[armada international]-complete guide to unmanned air vehicles

55armada INTERNATIONAL 3/2004

Com

plete G

uid

e

The Growing World of

The purpose of this supplement to the regular issue of Armada International isto provide broad picture of the most recent events that have marked the evolu-tion of drones around the world. It is based on articles recently written by EricH. Biass, Roy Braybrook, E. R. Hooton, Johnny Keggler and Doug Richardsonand has been entirely updated by Armada International editors.

Sagem Sperwer B,formerly the Sperwer LE

A s mentioned in the introduction,the purpose of this survey is tohighlight new developments in the

field of both unmanned aircraft and theirsensors. Thus, for reasons of space, the‘great classics’ may not appear in the text,but will nevertheless be found (with theirmain characteristics) in the large attrac-tive foldout in the centre of this book.

Moreover, this survey mainly deals withsurveillance-based unmanned aircraft andUcavs and thus does not cover the emerg-ing armed drones, which are addressed inthe main issue of Armada Internationalwith which this supplement is despatched.This survey is broken down into five mainsections:� Hand-launched systems� Naval systems� Synthetic aperture radar systems� Long endurance systems� Ucavs (reprint from issue 1/2004).

What’s in a Name?It has recently been argued by an Ameri-can manufacturer that the word ‘drone’was rather European and did not conveythe idea of high technology, which theacronym UAV would. But in a world –that of defence – that has been complete-ly invaded by (often confusing)acronyms, does it really? It might beappropriate here to remind everyone

that the world ‘drone’ was introduced byAmerica itself a long time ago and subse-quently adopted in many other lan-guages, with even the Germans and theItalians achieving the remarkable feat ofmodifying the spelling of the word to bet-ter suit their respective languages: thus«drohne» and «drono» were born. Tech-nology has little to do with literature, andwhile the rather basic Flyer 1 of 1903 wascalled an aircraft or an aeroplane, today’shi-tech-packed fighters and airliners are,sensibly enough, still called aeroplanes oraircraft.

Strangely, the former superpowerswere the first to experiment withunmanned aircraft, but due to the lowreliability of the control electronics of thetime they quickly fell out of favour. Israelwas unquestionably the pioneer of therevival of the drone to the point that a

This original picture and legend from Wagner and Sloane’s book tracing back thehistory of Teledyne Ryan’s unmanned aircraft published in 1992 gives a clue to thewell-established use of the word ‘drone’. (Armada archives)

UnmannedAirborne Spies

«…today’s hi-tech-packedfighters and airliners are,

sensibly enough, still calledaeroplanes or aircraft.»

number of systems bearing the name ofwell known American, French, Germanand Swiss companies are in fact Israelisystems in disguise. This probably

56 armada INTERNATIONAL 3/2004

Com

ple

te G

uid

e explains why some have recently beenunder the impression that the Israelisupremacy in the field had started towane. The picture is, however, quite theopposite. While it is true that large sys-tems like the Global Hawk tend to over-

shadow the rest of the flights through itssheer size (it is as large as a top-of-the-range business jet), the Israeli industryhas actually expanded its range by devel-oping hand-held and ultralight systems aswell as synthetic aperture radar-carrying

airframes. Moreover, France, throughSagem, has scored some remarkable suc-cesses with its Sperwer family of drones.For the study of larger systems, the com-pany has teamed with aircraft manufac-turer Dassault.

Throw-aways that Come Back

Hand-launched drones have been used for over-the-hill surveillance since themid-1980s. And the maturation of mini- and micro-electronic technologies hashelped to fill the backpacks of infantry units at a frightening pace. Today,armed with what could pass as a model plane and a laptop computer, forwardoperating soldiers are being treated to a new view of the battlefield.

BAI Aerosystems’Evolution drone

Names like Black Widow, Pointer,Hornet and Snake Eye don’t readi-ly bring to mind something one

would purposely carry in a backpack – butthese are the new eyes of the battlefield forground units.

The operational capabilities ofUnmanned Aerial Vehicles, or UAVs, havebeen brought to light by recent conflicts inthe Middle East and Afghanistan, wherethe now combat proven Predator, GlobalHawk and the, at one time ubiquitous,Gnat 750 have reigned as supreme battle-field overview commanders.Yet little men-tion has been made of the small and veryeffective mini and micro hand-launchedvariants operated by the foot soldier.

These Micro or Mini UAVs (MAV) –small versions of the larger drones – offerreal-time reconnaissance/surveillanceimagery in areas that are either notimmediately reachable by the ground sol-dier, considered hostile or too distantfrom the organic unit to provide up-to-date surveillance data.

First of ClassOne of the first mini systems in use withthe US Army was the AerovironmentPointer. Initially developed in 1986 anddelivered to the Army in 1988, the 3.75 kgair vehicle was designed as an innovativeconcept in backpack-carried, electricmotor powered, hand-launched aerialsurveillance vehicles. The airframe hasover time suffered few design upgrades,but due to the miniaturisation of elec-tronics and the emergence of payloadtypes the system’s weight has wavered –rising to as much as 4.5 kg at one time.

Upon dissecting the Pointer as a hand-launched system example, one finds the airvehicle carried in two containers and theGround Control Station (GCS) arriving ina briefcase that fits into a standardinfantryman’s M.O.L.L.E. pack. The 1.8-metre-long and 2.7-metre-wingspan airvehicle is of a Kevlar composite construc-tion, while the electric-powered GCSweighs less than eight kg. One soldier canoperate the entire system, but with hun-dreds of units having been sold to USforces, a typical set-up has emerged wheretwo users – one pilot and one mission oper-ator – has become standard practice.

Momentarily continuing with thePointer system, operation is by perform-ing quick pre-flight checks, then literallytossing the unit into the air and returningto the GCS.The air vehicle will follow pre-programmed waypoints but can be oper-ated manually. Upon landing the Pointerperforms a deep stall and falls vertically,retaining its equilibrium to land softly.

Thus far, some 60 Pointer systemshave been purchased by the US militarySpecial Operations Command (Socom),and Socom procurement officials haverevealed that deployed Special Forcesoperators are «screaming for more».

One interesting feature of the Pointeris its fixed-view, forward-looking camera,of which either a colour daylight orinfrared/thermal type may be used. Thisputs the pilot in the position of the noseof the bird and is in stark contrast to theSkylark system from Israel’s Elbit Sys-tems, who has recently released that anundisclosed number are currently in low-rate initial production for the IsraelDefense Forces.

The Skylark features a fully-gimballedand stabilised camera mount. This allowsthe operator to track a target in a lock-onmode regardless of the flight pattern ofthe bird.

Another surveillance feature of theSkylark is its ‘follow-camera’ mode,whereby the pilot operates the cameraonly, whilst the UAV automatically fliesin a software-defined pattern or directionthat will provide the best position forviewing the target.

Elbit Systems comes to the UAV tablewith myriad experience from its Hermestrio of unmanned systems. The companyhad earlier developed another hand-launched system for the Israel Ministry ofDefense, the Boomerang, through one ofthe Elbit’s subsidiaries, though the proj-ect was put to pasture due to theincreased interest in the Skylark.

The Skylark system contains three airvehicles and a Mini Ground Control Unit(MGCU) all carried in two backpacks; it isdeployable in less than ten minutes andoperated by a team of two. Launching isachieved through the use of a bungee-typeelastic chord and recovery is through apre-programmed automatic system thatbrings the air vehicle within five metres ofthe operator (the MGCU, actually), thenputs it into a deep stall which actuates anairbag that cushions the bird’s impact.

The Dornier-MicroAir Vehicle (Do-Mav)from Eads-Dornier isnot only small, lightand easy to handlebut rugged – theauthor had to ask theEads-Dornier repre-sentative to removehis foot from thevehicle so this photocould be taken.(Armada/JK)


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

The Skylark will automaticallyincrease its altitude if the line-of-sightdatalink signal is lost and, if no data sig-nal is reconfirmed, will return to its pre-programmed landing point.

Sky-based systems are apparently pop-ular names, as Rafael, also of Israel, hasproduced its own man-portable miniSkylite, but in a tube-launched version.Thesix-kilogram retrievable aircraft is twelvecentimetres in diameter and features fold-out wings that are snapped into position bya tiny electric motor shortly after launch.The drone is equipped with a stabilisedcamera that provides wide-area coverageand point-of-interest monitoring, and it canloiter for more than one hour in a ten-kilometre radius from its launch point.

Flight tests of Rafael’s Skylite wereconducted in February 2004 that includedsuccessful tube launches, the drone fol-lowing pre-programmed mission way-points and effecting a textbook landing ata pre-arranged retrieval point.

Tube launching has an added advantagein its ability to be fired in spaces where get-ting a running start is not possible.

Rafael’s Skylite is, as of this writing, inthe final stages of development and theIsrael Defense Force will have received afirst delivery of an unknown number of

systems for testing and evaluation by thisissue’s publishing date.

Non-foldable Road MapAutonomous flight, auto take-off andlanding and waypoint following are impos-

Some of the most-important featuresof the autopilot are its ability to hold air-speed and altitude, co-ordinate turns andbanking, navigation via GPS and the verysoldier-friendly autonomous launch andrecovery. All operations of the MP2028g

are controlled through the company’s pro-prietary GPS-based Horizonmp groundcontrol software. Horizonmp offers apoint-and-click interface for mission plan-ning, parameter adjustment, flight moni-toring and mission simulation.

MicroPilot is currently in the throes ofdeveloping a full complement of acces-sories, including its XTender softwaredevelopment kit for user customisationand a compass module that uses deadreckoning in the event of GPS failure.

Other companies develop their ownautopilot software. Eads-Dornier wasworking on its Midas micro UAV withsupport of the German Federal Office forDefence Technology and Procurement(BWB).Although interest waned and theproject was discontinued in early 2003,Eads-Dornier leveraged its experience inthat programme to develop the Do-Mav(Dornier-Micro Air Vehicle).

The Do-Mav, fresh from completingdemonstration flights in both Britain andFrance in 2003, is on course for addition-al demo flights this year to certain Ger-

Elbit Systems is manufacturing an undisclosed number of the Skylark for the IDF undera low-rate initial production contract. The payload features a fully-gimballed andstabilised camera mount. (Elbit Systems)

The MicroPilotautopilot sits on asmall silicon circuitboard that pressesonly 28 grams ontothis weight scale.GPS, servo controland other featuresare packed onto amicro processor. Avariety of dronesand air vehicles usethis newest version – the MP2028g.(MicroPilot)

Traditionally, for a drone to qualify asa micro in US standards it must be lessthan six inches in length – a prereq-uisite easily met by this little five-inchtike developed by the University ofFlorida. (Univ. of Florida)

sible features without some means of posi-tion tracking and an autopilot system.

One Canadian company, MicroPilot, isfirmly entrenched in the autopilot arena.Founded in 1995 and having produced itsfirst product as late as 2000, MicroPilothardware is to be found on a variety ofUAVs, including BAI Aerosystem’s SnakeEye (a Dragon Eye variant), the X-Visionand Scrab from Spain’s Sistemas de Con-trol Remoto, the HeliSpy Vtol air vehicleand both the Inventus S-1 and E dronesfrom Lew Aerospace.

The most recent of MicroPilot’sautopilot systems is the MP2028g, a 28-gram autopilot-on-a-chip that is but 10 centimetres long by 4 centimetre wideand 1.5 centimetre in height. The systemcan control up to 24 servos – flaps,ailerons, split rudders, etc, – and is fullyintegrated with three-axis gyros/accelerometers, a GPS system, a pressurealtimeter and airspeed sensors all affixedto a single printed circuit board.

man military units. Eads-Dornier expectscontracts to have surfaced by the timethese lines are read.

