artistic work, self-employmentimpermanence of artistic work, self-employment amibiguity of transition from training to work (skills)amibiguity of transition from training to work (skills) careers advance through recurrent & nonrecurrent work (non-careers advance through recurrent & nonrecurrent work (non-

routine work)routine work)

Criteria used in classifying art & artistsCriteria used in classifying art & artists

““aura” of the artist aura” of the artist Characteristics of Characteristics of

the art form and genrethe art form and genre audience/public (notion of audience/public (notion of

consecrationconsecration)) Publics or audiences Publics or audiences

“highbrow/lowbrow” “highbrow/lowbrow” tastestastes

arts organizations, arts organizations, networks associated with networks associated with different art worldsdifferent art worlds

Mediation & “Support Structures” & Publics as factors in recognition & art-making

Mediation & “Support Structures” & Publics as factors in recognition & art-making

Arts worlds Arts worlds include all the people involved in art-include all the people involved in art-making ?????making ?????

Cooperative links through shared conventions ???Cooperative links through shared conventions ??? how participants how participants

““draw lines” and what art worlds dodraw lines” and what art worlds do Mobilize resources (material resources, training Mobilize resources (material resources, training

personnel, networks, organizations)personnel, networks, organizations) Develop Distribution Systems and distinctionsDevelop Distribution Systems and distinctions

Who Belongs in Art Worlds?Arts Occupations, Institutions, Networks (continued) & Mediation (Gatekeepers, Facilitators)

Who Belongs in Art Worlds?Arts Occupations, Institutions, Networks (continued) & Mediation (Gatekeepers, Facilitators)

Source: V. Alexander Sociology of the Arts…(2003), p. 63.

Participants in art worlds --Participants in art worlds --

Mediators

Creators/artists

Audiences/publics/consumers

art

Who Belongs to Art Worlds?Who Belongs to Art Worlds?

Life Drawing Class, Bocour Paintmaking Studio NYC, c. 1942

c.

Production of Culture Perspective (Peterson, Anand)Production of Culture Perspective (Peterson, Anand)

How culture “shaped by systems in which it is created, How culture “shaped by systems in which it is created, distributed, evaluated, taught, preserved”distributed, evaluated, taught, preserved”

Culture not a mirror of societyCulture not a mirror of society Focus onFocus on

Expressive aspects of cultureExpressive aspects of culture Processes of symbol productionProcesses of symbol production Analysis of organizations, occupations, networks, Analysis of organizations, occupations, networks,

communitiescommunities ComparisonsComparisons

In situated studies of specific cultural forms and changes In situated studies of specific cultural forms and changes in themin them

Six Facet Model of Production Six Facet Model of Production

TechnologyTechnology Law and regulationLaw and regulation Industry structure or fieldIndustry structure or field Organizational structure of dominating Organizational structure of dominating

organizatinsorganizatins Occupational careersOccupational careers MarketsMarkets

Uses of the “Production Perspective”Uses of the “Production Perspective”

Organizational ResearchOrganizational Research theories of management theories of management institutional decision-making institutional decision-making

processes/logicsprocesses/logics Networks of productionNetworks of production Resource partitioning patternsResource partitioning patterns

Studies of Informal RelationsStudies of Informal Relations Links between Class and Culture (ex. Links between Class and Culture (ex.

univore/omnivore)univore/omnivore) Resistance & appropriationResistance & appropriation Fabricating authenticityFabricating authenticity

Critiques of Peterson’s Production of Culture PerspectiveCritiques of Peterson’s Production of Culture Perspective

Ignores or de-emphasizesIgnores or de-emphasizes ““uniqueness” of art to research constructed nature uniqueness” of art to research constructed nature

of collective representations, valuesof collective representations, values roles of fans and consumers in shaping cultural roles of fans and consumers in shaping cultural

products products meanings of cultural productionmeanings of cultural production power relationspower relations

Participants in Mediation ProcessesParticipants in Mediation Processes

Gatekeepers vs. facilitators : types vary with art Gatekeepers vs. facilitators : types vary with art form and genres form and genres Ex. Diana Crane on proponents of Avant-Garde ArtEx. Diana Crane on proponents of Avant-Garde Art

Examples of types of “mediators” (between creators and publics): Examples of types of “mediators” (between creators and publics): book publishers, record companies, film distribution networks, art book publishers, record companies, film distribution networks, art gallery owners, booking agents, critics, reviewers for media, museum gallery owners, booking agents, critics, reviewers for media, museum curators, sometimes even fans or fan clubs, etc…curators, sometimes even fans or fan clubs, etc…

Characteristics of the Mediators & Artistic ValuesCharacteristics of the Mediators & Artistic Values

MediationMediation as a way of conferring as a way of conferring statusstatus The role of critics and other The role of critics and other

gatekeepers in recognition gatekeepers in recognition processes, examples:processes, examples: Shrum– emergence of Fringe Shrum– emergence of Fringe