The unit features Eads-Dornier’s pro-prietary flight control software that isunique in that, once the micro drone islaunched the software takes control andpilots the unit on a pre-programmed climbrate that gives the thrower time to returnto his flight control laptop. The launchsequence begins by the soldier pressingone button on the tiny airframe to start the electric motor. Keeping the firstdepressed, the soldier presses the secondand then tosses the unit into the air. It is thereleasing of these two buttons that initiatesthe automatic launch procedures.

The Do-Mav carries either a colourTV camera or a black/white image inten-sifier – it is the light weight of these cam-eras,which are under 20 grams, that keepsthe Do-Mav in the micro category. Thewhole unit, with a wingspan of 42 cm,weighs less than 500 grams and the GCS


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

only five kg. It is clearly a one-soldiersolution.

Mini? Micro?There is a very grey line defining the minifrom the micro systems, but the Atlanticis a boundary with very strong influences.Therefore, the Americans have tradition-ally seen anything under 16 centimetresas a micro, whereas the Europeans havean altogether different view of micro – asmentioned above, the Do-Mav, at 42 cm isconsidered a micro air vehicle.

The Hornet from Aerovironment has a38-cemtimetre wingspan yet is still classi-fied as a micro.This system deserves men-tion, not because of its size and to whichcategory it belongs, but as it was the firsthydrogen fuel cell-powered Micro UAVto fly successfully. March 2003 saw theHornet fly three separate times, providingtest data for its datalink, servos, motor,pumps and other avionic systems.

The Hornet was reportedly stable andsimple to control in flight using the man-ually operated ground control station.The ground controller used an additionalradio channel to modulate the rate ofhydrogen generated in the vehicle to varythe energy released.

Other research institutes have experi-mented with micro air vehicles, but fewhave had success in ruggedising theirprojects for military use.

Going in CirclesRotary-winged drones are beginning togain acceptance and their proliferationseems inevitable. Aerovironment haddesigned a micro named the Black Widowunder a Darpa (Defense AdvancedResearch Projects Agency)-funded proj-ect that ran between 1995 and 1999. Thesix-inch, two-ounce wonder even won twoawards on two continents. The researchand development programme resulted inbut a single demonstration vehicle beingproduced – this due to the fact thatDarpa’s requirements were changed toinclude hovering, which, of course, implieda design that didn’t match the BlackWidow – rotary-wing.

This requirement is once again comingto the fore. A ‘perch and stare’ capabilitythat includes vertical take-off/landingand hovering is expected of a drone thatmust infiltrate, for example, an urbanenvironment, fly to a rooftop and landopposite a window or scene, relay real-time information of the target, then take-off to return or gain another vantagepoint. Acrobatics hardly possible with afixed-wing air vehicle.

Many manpack UAV manufacturersconsider 300 to 500 ft above ground to bethe optimum operating altitude for theirminis and micros.But a stop-and-go capa-

bility can only enhance a birds-eye viewof the action.

To this end Eads-Dornier is develop-ing its Quattrocopter – a Vtol solutionthat runs on four rotors to enhance sta-bility and manoeuvrability. At presentthe prototype remains an indoor-flightdemonstrator, but the company is forgingahead with what it views as the future ofhand-launched UAVs. The Quattro-copter currently offers a one-kilometreoperating range with a 20-minute flightduration. Its overall size is 65 cm and itweighs 500 grams.

Another interesting development isthe Fantail from Singapore TechnologiesDynamics. The Asian Aerospace 2002exhibition saw a demonstration of theVtol UAV and it made a showing at theParis Air Show in the summer of the nextyear under the Euro UVS (now UVSInternational) tent. The air vehicleweighs 2.3 kg and carries a one-half-kgpayload.The rotary-wing design makes itsuitable for use in confined spaces as only

Colour and B/Wcameras

Do-Mav

Eads-Dornier.5 kg 1.5 km .5 hr

Colour or infraredday/night liveNBC detection

Pointer

Aerovironment3.6 kg 8 km 1.5 hr

Colour low-light &infrared line-of-sight video feed

Dragon Eye

Aerovironment2.25 10 km 1 hr

Real-time video feed

Quattrocopter

Eads-Dornier.5 kg 1 km >20

daylight colour &low-light/infraredimager & NBC

Evolution

BAI Aerosystems3 kg 10 km 1 hr

stabilised cameraSkylark

Elbit Systems3.75 30 65

24:1 zoom ratiocolour camera

Javelin

BAI Aerosystems2.7 kg 8 km 2 hrs

Canister launchedstabilised camera

real-time feed

Skylite

Rafael6 kg 10 km 1 hr

A plethora of UAV manufacturers areentering the rotary-wing arena – somewith interestingly creative designs andothers with more conventional types.This example from Tecknisolar Seni ofFrance fits, as one could imagine, intothe first category. (Armada/JK)

Complete with ground control stationand piloting goggles, the Dragon Eyefrom Aerovironment sits ready foraction. (US Marine Corps WarfightingLaboratory)

A Selection of Hand-launched Drones

38 cm42 cm25 cm

-65 cm

-

1.832.7 metre

-

-1.5 metre

12 cm

1.8 metre2.7 metre

-

1.82 metre2.9 metre

-

-1.1 metre

-

-1.1 metre

-

lengthwingspandiameter

weight range endur.


Com

ple

te G

uid

e after take-off does the Fantail transitionto horizontal flight with speeds of up to80 km/h.

The Fantail UAV has a vertical, carbonfibre composite fuselage surrounded by aducted rotor. It went from concept to itsfirst flight in just eight months. And,although still a concept demonstrator, thecompany explains that it could easily bescaled and customised in the event of cus-tomer interest.

Sniffing Out TroubleOne oft-overlooked mission for man-packed drones is that of biological andchemical detection. Here is where thesending of a robot to do a man’s job saves

lives. And another venue where hand-launched drones shine.

Aerovironment was awarded a con-tract from the US Naval Research Labo-ratory (NRL) to produce its Dragon Eyehand-launched drone for the US MarineCorps Warfighting Laboratory at Quanti-co, Virginia. The Dragon Eye is still inproduction, but also by the company wholost the bidding for that specific contract– BAI Aerosystems. That company’s ver-sion now carries a new name and newcapabilities.

The Evolution offers additional pay-loads to the original Dragon Eye comple-ment. In place of the camera ‘noses’ thedrone can carry chemical sensors andbiological agent collectors. This capabili-ty’s development was due to require-ments specified by the NRL, and madepossible by NRL components that wereassembled by BAI.

Changing payloads (dual daylight for-ward and side-looking or black-and-white low light cameras, side-lookinginfrared or chem/bio) on the Evolution iseffected by detaching one nose andattaching another, as the system is ‘built’in the field by joining the centre-wingfuselage section to the left and rightwings, adding the tail and then the pay-load (nose). The design is such that thesystem falls apart when it receives a hardlanding, or upon striking an object in-flight, to shed kinetic energy, therebyreducing harm to the components.

The ground control system includes apair of video goggles, with which thepilot, receiving the video feed from theaircraft, operates the flight controls.

Apart from the ground control station isa remote video terminal, wherefromadditional ground troops can view thevideo feed.

The Evolution is touted as a three-man system, set-up with one GCS opera-tor, one video goggles operator/pilot and one man maintaining security. Adozen or so have been supplied to non-US Marine Corps military customers, butthe type remains on a non-exportable list– a restriction the company believes willchange before the end of 2005.

Winging itThe proliferation of mini and micro UAVsis beginning make permanent marks ondefence budgets, as nations recognise yetanother way to keep their troops out ofharms way, or at least to see what theground forces will be walking into.

But how much technology is toomuch? The drone systems are becomingmore and more autonomous – connect-ing the waypoint dots is truly soldier-proof – and modular design negates fieldrepairs, so have these systems become ararely used dead weight or a long-await-ed Godsend?

Each design, from the Inventus S-1 fly-ing wing, through the ‘conventional’winged Pointer to the myriad rotarytypes, offers certain capabilities that arerequired by specific missions. The endresult continutes to be the safety ofground units.

And yet, following this thoughtprocess, how long before the actualorganic soldier becomes obsolete?

Up and away in a somewhatunorthodox manner, the Quattrocopterfrom Eads-Dornier is the company’sdevelopmental offering to the rotor-winged category. (Eads-Dornier)

Naval Drones

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles offer a ship commander his own means of aerialreconnaissance over both land and sea. They are regarded as major tools inlittoral naval operations, but what is emerging is a concept that was viewedas obsolete some 60 years ago.

DRS TechnologiesNeptune

N avies first acquired manned air-craft for Reconnaissance purposesduring the First World War. Indeed,

back in 1918 almost every British battle-ship and cruiser could carry reconnais-sance aircraft able to fly off platformslashed to gun turrets. In the two decadesthat followed these were replaced by

steam-driven catapults, but by the end ofthe Second World War, carriers were theflag bearers of naval aviation and othersurface combatants quickly ceased to haveorganic airborne reconnaissance.

Drones have recently been touted asthe way forward, certainly for aerialreconnaissance, but it appears that only

the United States has a coherent pro-gramme for developing and introducingthem into service. Remotely operatedtarget aircraft were used from the 1930sonwards but drones did not appear onships until the 1950s when a rotary-wingaircraft, the QH-50 Drone Anti-Subma-rine Helicopter (Dash), was developed

«Drones have recently been touted as the wayforward, certainly for

aerial reconnaissance…»

by the US Navy. Flown from a dedicatedplatform, it was not popular because of its electro-optical sensor which assistedflying the aircraft, some of which landedupside down – the project was withdrawnby the Pentagon in the late 1960s –although the Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force had no problems with its systems (incidentally, the Dash is one more reminder that those aircraftwere originally called drones, theUnmanned Aerial Vehicle and its UAVacronym are purely a product of theAmerican administration).


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

Improvements in communications andguidance have led to a resurgence of UAVsfrom the late 1980s but there remain fun-damental problems of launching andrecovery. The US Navy identified a needfor drones after operations in Grenada,Lebanon and Libya for both reconnais-sance and bomb damage assessment, andin July 1985 a competition for off-the-shelfsystems began, this was won by the IAIPioneer which deployed with the battle-ship USS Iowa in December 1986.

The following year the US MarineCorps bought the system for use offTarawa class amphibious assault ships, asthe US Navy had extended the use ofdrones to the remaining three battleshipsas well as integrating them with the Austinclass amphibious transport docks.

Equipped with an IAI Taman MokedTV system the RQ-2A Pioneer success-fully supported the battleships duringOperation Desert Storm, and on onefamous occasion their mere presence ledto the surrender of an Iraqi position.

With the decommissioning of the battle-ships they now serve only in six of theAustin class (two more are scheduled toreceive the system) while the RQ-2B, witha Versatron Smallball or Wescam 12DSinfrared camera and colour TV system,serves with the Marines from Tarawa classships.They are launched from a flight decklike a conventional fixed-wing aircraft, butwith a Jato (Jet- Assisted Take-Off) boost-er, and recovered by flying into a net thatfeatures an energy absorbing system. Suchactivities clearly interfere with helicopteroperations and it is interesting to note thatby mid-September 2003 the US Navy's Pio-neer squadron,VC-6 with four systems,hadflown less than 92 hours compared withnearly 2600 for the US Marine Corps.

Whirly TypesFixed-wing systems tend to be easier tooperate and have higher endurance thanrotary wing types, but the problems oflaunch and recovery remain. The SouthKorean Navy uses a system similar to theUS Navy for its AAI Shadow 400, whileoperation like conventional fixed-wingaircraft is used in the Aeronautics Aero-

light, evaluated by the US Navy, and theInta/Ceselsa/Eads-Dornier Siva (SistemaIntegrado de Vigilancia) being developedfor all three Spanish services. In 1996 theUS Navy conducted an experiment inwhich it simulated a launch from a missilecontainer in a submarine torpedo tubeand an aircraft already in the air was thenguided by the submarine to the target andrecovered by parachute.This concept wasproposed for the Northrop GrummanSea Ferret but does not appear to havebeen developed further.

would share the flight deck/hanger facili-ties, although rotor vibration can have anadverse effect upon electro-optical pay-loads. Conventional airframe solutionsinclude the lightweight (68 kg) AustrianSchiebel Camcopter, of which two systemshave been delivered to Egypt, and theEads-Dornier Seamos (See-Aufklärungs-Mittel und Ortungs-System), which wasdeveloped for German Navy corvettes andfrigates and was originally based on a mod-ified Dash dynamic system.

An accident to the demonstrator in1999 led to the abandonment of the pro-gramme although the manufacturerscontinue to market the product. As amatter of fact, it must be said here thatthere is a somewhat justified aversion onthe part of seamen to have dangerousequipment on board smaller ships wherespace is at a premium.

Less conventional approaches includethe Orion 706 Seabat, a tail-sitting aircraftdesigned as a private venture in consulta-tion with the US Navy but possibly nowmoribund. Bombardier developed an air-frame with the rotors in the middle givingthe impression of a flying peanut.The CL-227 Sentinel was tested from US Navyfrigates in the early to mid 1990s with theSierra Nevada UAV Common AutomaticRecovery System (Ucars) which uses aradar tracker and aircraft transponder toland aircraft with an accuracy of up to 18cm of the centre point.

The more powerful CL-327 Guardianwas tested by the US Navy but withdrewfrom the US Navy's Vertical TacticalUAV (VTUAV) contest due to concernabout its ability to meet requirements ofspeed, payload and endurance.

The Vertical Tactical UAV programmebegan in January 1999 with a Request forProposals some seven months later. Thisled to the Northrop Grumman RQ-8A FireScout, which is an unmanned and modifiedSchweizer 333 light helicopter giving atake-off weight of 1.15 tonnes to make itthe heaviest rotary-wing naval drone in theskies by early 2004.The aircraft is launchedlike a conventional helicopter and recov-ered with a Ucars. Programme develop-ment has been protracted and subject todoubts but it has recently passed exhaus-tive tests including the first fully auto-nomous flight and it is attracting interestfrom Australia, Germany and Japan.

Seen here effecting a fiery shipboard launch, the IAI Pioneer supported battleshipsduring Operation Desert Storm. Although most battleships have been mothballed(again) the Pioneer serves with both the US Navy and Marine Corps. (IAI)

The NorwegianSimicon SRC Mk IIproject aims atcombining verticaltake-off and landingcapability with highhorizontal cruise flightspeed of 450 km/hourand a dash capabilityto 575 km/hour. Witha wingspan of 2.4metres, the aircraft ismuch larger than thisview would suggest.(Simicon)

«One solution to thelaunching problem is toreintroduce catapults forfixed-wing drones…»

One solution to the launching problemis to reintroduce catapults for fixed-wingdrones as they were used for seaplanesbetween the wars.With greater generatingcapability in modern surface ships, electriccatapults are feasible and might be used inassociation with automatic recovery sys-tems. Certainly unmanned aircraft prove asa useful tool for ships as helicopters.

Indeed, for shipborne use a simplersolution might be a rotary-wing drone that


Com

ple

te G

uid

e Northrop Grumman is now working ona more powerful version, with four ratherthan three rotor blades as the RQ-8A SeaScout, with 14 per cent greater take-offpower, 45.5 kg of extra fuel and a 250 kgincrease in gross weight. The current elec-tro-optics (TV, thermal camera, laser des-ignator/rangefinder) would be replacedby a synthetic aperture radar and it couldcarry weapons such as air-to-air missiles.Known as the RQ-8B, this four-blademachine has been selected by the USArmy. Northrop Grumman is under a $115 million contract to produce seven air-craft for the development phase of theClass IV unmanned aerial system for theUS Army's Future Combat System.

Another alternative to rotary wingaircraft on frigate-sized ships, albeitrather lighter in type and scope than theFire Scout, is emerging with DRS’s Nep-tune (see our title picture). This dronecomes dismantled into three main partsin a container that also acts as its launch-er. The latter is very compact and usescompressed air to literally expel the air-craft off the gunwales and into the air.Upon return the Neptune belly lands onthe water thanks to its ad hoc configura-tion, with the engine standing high on anaft-mounted pod. Initially developed byMeggitt before takeover of this compa-ny’s UAV activities by DRS, the Neptunecompleted its product development andflight testing in November 2003.

In Norway, Simicon is working on theSRC Mk II - for the time being, a feasi-bility project funded by the NorwegianMinistry of Defence. The Mk II is ahybrid rotary wing/fixed wing drone.Simicon has recently completed the firstphase of the concept study that investi-gated the validity of the rotor/conven-tional flight concept as well the feasibili-ty of keeping the weight down to 200kilograms. Little is being revealed by thecompany at this stage as more changesmight be incorporated in the near future(there was a Mk I) But the aircraft willincorporate a variable diameter stowedhigh-speed rotor, in addition to the tail-mounted propulsion and directionalducted fan. Envisaged payloads wouldinclude both video and infrared camerasand a synthetic aperture radar to give thedrone all-weather operating capability.Another side of the project, but entrust-ed to TellMie, regards the Maritime TakeOff and Landing (Matol) system to pro-vide an automatic take-off and landingcapability from a moving deck.

Naval but Dry FeetAlternatives to shipborne vehicles areland-based aircraft in a role similar to thatof the maritime patrol aircraft. The USNavy has the Broad Area Maritime Sur-veillance (Bams) programme with PhaseII responses in October 2003 and a con-tract award anticipated in May 2004.Theconcept is for a land-based drone capableof providing around-the-clock reconnais-sance and surveillance coverage and strikesupport over a range of at least 2780 km

for 24 to 36 hours. It would have a 360ºradar with a detection range of 200 kmand a signals intelligence payload andlater a hyper-spectral imaging sensor or acommunications relay system.

The initial operational capability isscheduled for 2007 or 2008 and potentialcontenders include Northrop Grum-man's RQ-4A Global Hawk and theGeneral Atomics'RQ-1B Predator. TheUS Navy has stated the Bams will act asan information collection hub operatingeither independently or in direct collabo-ration with other manned,unmanned andspace-based platforms with worldwidecoverage from just five bases.

A number of other new long-endurance land-based UAVs with similar

sensor packages could perform like roleson a regional basis.

Not only are long-endurance droneson the horizon to support naval opera-tions but also the prospect of UnmannedCombat Air Vehicles (Ucav). The pur-pose of these combat drones was origi-nally the Suppression of Enemy AirDefences (Sead) and for attacks uponhigh risk, high value targets. In 2000,Northrop Grumman and the US Navybegan a feasibility study of the NavalUcav (Ucav-N) beginning with the X-47A Pegasus, this to demonstrate thata simple, low-cost and very stealth-com-patible shape can approach and land withthe speed and accuracy required by carri-er operations.

Drones With Endurance

The fundamental difference between surveillance and reconnaissance is one ofpersistence. Unmanned aerial vehicles designed from the outset for a consider-able dwell-time over the area of interest are designated long-endurance drones.Turbine-engined air vehicles can provide a high-altitude, long-endurance (Hale)capability, whereas their piston-engined counterparts are generally restricted tothe medium-altitude (Male) role. Air-to-ground weapons were initially appliedto Male drones, and are now being added to Hale turboprops. Despite assur-ances to the contrary, they may spread to the high-flying jets.

Northrop GrummanGlobal Hawk

The Eads Orka,here a mock-upseen at the 2003Paris Air Show,displays a severepenchant for navalapplications.(Armada/JK)

O ne of the post-conflict revelationsof the 2003 invasion of Iraq wasthat the US Air Force had

deployed either one or two examples of a'black' Lockheed Martin stealthyendurance drone, to assess the opera-tional value of the concept. Little infor-mation is available on this development,beyond the fact that the drone is larger

than (although reportedly similar in con-figuration to) the same company's ill-fated Tier III-Minus DarkStar.

The latter was developed jointly withBoeing, first flew in 1996 and was can-celled in 1999, probably because (with agross weight of only 3900 kg) it was toosmall to be of value in the strategic roleenvisaged.The DarkStar was designed to


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

remain on station for eight hours at 925km radius, but there is no word as towhether this was achieved. It is reportedthat the drone used over Iraq was pur-posefully made smaller than the 18,145kg Lockheed Martin U-2S, in order not topose a threat to the continued use of thiswell-proven manned system.

It may be recalled that in the after-math of the 1991 Gulf War the US JointChiefs of Staff called for a four-tier fami-ly of long-endurance, intelligence-gather-ing drones, of which the senior memberwas to be the Tier III, a stealthy long-endurance design. When it was discov-ered that a large low-observable aircraftwould be unacceptably expensive, it wasdecided to replace it with the much small-er 'Tier III-Minus' DarkStar stealthypenetrator, supported by the 'Tier II-Plus' Northrop Grumman RQ-4 GlobalHawk. The latter was intended to func-tion in a stand-off mode in a low-to-medi-um threat environment.

The termination of DarkStar left theGlobal Hawk as the US Air Force's onlyjet-powered long-endurance intelli-gence-gathering drone, and it has provenin subsequent conflicts to have consider-able potential for its design scenario. Thefirst of seven ACTD (Advanced ConceptTechnology Demonstration) aircraft hadits maiden flight on February 2, 1998.Although still in the EMD (engineeringand manufacturing development) phase,RQ-4As were deployed by the US AirForce to support operations overAfghanistan in late 2001 and over Iraq in2003. The series has now accumulatedover 3000 flight hours, of which morethan half were flown in operational the-atres. Four of the ACTD aircraft are stillbeing operated, the others having beenlost in accidents of varying severity.

Annual RQ-4 procurement for the USAir Force is running at four air vehicles,the FY2005 request indicating a unitprice of $ 90 million. However, the serv-ice continues to spend a similar total ($336.2 million) on Global Hawk RDT&E(research, development, testing and eval-uation). It is anticipated that 51 produc-tion aircraft will be acquired by the USAir Force.

The US Navy is using FY2003 RDT&Efunds to buy two RQ-4s for delivery in2005 and 2006, with additional sensors toallow the complete system to be assessedunder its Bams (Broad Area MaritimeSurveillance) programme. Reports sug-gest that the Navy has reservations overthe number of carrier-based personnelrequired to process the vast amount ofsurveillance information generated.

The first production Global Hawk forthe US Air Force (from Lrip Lot One of

be mainly funded in FY2004 and deliv-ered before the end of 2005.