Festivals as a performing arts Festivals as a performing arts genregenre when critics begin to review itwhen critics begin to review it

Change in status ofChange in status of Graffiti Graffiti and and recognition by artistsrecognition by artists

Institutional forms & legitimation Institutional forms & legitimation practicespractices Status of “Venues”, status of artistsStatus of “Venues”, status of artists Not-for-profit and for-profit models Not-for-profit and for-profit models

& differences in socio-cultural & differences in socio-cultural status (DiMaggio)status (DiMaggio)

Super Bowl XXXVIII, Halftime show, 2004

L. Levine: The emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in AmericaL. Levine: The emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America

Starting question: why can’t you compare high Starting question: why can’t you compare high culture & popular culture?culture & popular culture?

Why do people distinguish between highbrow and Why do people distinguish between highbrow and lowbrow audiences & their understanding of the lowbrow audiences & their understanding of the arts?arts?

Art forms not ‘cosmic truths’ but result from Art forms not ‘cosmic truths’ but result from ‘peculiarities in the way culture operates‘peculiarities in the way culture operates

Levine’s Case study of the reception of ShakespeareLevine’s Case study of the reception of Shakespeare

To study problem of equating notion of culture to idea of hierarchy To study problem of equating notion of culture to idea of hierarchy Believes primary categories of culture are determined by Believes primary categories of culture are determined by

IDEOLOGIES not grounded in actual observation of cultural IDEOLOGIES not grounded in actual observation of cultural practices & tastespractices & tastes

Believes there was less hierarchical divisions in the pastBelieves there was less hierarchical divisions in the past But set in mid 20But set in mid 20thth c. c.

Do same hierarchical distinctions apply today? Or have we again Do same hierarchical distinctions apply today? Or have we again entered an era in which high-brow & low-brow distinctions are less entered an era in which high-brow & low-brow distinctions are less meaningful?meaningful?

Mediators & HierarchyMediators & Hierarchy social meaning(s) of performance art social meaning(s) of performance art control and social “reproduction”control and social “reproduction”

Social origins and established formulas or genresSocial origins and established formulas or genres Hegemony & cultural industriesHegemony & cultural industries Cultural things as mirrors of underlying structures Cultural things as mirrors of underlying structures

(functionalism, Marxism)(functionalism, Marxism)

New theories– more dynamicNew theories– more dynamic Symbolic exchange, interactionSymbolic exchange, interaction -”production of culture approach” (Peterson, -”production of culture approach” (Peterson,

DiMaggio)DiMaggio)

Peterson on Country MusicPeterson on Country Music

How do mediators (record producers) How do mediators (record producers) choose artists to promote?choose artists to promote? Authenticity, originality, distinctivenessAuthenticity, originality, distinctiveness Transformation of field of country music from Transformation of field of country music from

1923-19531923-1953 Process of Process of institutionalizationinstitutionalization Identified audienceIdentified audience

AuthenticityAuthenticity

Paradox of creating authenticity artificially?Paradox of creating authenticity artificially? Socially-agreed upon idea (social construction of Socially-agreed upon idea (social construction of

reality– through shared values & practices)reality– through shared values & practices) History of country music (a revolt that became a History of country music (a revolt that became a

style)style) Artificial notion of the ‘unchanged’ past– Artificial notion of the ‘unchanged’ past– hillbilly hillbilly

musicmusic (poor rural white Southerners) (poor rural white Southerners) Early distain of this type of music because of its Early distain of this type of music because of its

association with hillbilly cultureassociation with hillbilly culture Evolution of terminology (to country and western)Evolution of terminology (to country and western)

Mediation in the Production of Culture PerspectiveMediation in the Production of Culture Perspective

How law, technology, careers, markets, How law, technology, careers, markets, organizational structure shape culture (in this organizational structure shape culture (in this case a form of cultural expression called case a form of cultural expression called ‘country music’)‘country music’)

notion of social production of culture (shared notion of social production of culture (shared values, practices etc.)values, practices etc.)

Emergence of differentiated roles in the Emergence of differentiated roles in the field of field of cultural productioncultural production (manager, talent agent etc.) (manager, talent agent etc.)

Planning Short Assignments and Class PresentationsPlanning Short Assignments and Class Presentations Discussion of reading assignments and Discussion of reading assignments and

ideas for topics for case studiesideas for topics for case studies

Note to Users of these Outlines--Note to Users of these Outlines--

not all material covered in class appears on these outlines-- not all material covered in class appears on these outlines-- important examples, demonstrations and discussions aren’t important examples, demonstrations and discussions aren’t written down here.written down here.

Classes are efficient ways communicating information and Classes are efficient ways communicating information and provide you will an opportunity for regular learning. provide you will an opportunity for regular learning. These outlines are provided as a study aid not a These outlines are provided as a study aid not a replacement for classes.replacement for classes.