Compared to the current RQ-4A ver-sion of the Global Hawk, the RQ-4B willhave a longer wingspan, increased from35.36 to 39.90 metres. It will also bestretched by the insertion of two fuselageplugs and a longer nose, increasing lengthfrom 13.41 to 14.50 metres. A new gener-ator will provide a 150 per cent boost inthe electrical power available. In additionto the current sensor suite of electro-opti-cal cameras and synthetic aperture radar,the RQ-4B will carry sigint and elint pay-loads. It will also be capable of carryingthe Northrop Grumman MP-RTIP(Multi-Platform Radar Technology Inser-tion Program), and payloads that arebeing evaluated in the Global Hawk Mar-itime Demonstration (GHMD) that isscheduled for the US Navy's Fleet BattleExperiment - Mike in 2005.

The first export customer for the Glob-al Hawk is likely to be Germany, whichhas a requirement to replace by 2010 fourageing Dassault Atlantics that are used bythe Marineflieger in the sigint role. Thecurrent shortlist appears to be themanned Bombardier Global Express andthe unmanned RQ-4.To assess the latter'spotential as a long endurance platformfor an Eads-developed sigint payload, inOctober 2003 the first prototype RQ-4Awas deployed across the Atlantic to theGerman Naval Air Station at Nordholz,near Bremen for six demonstration flighttrials of around eight hours duration overthe North Sea.

An important aspect of this deploy-ment derived from the fact that the Glob-al Hawk is the first and only drone tohave a Certificate of Authorisation(COA) from the FAA (Federal AviationAdministration) to fly in US national air-space. Despite this clearance, it was rout-ed to minimise time spent over inhabitedareas, flying from Edwards AFB alongthe US-Mexican border and then acrossthe Atlantic to pass north of the BritishIsles and across the North Sea to Nord-holz. The aircraft operated completelyautonomously, and the total distanceflown was approximately 13,000 km.

At Nordholz and the diversionary air-field at Neubrandenburg, precise GPSmeasurements were taken at the prese-

One of Northrop Grumman’s offerings for the Watchkeeper programme includes theRanger (seen here at the DSEi show), which has enjoyed much positive press from theSwiss armed forces. (Northrop Grumman)

A good looking aircraft by almost any standard, the turboprop-powered Predator-Bboasts a massive tail volume, presumably to offset the enlarged nose and forwardexcrescences. (General Atomics)

«The termination ofDarkStar left the Global

Hawk as the US Air Force'sonly jet-powered long-endurance intelligence-

gathering drone…»

two RQ-14As ordered in FY2002) washanded over in August 2003, and the sec-ond was delivered later in the year. TheLrip Lot Two of four RQ-4As was pur-chased with FY2003 funds. The Lrip LotThree was initiated in September 2003with a contract for long-lead items forone RQ-4A and three RQ-4Bs,which will


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

lected touchdown points and at referencepoints at the other ends of the runways.For the demonstration flights the GlobalHawk was under Eurocontrol fromMaastricht in the Netherlands. The RQ-4A climbed through two temporarily-restricted airspaces (TRAs) normallyused for air combat training, and quicklythrough a commercial air corridor underclose supervision, reaching 45,000 ftaround 22 minutes after unstick. Abovethat altitude it was still tracked by Euro-control, but was basically free to fly wher-ever it was required.

For the longer term, it is hoped toobtain a wider clearance for the GlobalHawk to use civil airspace, in order tofacilitate US Air Force deployments andpromote export sales. This is one reasonwhy this aircraft has never been armed.However, the retiring head of US CentralCommand, Gen 'Tommy' Franks, statedin 2003 that, in the light of experienceover Afghanistan and Iraq, the Depart-ment of Defense was considering equip-ping the RQ-4 with a laser designator andprecision-guided munitions.

Northrop Grumman and Eads plan toestablish a joint venture company to pro-mote a German-equipped 'EuroHawk',once Marineflieger requirements arefinalised. It is possible that Nato may latergenerate a requirement for a squadron ofsuch aircraft, to be purchased and operatedin a similar way to the Geilenkirchen-basedAwacs. It would be interesting to see

whether France and the UK join such aprogramme, or once again finance nationalunits. Aside from its maritime interests,Britain has a requirement for an aircraft toreplace the Canberra PR9 in the high alti-tude photo-reconnaissance role. Furtherafield,Australia,Canada and Japan all havea serious interest in ocean surveillance, andcould well adopt the Global Hawk.

PredatorIn reviewing the potential market for Haledrones, it may be noted that Germanyeliminated the turboprop-powered Gen-eral Atomics Predator-B from its shortlist,

because it was judged to be too light tocarry the sensors required. On publisheddata, the 4536 kg gross weight of thePredator-B is around one-third that of theGlobal Hawk, being 37 per cent of the RQ-4A and 31 per cent of the RQ-4B fig-ures. The first prototype flew on 2 Febru-ary 2001 and the first pre-production air-craft (with a wider fuselage to increase fuelvolume and achieve the required 30 hoursendurance) followed on 30 October 2003.Planned tests include use of the GPS/INS-guided Boeing Jdam.

The Predator-B, which was developedwith company funds, is certainly less capa-ble than a Global Hawk. It cannot, forexample, carry the latter's 2.45-metre radarantenna, and it cannot reach 65,000 ft.Operational ceiling is 50,000 ft, and maxi-mum airspeed is 408 km/hr. On the otherhand, it is a relatively inexpensive product.For example, the nine Predators (presum-ably a mix of -As and -Bs) requested by theUS Air Force in the FY2005 budget havean average cost of $ 16.3 million, which isless than 20 per cent of the price of thesame year's Global Hawk.

A further consideration is that it isvery difficult to produce a stealthy pro-peller-driven aircraft.This argument maywell lead to large-scale orders for theforthcoming jet-powered Predator-C,which is equipped with a Williams Inter-national FJ-44A turbofan (the same asthe defunct DarkStar), and is reportedly

Thales is offering the Silver Arrow Hermes 180 and 450 drones for the BritishWatchkeeper programme, as evidenced by these two examples hanging around at theDSEi 2003 show in London. (Armada/EHB)

Responding to US Navy interest in a long endurance drone, General Atomicsproposed the Mariner (later Predator-B-ER) with an antenna rotating in a ventralteardrop radome. This version extends endurance from 30 to 49 hours with a largedorsal tank that increases fuel capacity from 1815 to 2720 kg. (General Atomics)

a low observable derivative with a sweptwing, designed to penetrate relativelyhigh-threat scenarios. This project wasoriginally scheduled to fly in late 2001,but was placed on the back burner; pri-marily because the potential operatorsvalued endurance over stealth, transitspeed and altitude. The prototype is nowto be rolled out in early 2005.

Where the principal role is groundattack in a low threat environment, theoverriding demand is for a comparative-ly heavy warload. In this context a pro-peller-driven drone is less expensive thana jet, and the only series-productionengines available with power to matchthe likely payload (i.e., more than 500kW) are turboprops. This being the case,the Predator-B with a Honeywell

Release of thefolding-wing Finder(Flight-InsertedDetector Expendablefor Reconnaissance)from a Predator-A.This mini-drone couldalso be used forclose-up battledamage assessment.(General Atomics)


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

TPE331-10T engine could easily contin-ue in production for years to come, forSead and strike duties.

Exports of the Predator-B will proba-bly have to wait until the US Air Force hasassessed the drone's operational utilityand announced firm procurement plans.There are reports that it is being offered toAustralia, but that country's maritime sur-veillance needs might be better served (ifthe Global Hawk proves to be unafford-able) by the jet-powered Predator-C.

For several years the US Navy hasshown interest in having a surveillancedrone with exceptional endurance. Inresponding, General Atomics hasdesigned what was initially named theMariner, but is now the Predator-B-ER.For this the standard 20.12-metre wing ofthe Predator-B is replaced by the 26.21-metre wing of the Altair, a variant thatwas developed in co-operation withNasa, and is aimed at high altitude scien-tific research and commercial applica-tions. The Predator-B-ER also has a con-formal tank over the centre fuselage,increasing the internal fuel load from1815 to 2720 kg. The combination of thewing extension and extra fuel increasesendurance from 30 to 49 hours.

Aside from its conformal tank, thePredator-B-ER is visually distinguishedby a 360-degree multi-mode maritimeradar (yet to be selected), with an anten-na rotating in a ventral pylon-mountedteardrop radome. The aircraft also hasthe standard EO/IR sensor turret underthe nose.The project is now supported byLockheed Martin, which company wouldact as prime contractor in the context ofthe US Navy's Bams (Broad Area Mar-itime Surveillance) programme. The B-ER is also being offered to the USDepartment of Homeland Security.

First flight of the Predator-B-ER tookplace in March 2004. Plans call for thisnew version to be trialled by the USCoast Guard in Alaska this summer (fol-lowing a similar deployment by two pis-ton-engined US Navy Predator-As in2003), and then to be deployed in a Cana-dian maritime exercise.

The majority of drones so far developedhave been affordable and attritablelow/medium-level tactical vehicles, andthere have been relatively few examples atthe Hale end of the spectrum. One new-

comer to this sparsely populated area willbe the Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI)Heron TP, which is scheduled to fly beforethe end of 2004. Equipped with a 900 kWturboprop, the 3500 kg Heron TP (weigh-ing three-quarters as much as a Predator-B) is expected to provide a 45,000 ft oper-ating altitude. One advantage claimed for

MalesIn the same way that the Global Hawkdominates the Hale drone category, thepiston-engined General Atomics Preda-tor-A is one of the current leaders in theMale spectrum. Grossing 1045 kg, it firstflew on 3 July 1994, and was deployed toAlbania one year later for operations overBosnia. Now employed by the US AirForce, the CIA, US Navy and the ItalianAir Force, the Predator-A is capable of 40hours endurance, or 24 hours on station at750 km radius, although a typical missionis 16 to 20 hours long. It has a ceiling of25,000 ft, but normally operates at around13,000 ft at an average radius is 450 km.Maximum airspeed is 222 km/hr.

The US Air Force has three Predator-Asquadrons, home-based at IndianSprings, Nevada, with a total of 48 airvehicles. They are to be joined by what isreportedly designated 'Detachment-X ofthe California and Nevada Air NationalGuard', but it is not clear if this will be atraining unit or another squadron avail-able for deployment to Iraq. The move-ment of the squadron now in Iraq fromTallil AB in the south to Balad AB northof Baghdad (where US Air Force assetswill be concentrated for the indefinitefuture) will reduce coverage in the lowerhalf of the country. This may be rectifiedby a newly-formed joint UK-US Preda-tor squadron, based either at Basra orover the Kuwaiti border.

British participation in Predator opera-tions would be somewhat ironical, as thatdrone was part of the ill-fated BAE Sys-tems tender for the British Watchkeeperprogramme, a proposal that was rejectedin 2003 (the Watchkeeper programme is,inter alia, to find a replacement for thetroublesome Phoenix which, with 23 totalaircraft write-offs in just 138 flights, isprobably eligible for an entry in the Guin-ness book of records).The current shortlistis Northrop Grumman, with the compa-ny's own RQ-8 Fire Scout and the RuagRanger, and Thales, combining the SilverArrow Hermes 180 and 450. Interestingly,Boeing has recently joined the Thalesteam, the idea being to add Americaninputs to ensure interoperability withCubic – also a member of the team.

However, the Defence Evaluation andResearch Agency (Dera) has carried outtrials in which a Predator successfullyrelayed real-time target data from a for-ward air controller to an RAF Jaguarground attack aircraft. Trials to further

The Eads Eagle 1adopted by theFrench Air Force isin fact theIAI/Malat Heronwith internalmodifications. TheEagle 2 proposal ispresumably basedon the Heron TP.(Armada/JK)

its twin-boom arrangement is that this pro-vides better separation for the multipleantennas required in the sigint role.

Further in the future, IAI plans aneven larger Heron II, and is studying thefeasibility of developing a Hale dronewith electric motors powered by fuelcells.The latter, combining hydrogen fuelwith oxygen from the atmosphere, areexpected to become smaller and lighter,making it theoretically possible toachieve an endurance of the order of oneweek. However, such performance willdepend on extreme aerodynamic effi-ciency and will be achievable with only alimited payload. The company hasrevealed two such projects: the flyingwing, eight-engined HA-310 and thetwin-boom, six-engined HA-315. A tech-nology demonstrator, partly funded bythe Israeli Ministry of Defense, is due tofly in 2005.

The IAI/MalatSearcher II is lessthan half the weightof the company'sHeron, butnonethelessprovides a 15-hourendurance. Bothtypes are operatedby the Indian Army.(Armada/RB)

«For several years the USNavy has shown interest inhaving a surveillance drone

with exceptionalendurance.»


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

expand the roles of the Predator have alsoincluded tests sponsored by the USDefense Threat-Reduction Agency inwhich it released a 26 kg folding-wing,GPS-guided Finder (Flight-InsertedDetector Expendable for Reconnaissance)

When equipped with a heavy fuel engine,the Heron becomes the Valiant, whichhas been developed to appeal to armiesthat favour diesel fuel.

The French Air Force has selected theHeron in the form of its Eads Eagle 1

The Heron/Eagle has already under-gone trials in Canada and Sweden, andlast September it was announced that theUK had selected the Eagle 1 for tests asthe Male adjunct to the Joint UAVExperimental Programme. This is toassess the military value of drones for allthe British armed services.

Looking beyond Eagle 1, France andthe Netherlands have signed an agreementto study the capabilities and developmentof a European Male drone ('Euromale')that would be available from 2009. Spainand Sweden have recently announcedtheir intention to join the programme,which is aimed at 24 hours endurance at1000 km radius, and 12 hours at 1500 km.The Euromale is to carry a payload of 250to 500 kg and operate at up to 45,000 ft. Inthe longer term, Sweden wants to add afoliage-penetrating synthetic apertureradar to the basic electro-optical and sigintpayload. The intention is to gain full air-worthiness certification under both Amer-ican Far and European Jar rules.

Eads is proposing an Eagle 2, which ispresumably a derivative based on the tur-boprop Heron TP, since it is to double theEagle 1 payload, cruise at 45,000 ft, andfly at 460 km/hr.

Although the US Air Force and USNavy are the service leaders in regard toendurance drones, the US Army is alsotaking an interest. Early this year theservice gave the go-ahead for a new proj-ect, the Extended-Range MultipurposeSystem, described as an off-the-shelffixed-wing system with a 300 km radiusand a twelve-hour endurance. It is sched-uled to enter service around 2008.

Male MiscellanyThe only other drone in broadly the samesize class as the Predator andHeron/Eagle is the IAI/Malat E-Hunter,a 950 kg long-span (16.6 metre) develop-ment of the US Army's standard 8.9-metre wingspan Hunter. It retains thetwo 51 kW engines in a push-pullarrangement, but uses the wing, boomsand tail assembly of the Heron. Maxi-mum endurance is increased to 25 hoursand operational ceiling to 20,000 ft.

Powered by two 75 kW Rotax 914engines, the 1650 kg Elbit/Silver Arrow

Flight trials continuewith theFinmec-canica/MeteorFalco, which isunusual in beingdesigned for Stolperformance, usinglarge-chord slottedflaps to facilitatenaval operations.(Armada/JK)

Simple surveillance tasks such as cyclone tracking may be performed by relativelylightweight drones, such as this Scan Eagle (which eerily resembles a seagull),developed and built for Boeing by the Insitu Group. (Boeing)

The IAI/Malat E-Hunter, a long-wingspan variant of the standard Hunter is likewiseoffered with rocket-assisted take-off facility. (IAI/Malat)

derivative, with a modified sensor fit(including a synthetic aperture radar anda domed radome over the nose to providefor a satellite datalink. The Eagle 1 alsohas a liquid anti-icing system, and an auto-matic take-off and landing system basedon differential GPS. The first of threeexamples for the French Air Force had itsmaiden flight on 2 June 2003. In Februarythe Heron/Eagle became the first drone ofits class to be demonstrated in flight at amajor air show; namely Singapore's AsianAerospace 2004. However, smaller droneswere earlier demonstrated during showsat Berlin and in Santiago, Chile.

drone, developed by the US (NRL) NavalResearch Laboratory. The Finder landedon the dry lakebed at Edwards AFB. It isenvisaged that a mini-drone could be usedfor atmospheric sampling in a chemicalagent contaminated area, or for close-upbattle damage assessment.The NRL plansto employ the airframe concepts developedfor the Finder in a 136 kg long-endurancemaritime drone named Duster to belaunched from maritime patrol aircraft.

The ability to control a Predator from aUS Navy P-3C has already been demon-strated, and in 2003 General Atomicssigned an agreement with Boeing to studyits possible control from an E-3 Awacs andAH-64 Apache.

The closest Israeli equivalent to thePredator-A is the IAI/Malat Heron, whichhas a marginally heavier maximum take-off weight (1100 kg) and the same tur-bocharged Rotax 914 engine. The Heronhas a larger wingspan (16.6 metres) and asimilar (40 hour) nominal endurance,although flights as long as 52 hours havebeen demonstrated. Ceiling is 30,000 ft,but normal operating altitude is 25,000 ft.It first flew on 18 October 1994, and anautomatic take-off and landing system hassince been developed.

At least six Heron systems have beensupplied to the Indian Army, and moreare expected to be supplied as part of adrone package now being negotiated.

81armada INTERNATIONAL 3/2004

Com

plete G

uid

e

Hermes 1500 was developed with somefunding assistance from the Israeli Min-istry of Defense to provide a technologydemonstrator for a maritime patroldrone capable of carrying large classifiedpayloads. Maximum payload is 300 kg,but this can occupy up to 2000 litres offuselage volume. Following an increase inspan from 10.0 to 18.0 metres, the Her-mes 1500 has an endurance of over 26hours and a ceiling of 33,000 ft.

In the sub-Predator class, the 750 kgGeneral Atomics I-Gnat, powered by a 60kW Rotax 912 engine, remains available,as evidenced by a US Army order in 2003for three air vehicles and a ground stationto assist in developing the service's con-cept of operations for future drones. The I-Gnat has an endurance of over 40 hoursand can be operated up to 25,000 ft.

The 450 kg class of drones is exempli-fied by the Elbit/Silver Arrow Hermes450, which was designed for tactical longendurance missions. It employs an unusu-al 10.5-metre parasol-wing configuration.The 450 made its debut at the Paris AirShow of 2001 with a broadband satellitecommunications antenna mounted highover the fuselage. Powered by a 39 kWUEL rotary engine, it has an endurance of20 hours, and a ceiling of 18,000 ft. In 2001it was already in service with the IsraelDefense Force and has since entered serv-ice with the Indian Air Force.

The 426 kg IAI/Malat Searcher Mk II isin the same weight class as the Hermes 450but has a more powerful (55 kW) engineand a smaller wingspan (8.55 metres). Itconsequently has somewhat lessendurance (15 hours) although a similarceiling (20,000 ft). The Indian Army oper-ates the Searcher II alongside the samecompany's Heron, and further purchasesof both types are reportedly imminent.

The 300 kg category is illustrated bythe new 320 kg Finmeccanica/MeteorFalco, which was unveiled at Eurosatory2002. It has a 56 kW engine and awingspan of 7.2 metres. The Falco wasintended to carry a wide variety of pay-loads, and to combine an endurance of upto 14 hours with a maximum operatingaltitude of 20 000 ft. It was designed fromthe outset for Stol performance, so anaval version will be able to operate froma ship's deck 60 metres long. In order toachieve high lift coefficients, the wing hasa large slotted flap that forms 30 per centof the total chord. The Falco is currentlyundergoing flight tests.

In the French Air Force contest that ledto the acquisition of the Heron/Eagle,Sagem had unsuccessfully supported thePredator. The company has subsequentlydeveloped a long endurance version of its

Sperwer, the baseline form of which isoperated by the armies of Denmark,France, Greece, the Netherlands and (incold climate Ugglan [Owl] form) by Swe-den. It was also selected by Canada underthe designation CU-161 (with OerlikonContraves Canada (OCC) serving asprime contractor) to support the deploy-ment of its forces in Afghanistan. TheSperwer B, which made its début at Parisin 2002 and at the time known as the Sper-wer LE (for Long Endurance), has thesame 52 kW engine as the baseline, but itswingspan is increased to 6.5 metres, givingan endurance of over twelve hours and aceiling of 20,000 ft. A small clarification on the Sperwer is worthy of a few lineshere: the French Sperwers are known asthe SDTI due to some minor electronicsmodifications specific to the Army; how-

Another series oflightweight droneshas beendeveloped byAerosonde. The Mk I has flown theNorth Atlantic, andthe Mk III issupportingAustralian forces inthe Solomons.(Armada/JK)

More than meets the eye

When decisions really matter, accurate and reliable workstation recording is a must. Barco’s DIGITAL SCRIBE

features a unique set of processing and compressiontechniques for up to 45 hours of effective RGB recording ondigital storage media. This smart approach ensures superiorimage quality combined with the highest possible framerates.

Whether your application requires high-quality data archiving and retrieval, electronic data transport, incidentrecall, real-time recording or mission analysis, Barco’sDIGITAL SCRIBE is the answer.

• Records analog or digital inputs up to 1600x1200• Open standard file format• Simultaneous recording and playback• Stand-alone 19” rackmount chassis• Removable HD or DVD-R/W options• Audio recording option with SCRIBEAUDIO

www.barco.com

DIGITAL SCRIBE. Smart solutions for digital RGB recording

USA - Phone: +1 678 475 8000E-mail: [email protected]

Europe - Phone: +32 56 233 413Email: [email protected]

Phot

o co

urte

sy o

f EA

DS


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

The General Atomics Lynx radarcaptured this image of a Scud missilecomplex from a range of 6.5 km. Reso-lution is ten cm. (General Atomics)

Drones with Synthetic Eyes

This section may show some redundancy with the other section of this surveydedicated to endurance drones, but here the author concentrates on the adventof the unmanned vehicles equipped with synthetic aperture radars. The needstems from the armies requirement to be able to fight in day and night times andin all weather patterns. A growing number of designs now offer the ability togather radar imagery of near-photographic quality in all conditions.

IAI/Silver ArrowHermes 450

ever, the Canadian procurement having inthe meantime turned into a ‘crash pro-gramme’, the Canadian Armed ForcesSperwers are in fact SDTI’s intended fordelivery to France but switched to mapleleaf country; the Canadian armed forcesare apparently setting drone utilisationrecords in Afghanistan, where they fly inhot, cold and dusty conditions.

The principal contender for the Cana-dian contract was America's AAI Shadow200 Tuav, which is in service with the USArmy. However, it was found in DesertStorm that a drone with an endurance of12 to 14 hours would be much more useful.This demand led to the development of the265 kg AAI Shadow 600, which has a 39kW engine, a span of 6.8 metres and a ceil-ing of 16,000 ft. It is now in service with theRomanian Air Force.

LightweightsAll the Male drones so far discussed havebeen conventional, with payloads rangingfrom 41 kg in the Shadow 600 to 350 kg inthe case of the Hermes 1500. However, aselectronic components become lighter, it ispossible that quite useful surveillancecapabilities will be provided by progres-

sively smaller air vehicles, as exemplifiedby the US Navy's 136 kg Duster and 26 kgFinder (referred to earlier).

Other examples include the 25 kg D-1developed by Dara Aviation of Seattle.Based on a tandem-wing configuration ofdiamond planform, with the tips joined byvertical surfaces, the D-1 is powered by anengine of up to 2.9 kW, and is designed toachieve a 20-hour endurance with its max-imum payload of 4.5 kg. It first flew in Sep-tember 2000 and is aimed at a unit price of$ 50,000 including autopilot.

Lighter still is the 18 kg ScanEagle,derived from the earlier Insitu Seascan,which in 1998 made a transatlantic cross-ing from Newfoundland to Scotland, cov-ering over 3000 km. In July 2003, Boeingand the Insitu Group signed a long-termcontract to collaborate on the ScanEagle,an effort which could run for up to tenyears. This follows an earlier agreementon the development of three prototypes,the first of which flew on 19 June 2002.The ScanEagle has already demonstratedan endurance of more than 15 hours, andlater members of the family (weighing upto 45 kg) are expected to achieve over 48hours. It is launched from a pneumaticcatapult and recovered by a patented

SkyHook system, in which differentialGPS guidance allows the drone to engageits wingtip hook with a vertical ropehanging from a pole 15 metres high. Thissystem is intended to allow the air vehicleto operate from forward fields or smallnaval vessels.

Another company active in the light-weight Male field is Australia's Aerosonde(which is 25 per cent owned by Saab Sys-tems), whose Mk I became in August 1998the first drone to fly across the NorthAtlantic, covering 3270 km in 26 hr 45 min.The current Aerosonde Mk III has a 15 kggross weight, a 1.25-kW engine, a span of2.9 metres, a maximum payload of 5 kgand a maximum altitude of 21,000 ft. It isaimed at a range of 4000 km and anendurance of over 40 hours. TheAerosonde is a possible candidate for theUS Pacific Air Forces Weather-Scoutdrone programme, for watching tropicalcyclones from airfields in Alaska, Guam,Korea and Okinawa. Australia's DefenceScience and Technology Organisation haspurchased six Aerosonde Mk IIIs, some ofwhich were deployed to the SolomonIslands in 2003 to provide surveillance andcommunications relay facilities for groundforces sent to assist local authorities.

I n February 2004, Australia announcedthat it would spend one billion of its dol-lars ($ 770 million) to procure a

squadron of drones to handle the maritimepatrol, land surveillance and intelligencegathering roles. The requirement is for ahigh-altitude, long-endurance aircraft ableto enter service between 2009 and 2011,and although the contractor and sensorpayload have yet to be chosen, it is likelythat the winning design will be fitted witha Synthetic Aperture Radar (Sar).

One likely candidate for the order mustbe the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 GlobalHawk. In his announcement of the pro-posed procurement – part of Australia’s

Defence Capability Plan 2004 to 2014 –Australian Defence Minister Robert Hillhighlighted the success that the GlobalHawk has had during American opera-tions in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Afghan «SarLines»The Global Hawk has already demonstrat-ed its usefulness to the Australian armedforces. In the summer of 2001 a GlobalHawk flew eleven demonstration missionsover Australia and the surrounding seas,allowing that nation to evaluate its abilityto meet a Royal Australian Air Forcestrategic surveillance requirement.

The aircraft’s definitive sensor suite iscurrently a Raytheon (originally Hughes)package known as the Integrated SensorSuite (ISS).This teams electro-optical andinfrared sensors with a Sar whose gim-balled antenna scans from either side ofthe vehicle. A plan to replace the currentSar by a new variant of the RaytheonAsars-2 as carried by the Lockheed Mar-tin U-2S reconnaissance aircraft has beenreported. Around 2009 the Global Hawkis due to receive an active electronicallyscanned array (Aesa) Sar created underthe Multi-Platform Radar TechnologyInsertion Program (MP-Rtip).

WatchkeeperAs these words were being written inearly February 2004, Britain was about toselect a consortium to develop and sup-ply UAVs to meet the Watchkeeper


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

requirement. Currently the main Britishdrone project, the Watchkeeper is intend-ed to support land forces. Due to reach aninitial operating capability in early 2006,Watchkeeper is expected to have a serv-ice life of 30 years.

Following the successful use ofunmanned aircraft in Afghanistan, theUnited Kingdom decided to acceleratethe Watchkeeper programme, downse-lecting two consortia to proceed to thenext phase of the project, and setting up anew joint service trials unit to begin test-ing prototypes of the system.

BAE Systems, Lockheed Martin,Northrop Grumman and Thales all tookpart in the first stage of the AssessmentPhase. Northrop Grumman IntegratedSystems and Thales (UK) were selectedto continue through to the System Inte-gration Assurance Phase, which wasintended to prove the integrated capabil-ity of the proposed system and to providethe customer with a high degree of confi-dence that the chosen design could bedelivered on time and within budget.

Thales has teamed with Elbit Systems(air vehicles element), LogicaCMG (dig-ital battlespace integration), Cubic(datalinks), Vega (training) and MarshallSV (vehicles and shelters). Tamam,Thales Optronics/Elop and L3 Wescamcompeted for the task of providing theelectro-optic sensor package. Boeing hasrecently joined the team to provide itsknow-how in terms of interoperability.Other team members are QinetiQ,Supacat, Praxis and a number of ThalesUK companies.

Two designs, based on Elbit’s Hermes180 and 450, are being offered by theThales-led consortium:� the WK 180 air vehicle offers fieldreconfigurable payload and launchoptions, allowing a choice of ramp/para-chute & airbags, ramp/short strip orstrip/strip launch and recovery, it isdesigned to be air-transportable as a single C130 load, and able to be opera-tional within an hour of arriving at itsoperational area, the normal payload islikely to combine an electro-optical suitewith a laser marker.� the larger WK450 air vehicle hasalmost twice the endurance of theWK180, but carries multiple payloadsincluding a latest state-of-the-art EltaELM 2055 Sar/GMTI radar (as seen in

the picture at left). Capable of fullyautonomous ramp or runway launch, itshares many common subsystems andavionics with the WK180, and will beC130 deployable.

Vertical PotentialNorthrop Grumman Integrated Systemsevaluated the ability of severalunmanned systems to meet the Watch-keeper requirements, including its verti-cal takeoff and landing RQ-8A FireScout. At the 2003 Paris Air Show, thecompany announced that it had complet-ed the integration and end-to-end airvehicle/payload testing of a GeneralAtomics AN/APY-8 tactical syntheticaperture radar on the Fire Scout. (TheAN/APY-8 was originally developed foruse on the General Atomics Predator,and is described later in this article.)

The Fire Scout had been fitted with theAN/APY-8 gimballed antenna assemblyand radar electronics assembly, an inde-pendent Global Positioning System and aNorthrop Grumman-designed and -quali-fied Sar/MTI interface unit intended toallow control of the radar via the UAV’sexisting tactical command data link.

The radar would enhance the FireScout's ability to perform missions dayand night in all weather conditions, whileincreasing the system's search volumeand detection range; this explained byTom Soard, Northrop Grumman's FireScout programme manager.

The tests carried out to meet the Watch-keeper requirement were intended toachieve the following:demonstrate that theperformance of the radar was not degrad-ed by its installation on a rotary-wing vehi-cle, display and record Sar imagery at theFire Scout ground control station, demon-strate ground moving target indicator func-tionality and to simultaneously operate thebaseline Fire Scout electro-optical suiteSar/MTI payloads during missions.

Should the Fire Scout be chosen, thepossibility of a limited shipboard deploy-ment of the system would increase, butthe Watchkeeper would still be intendedto support the land-based rather than themaritime component commander.

Tight UK defence funding rules outthe development of a purely maritimeUAV. While there is no plan to baseWatchkeepers aboard Royal Navy ships,it is planned that LPD/LPH vessels willhave facilities to access or control the

vehicle’s sensor payload. This capability,however, has not yet been funded.

Another Lynx/Fire Scout applicationis the US Army’s Future Combat System(FCS) programme. Boeing has awardedNorthrop Grumman an eight-year, $ 115-million contract for the system develop-ment and demonstration phase of theFCS UAV project. During this phase,Northrop Grumman's Integrated Sys-tems sector will produce seven RQ-8BFire Scout air vehicles, perform systemtests and evaluations and help developlong-lead future requirements.

The RQ-8B air vehicles will feature anew four-blade rotor system (versus theRQ-8A's three-blade design), and willinclude improved airfoil blades and sev-eral performance enhancements that willgive them more than eight hoursendurance with a 59 kg payload.

Company-sponsored engineering testssuggest that the new rotor will triple theFire Scout's maximum payload capacity to272 kg, double its on-station time at 110nm with a 90 kg payload and increase itsability to carry multiple payloads.

In July and October of 2003, the three-bladed RQ-8A air vehicle flew 13 flightscarrying the General Atomics Lynx Sarwith Ground Moving Target Indicator(GMTI) the baseline electro-optical/infrared/laser designator rangefinder anda communications relay payload – givinga combined payload weight of approxi-mately 195 kg.

New LinksThe original Sar carried by the GeneralAtomics Predator was the NorthropGrumman AN/ZPQ-1 Tactical EnduranceSynthetic Aperture Radar (Tesar).Designed to provide critical intelligenceof enemy ground forces and bomb dam-age assessment, this 75 kg J-band unitoperates in Sar strip map, Sar spot mapand MTI modes, providing high-resolu-tion imagery in poor weather conditions,up to four mm/hr of rain with low cloudcover through smoke, haze and fog.

Northrop Grumman has delivered 54Tesar systems and 10 ground radar dis-plays. Additional capability for movingtarget indication has been developed anddemonstrated for potential retrofit intothe 80 systems under contract. Anupgrade to a Power PC-based processorhas been developed to allow users toincorporate improved capabilities.

These Sar strip (left) and Sar spot (right) images from an IAI Elta EL/M-2055 showsmall and medium-sized aircraft.The Elbit Hermes 450 was also recently flight-testedwith the EL/M 2055.

Eads is promoting the Eagle UAV (aversion of the IAI Heron) to itsEuropean customers. (IAI Malat)


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

General Atomics offers its Lynx Sar/GMTI radar for use on the Predator andother aircraft. The Lynx uses Sar/GMTItechnology developed by the US Depart-ment of Energy’s Sandia National Labo-ratories. General Atomics funded Sandiato develop and deliver two prototype unitswith the associated software code. Theseradars included extensive developmentinstrumentation and weighed 220 kg.

In developing the design into produc-tion hardware, General Atomics reducedthe weight to 52 kg.To allow the Lynx to becarried by General Atomics’ Prowler II,the company further trimmed the radar’sweight to about 45 kg.This modified designretains the resolution of the basic versionbut has a slightly reduced radar range. TheLynx can provide its output in a variety offormats and is thus compatible with com-monly used transmission links. If required,its imagery can be transmitted directly intothe cockpit of tactical aircraft.

The Lynx already offers a coherentchange detection mode that operates innear-real time, allowing it to detect verysmall changes in the scene from one passto another over the same area. Furtherupgrades could include an inverse Sarmode for imaging of seaborne targets,interferometric Sar for three-dimension-al imaging, enhanced GMTI and the abil-ity to cue other sensors. Additional cog-nitive enhancements are planned tomake the radar image more easily under-standable, including an eventual incorpo-ration of automatic target recognition

The Lynx has undergone tests involv-ing General Atomics’ Athena RF tag.Designed to work with the Lynx andother radars to provide blue-force track-ing and combat ID, the Athena tag hasalready been successfully trialled withthe Jstars. The company is now exploringthe tag’s potential interoperability withthe British Astor. Tags could also beattached to a target by ground units suchas Special Forces.

From DronelandIn December 2002, the US Army award-ed AAI an $ 86 million contract for full-rate production of an initial nine RQ-7AShadow 200 Tactical UAV (TUAV) sys-

tems, six attrition air vehicles and associ-ated equipment. The first UAV manufac-tured under this contract was delivered inthe autumn of 2003.

The US Army plans to field at least 41brigade-level RQ-7A Shadow 200 sys-tems, each of which include four air vehi-cles, two ground control stations, twoground data terminals, a portable GCS, alauncher, a tactical automatic landing sys-tem and arresting gear.

The RQ-7A will carry a Ku-bandradar currently under development byNorthrop Grumman as a derivative ofthe AN/ZPQ-1 used on the Predator.

The Shadow 400 is a slightly larger ver-sion designed for naval applications. The(265 kg gross take-off weight) Shadow 600has an endurance of 12 to 14 hours carry-ing a 41 kg payload. It is powered by theUAV Engines AR801 52 hp engine.

In 2003, the Hunter successfullydemonstrated enhanced reconnaissancecapabilities during a series of operationalmissions flown by the US Army at FortHuachuca, Arizona from 8 to 14 May.The tests were co-sponsored by the Army'sUnmanned Aerial Vehicle and Roboticsand Unmanned Sensors programmeoffices.The demonstration culminated in amission involving two Hunters, one carry-ing the Northrop Sar and moving targetindicator and the other equipped with theHunter's standard electro-optical/ infraredpayload. Using the radar's ability to togglebetween synthetic aperture imaging andmoving target detection modes, plus sen-sor cross-cueing techniques, operators

were able to survey the entire target areaand then positively identify them with thesecond Hunter’s EO/IR sensor.

The EL/M-2055 Sar developed byIAI’s Elta subsidiary has been flight-test-ed on a number of drones, including theIAI/Eads Eagle 1 (basically the IsraeliHeron) offered to the French Air Force,the IAI Hermes 450 and the MalatSearcher II.A derivative of Elta’s EL/M-2060P pod-mounted Sar/MTI radar usedby the Israeli Air Force on F-16 fighters,the EL/M-2055, is available in two ver-sions – a 36 kg system intended for use ontactical drones, and a 66 kg version formedium-endurance systems. Power con-sumption of these variants are 700 and1100 Watts respectively.

The Hermes 450 was selected by theUS Joint Unmanned Aerial VehiclesJoint Test & Evaluation Program Officeas a testbed for the investigation anddevelopment of future UAV tactics, tech-niques and procedures. Operating fromNaval Air Station Fallon, Nevada in late2003, the Hermes 450 conducted 26 con-secutive flights without a missed sortie,and eight fully mission-capable flights inthe first seven days of field testing.

European LeadersWhen the Royal Danish Air Force select-ed the Sagem Sperwer, it announced thatthe system would carry a camera plus ahigh-resolution Sagem infrared camera,but the integration of a Sar was planned toallow all-weather operation.

Some two years ago, Sagem announcedtwo new drones to form a Sperwer familysuffixed HV and LE (respectively for highvelocity and long endurance), both able tocarry a Sar, a high performance electro-optical suite (such as a line scanner or gim-balled pod) or a laser designator. Key tothe family expansion idea was the use of acommon launcher and ground station forall Sperwers. However, following Sagem’stight links with Dassault in the field oflarger and attack drones, the forward-swept wing and canard controlled HVproject was cancelled, leaving the familygrowth role to the Sperwer LE, which isable to cruise for up to twelve hours at analtitude of 20,000 ft.

Rheinmetall Defence Electronics alsouses synthetic aperture radar technologyin the all-weather seeker head of its Taifun.

The all-weather seeker head of the Rheinmetall Defence Technologies (formerly STNAtlas) Taifun UAV uses Sar technology to detect potential ground targets beforebeginning its diving attack. (Armada/DR)

A deep canoefairing under theforward fuselage ofthe Global Hawkcan carry theantennas of Sarradars and otherelectronic sensors.(Northrop Grumman)


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

Being half a drone and half a missile theTaifun is an unusual species.Once the vehi-cle has reached the designated engage-ment area, the Sar enters a high-resolutionsearch mode. Potential targets are com-pared and correlated with a pre-definedtarget database. Any targets found areselected automatically by the mission pro-gram.An HF datalink is used to send infor-mation concerning air vehicle status andtarget acquisition to the ground controlstation, but a UHF datalink is used totransfer radar images of current potentialtargets to the ground allowing targets to beselected by an operator. Once an attackdecision is made, the Taifun is committedto a steep dive. Although this is flown athigh speed, the air vehicle can be manoeu-vred to hit the optimal location on the tar-get.The warhead is triggered at an optimaldistance to allow penetration of heavilyarmoured targets. It also releases frag-ments in a radial pattern.

Another potential Sar carrier is theNibbio from Galileo.The company, whichrecently took over the Meteor company,has decided to create a high subsonicreconnaissance drone demonstratorbased on a well-proven platform – theMirach 100/5 – as part of a contract issuedby the Italian Ministry of Defence.Named after the kite (the bird of prey inItalian), the Nibbio is expected to per-form its maiden flight, test and qualifica-tion flights by the end of 2005 in order tobe ready for production by mid-2006.Being powered by a turbojet engine, theNibbio is aimed at meeting a requirementfor deep penetration and fast reconnais-sance missions over heavily protectedhigh value targets.

While the Nibbio is being developed asa ground or sea-launched vehicle with

recovery by parachute, interestinglyenough, Galileo is also considering aircraftlaunch options. If the latter really materi-alises (qualifying the bird on any given air-craft is a challenge in itself), it will obvi-ously help save on-board fuel for longerrange operations on the way out and allowthe drone to return to its planned recoveryarea, particularly at sea. The drone isdesigned as a platform for a wide range ofsensors; while electro-optical suites such asinfrared line scanners and cameras almostsound like obvious payloads, elint and syn-thetic aperture radar capabilitiesannounced by the manufacturer con-tribute to turn it into a very sophisticatedsystem. Data is transmitted as soon as theaircraft is able to establish a line-of-sightcontact with a surface station. Being a highvalue platform, the Nibbio would also beequipped with a self-protection suite con-sisting of chaff and flare launchers trig-gered by a threat warning system.

Resolute to ResolveSynthetic aperture radars must rely onhigh-capacity datalinks to transmit theirhigh-resolution imagery to the ground.Distributing this imagery to the front-lineunits that need it will not be easy, given thenarrow bandwidth of tactical communica-tions channels. Image compression algo-rithms reduce the amount of data thatneeds to be transmitted in order to send apicture, but these are often ‘lossy’ andreduce the quality of the final image.

Perhaps the best-known ‘lossy’ algo-rithm is the Joint Photographic ExpertsGroup (Jpeg) standard widely used tosend pictures over the Internet. As manycomputer users realise, the greater thedegree of compression, the poorer the

Volume 28, No. 3, June/July 2004

ARMADA INTERNATIONALis published bimonthly in Zurich, Switzerland.Copyright 2004 by Internationale Armada Aktien-gesellschaft, Aeulestrasse 5, FL-9490 Vaduz,Principality of Liechtenstein

Head Office: ARMADA INTERNATIONALThurgauerstrasse 39, CH-8050 Zurich/SwitzerlandPhone: (+41 1) 308 50 50, Fax: (+41 1) 308 50 55e-mail: [email protected] Web Site: www.armada.ch Publisher: Caroline SchweglerPublishing Director: Peter StierlinEditor-in-Chief: Eric H. BiassEditor: Johnny KegglerArt Work: Johnny KegglerRegular Contributors: Roy Braybrook, Doug Richardson,Brian WaltersAdministration: Thomas Schneider, Marie-Louise Huber

Advertising offices:Austria,Finland,Germany,Scandinavia,Switzerland,SpainHans-Ruedi Fröhlich, Franz-Rittmeyer-Weg 5,CH-6300 Zug/SwitzerlandPhone: (+41 41) 760 72 78, Fax: (+41 41) 760 72 79e-mail: [email protected]

France, Belgium, The Netherlands, LuxemburgPeter Stierlin, Thurgauerstrasse 39, CH-8050 ZurichPhone: (+41 1) 308 5050

United Kingdom Aerospace Media, Michael Elmes,Flatford Lane, East Bergholt, Colchester CO7 6UJ, EnglandPhone: +44 (0) 1206 299211, Fax: +44 (0) 1206 299212e-mail: [email protected] of Independent States (CIS) LAGUK Co. Ltd., Yuri Laskin, Novoriazanskaya Street 31/7,App. 96, RF-107060 Moscow, Russian Federation; Phone:(+7 095) 912 1346, Fax: (+7 095) 912 1260e-mail: [email protected] – Special Reports Gene Selven & Associates, Inc., GeneSelven, Kim Newman, 7291 Coronado Drive, Suite 8, San Jose,CA 95129, Phone: (408) 996 7400, Fax: (408) 996 7871e-mail: [email protected]

Western USA – West of the Mississippi RiverDiane Obright,810 Val Sereno DriveOlivenhain, CA 92024,Phone: (858) 759 3557, Fax: (858) 759 3552e-mail: [email protected] USA – East of the Mississippi RiverMargie Brown & Associates, Margie Brown,4775 Mallard Court,Warrenton, Virginia 20187-2500 Phone: (540) 341 7581, Fax: (540) 341 7582,e-mail: [email protected]

All other countries: contact the Head Office.Annual subscription rates: Europe: SFr. 132 + 24 (post)

Overseas: US$ 132 + 24 (post)

Controlled circulation: 22.791,certified by ABC/WEMF, valid from29 April 2003

Printed by Karl Schwegler AG, CH-8050 ZurichISO 9001 certifiedISSN: 0252-9793 USPS 574450

By using image sharpening in spotdwell mode, the General Atomics Lynxradar can pick out fine detail such asthe gun barrels on these fightingvehicles. (General Atomics)

Sukhoi is looking at various drone configurations; one of the Sar applications could bea BLA-1 derivative of this AEW BLA-2 with an underbelly gondola to house thesynthetic aperture radar instead of the spine radome seen here. (Armada/EHB)

quality of the final image, while resaving(and thus recompressing) a Jpeg imagecan create even greater degradation.

Newer algorithms may offer a solution.For example, in a project sponsored by theUS Defense Advanced Research ProjectsAgency, a team of SAIC researchers ledby Dr John Irvine have tested the ability ofmilitary imagery analysts to extract intelli-gence from Sar radar imagery compressedat ratios of 50-to-1 and 100-to-1 by severalimage compression techniques, includingintelligent bandwidth compression,wavelet/ trellis-coded quantisation andJpeg. Their experiments suggest that boththe intelligent bandwidth compressionand wavelet/trellis-coded quantizationtechniques could provide images of valueto a tactical user.

Whether a UAV is considered anexpendable or attritable asset depends ona number of factors.The greater the cost ofthe vehicle, the less likely to operator willbe to risk its loss. During combat opera-tions, cost may give way to operationalurgency – at least one combat loss of aPredator was the result of the system beingoperated in a manner which seemed likelyto result in its destruction in order to sup-port the recovery of a downed airman.

While rating UAVs as attritable ornon-attritable purely in terms of cost isoverly simplistic, the fact remains thatSar-equipped drones are likely to bemore expensive than their electro-opticalpayload counterparts. The door to air-borne countermeasures is open. a

ABC


Three "D" Missions –Dull, Dirty

Made feasible by emerging technologies, combat drones may be forced on tra-ditionally reluctant and pilot-dominated air forces as a result of heightened andadditional threats to human aircrews. How the first generation is likely to beemployed may best be predicted by reviewing progress in America.

Boeing X-45A duringmaiden flight

Roy Braybrook

T he history of warfare has been one oftechnology-driven transformations.For example, the Soviet use in air

combat of laser ranging in combinationwith an infrared search and track deviceinitially raised Western concerns thatlasers might be used with devastatingeffects, blinding opposing pilots. In reali-ty, current airborne equipment is evident-ly eye-safe, and modern visors may protect against likely fighter-bornethreats, but the potential for pilots beingblinded by more powerful ground- orship-based radars is very real.

In the 1970s, Britain developed aLaser Dazzle Sight (LDS), initially toprotect Royal Navy vessels againstharassment by multiple light attack craft.The LDS (informally referred to as "TheFlasher") equipped a number of RoyalNavy frigates deployed to the Falklandsin 1982, and were used with limited suc-cess to deter Argentine A-4 pilots frommaking low level attacks. However, therewas reportedly some concern in Britainthat LDS contravened the Geneva Con-vention and was subsequently withdrawnfrom RN service in 1995.

It may also be noted that in the 1987edition of its Soviet Military Power pub-lication the Pentagon complained thatthe Soviet Sovremennyy-class destroyer

had used lasers to dazzle the crews ofshadowing Western patrol aircraft, withpossible long-term effects on eyesight. Itwas stated in SMP that the Soviets hadconcentrated on gas-dynamic and elec-tric discharge lasers of up to tenmegawatts, but were trailing the West inattaining high power outputs with chem-ical lasers.

Blinding laser weapons may be illegal,but as long as there are nations that donot respect the rules they will remain apotential threat to manned aircraft. Itmay be conjectured that, if protectionagainst high-powered lasers were to beprovided in the form of coatings forvizors and cockpit enclosures, then theloss of transparency would seriouslyinterfere with pilot effectiveness.

If human dependency on vision isundesirably susceptible to countermea-sures, this is only one aspect of our fragili-ty. It may be technically possible formanned aircraft to be operated for shortperiods in an NBC (nuclear, biological orchemical) environment, but the cumber-some protective clothing required seriously restricts the pilot's ability tofunction. In contrast, a drone is unaffect-ed by most environmental problems,although it would have to be decontami-nated on return to its base (a process thatlends itself to automation), and its designshould minimise EMP (electro-magneticpulse) effects.

Despite the ending of the Cold War,recent years have witnessed majoradvances in Integrated Air Defence Systems (IADS), which threaten a sub-stantial increase in aircraft attrition. Inaddition, Russian surface-to-air missilesare offering large scale increases in firingrange, and they are being marketedaround the world.

Com

ple

te G

uid

e

and Dangerous!

«Blinding laser weaponsmay be illegal, but as longas there are nations that donot respect the rules theywill remain a potential

threat to manned aircraft.»

The S-300P (SA-10) developed byAlmaz (now merged into the Almaz-Antey Air Defence Concern) enteredservice in 1980, but the first export deriva-tive was the S-300PMU1 with Fakel 48N6Emissiles increasing range to 150 km. In1994, the first export contract was signedwith China, and this model was subse-quently sold to Cyprus,Vietnam and India.The S-300PMU2 with Fakel 48N6E2Favorit missiles further extended firingrange to 200 km. China purchased thisvariant in 2001. Later systems are reportedas the S-300PMU3 or S-400 (SA-20), the S-450 and S-500, gradually increasing max-imum range to the order of 400 km.

Although the driving force behindrecent Russian developments in long-range defensive missiles may have been


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

to counter ballistic and cruise missiles,they also pose a new level of threat tomanned aircraft. The Russian Air Forcehas stated that during trials the Favoritmissile defeated a ballistic target of onesquare metre radar cross-section,descending at 1600 m/sec. For such a Sam,taking out an E-3 must be like a day at thebeach. The inevitable result will be that,in a worst case scenario, non-attritableassets, such as AEW&C aircraft, will bepushed further back, hence theatre-widesituational awareness will be reduced andattrition rates for intruding aircraft willincrease. In summary, the future formanned combat aircraft has been placedseriously in doubt through a whole seriesof technological advances.

Lessons From AmericaIn considering how combat drones maybe employed operationally, there areundoubtedly lessons to be learned fromthe world-leading American pro-grammes, although these have been char-acterised by a series of major changes ofdirection.Those observers of the defencebusiness who believe that fighter pilots

belong in cockpits, and not behind deskswriting operational requirements, willhardly have been persuaded to changetheir views as a result of America's recordin the combat drone field.

The leading service in this context isthe US Air Force, which has been working

with Darpa (Defense Advanced ResearchProjects Agency) since the 1990s on anATD (Advanced Technology Demonstra-tion) programme to develop and test alow-cost Ucav (Unmanned Combat AirVehicle) designed for pre-emptive andreactive Sead (Suppression of Enemy AirDefences) missions against fixed andmobile targets. The underlying USAirForce philosophy is that its Ucav shouldbe completely autonomous from take-offto landing, but then human involvement isrequired in targeting, weapons deliveryand damage assessment.

In order to achieve earlier serviceentry, the Air Force subsequently deletedthe requirement for reactive Sead, butthen it added an electronic attack mission(to partly replace the EA-6B).The servicelater increased radius and endurancedemands in order to perform the strategiclethal strike and non-lethal intelligence,surveillance and reconnaissance missions.The latter change made it necessary toplace fuel in the wings, forcing the AirForce to abandon its original long-termstorage (Ucav-in-a-box) approach.

Shown here undergoing electromagnetic interference tests, the Boeing X-45A Ucav is,in comparison, a small aircraft, comparable in weight and thrust to the company's T-45 Goshawk trainer. (Boeing)

The Boeing X-45A is powered by a Honeywell F124 turbofan (as in the AeroVodochody L159 trainer), exhausting through a 'letterbox' nozzle that also providesthe aircraft’s yaw control. (Boeing)

The Boeing X-45C, designed to meet US Air Force Ucav and (more recently) J-Ucasrequirements, is almost three times as heavy as the X-45A and employs a differentplanform. (Boeing)

In FY1999, Boeing Phantom Workswas selected to design and build two X-45A (Spiral 0) flight vehicles under aUcav programme jointly funded by theUS Air Force, Darpa and the contractor.The first X-45A flew on 22 May 2002 andthe second followed on 21 November2002. By 28 February 2003 they had completed all Block 1 demonstrations,including 16 flights amounting to almost13 flying hours. The X-45A showed anautonomous ability to taxi safely, toreturn to base and land in the event of lossof communications with the ground sta-tion, and to perform 'four-dimensional'navigation based on time-of-arrival com-mands. This would be an essential featurein the formation of flight packages and inmaking co-ordinated attacks.

Block 2 demonstrations began in Feb-ruary, 2003, using a T-33 ‘Ucav Surrogate’aircraft that is equipped with avionicsrepresentative of the X-45A, and whichcan be flown manually if required. Thepurpose was to show successful integra-


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

tion with manned aircraft operations byan autonomous unmanned aircraft, flyingpre-planned routes but with changesinserted via Link-16 from the ground sta-tion to satisfy requests from ATC (AirTraffic Control).

The X-45A is a small aircraft with agross weight of 5530 kg, powered by aHoneywell F124 turbofan. Lacking a vertical tail, it employs lateral thrust vec-toring for yaw control. Its shape was dic-tated by stealth considerations, but itsconstruction does not employ specialmaterials or structure. The X-45A wasdesigned for long-term storage and to beassembled and prepared for combat in 60to 90 minutes. Given this wartime-onlyoperating concept, with 'dry' wings forease is disassembly, the operational ver-sion was expected to cost up to 65 percent less to produce than a futuremanned fighter, and up to 75 per cent lessto operate and maintain.

The X-45A was probably sized to suitthe F124 engine, giving a thrust/weightratio of approximately 0.50. However, theresult was an aircraft with an emptyweight of only 3630 kg, which is half the

weight of a Gripen, and implies a war-load-radius performance of negligiblemilitary value.

By the time the first X-45A had flown,Darpa and the Air Force were alreadythinking of a much larger fieldable proto-type with a gross weight of 9500 kg (70per cent up) and an enlarged weaponsbay providing options that includedtwelve SDBs (Small Diameter Bombs),two Boeing Mk 83 Jdams (Joint DirectAttack Munition), an auxiliary fuel tankor a directed energy weapon. As theresulting X-45B concept developed, thedecision was made to switch from theF124 to the General Electric F404-GE-102D engine, and gross weight grew to9700 kg. The first three baseline Block 10X-45Bs were to fly in FY2005, leading tooperational evaluation of up to 14 exam-ples in FY2008. The Block 20, equippedfor reactive defence suppression, was tofly in FY2009, and the Block 30, with pro-visions for a directed energy weapon, wasplanned for around FY2011. However, inearly 2003, looking to satisfy a forthcom-

ing joint service requirement, the X-45Bwas cancelled in favour of an even largerX-45C, with a gross weight of around15,875 kg, representing another increaseof almost 70 per cent.

It may be noted that Boeing andRaytheon had jointly proposed an 'A-45'

Aircraft X-47A X-45A X-45B X-45C

ManufacturerNorthropGrumman

Boeing Boeing Boeing

Engine P&WCJT15D-5C

HoneywellF124-GA-100

General ElectricF404-GE-102D

General ElectricF404-GE-102D

Thrust [kN] 14.19 28.02 48.93 48.93

Max weight [kg] 2932 5530 9700 15,875

Empty weight [kg] 2216 3630 6350 7485

Fuel weight [kg] 716 1220 2450 6350

Payload [kg] n/a 680 900 2040

Length [m] 8.50 8.08 10.97 11.89

Span [m] 8.47 10.32 14.33 14.94

This 'skeleton' view of the Boeing X-45C illustrates a typical warload oftwo 900 kg Jdams, fuel arrangements(limited to facilitate wing fold) and aflattened nozzle. (Boeing)

The layout of the Northrop Grumman X-47A Pegasus demonstrates that the companyexpected the Ucav-N to take the form of a small, stealthy aircraft for various Sead andstrike missions. (Northrop Grumman)

Payload options for the X-45C includeeight SDBs (or twelve with new racks),two Mk 82/83/84 Jdams, twointernal tanks and a 'missionisedpayload'. (Boeing)

electronic attack variant, although thisconflicted with Boeing's efforts to winfunding for the EA-18G version of the(manned) Super Hornet.

The US Navy has trailed behind theUS Air Force in combat drone develop-ment. In FY2003 the Navy spent nothingon this category of RDT&E (Research,Development, Testing and Evaluation),compared to $ 57 million by the Air Forceand $ 63 million by Darpa. The FY2004requests were $ 57 million for the Navy,$ 182 million for the Air Force and $ 36million for Darpa.

Nevertheless, in July 2000, believing ina longer-term need for a stealthy Ucav-Nfor the strike and Sead roles, NorthropGrumman launched as a private venturethe diminutive X-47A Pegasus technolo-gy demonstrator, with a P&WC JT15D-5C turbofan and a gross weight of 2930 kg.Built by Scaled Composites, the X-47A is a tailless trapezoidal designwith a dorsal intake hidden behind a

Comparison of Combat Drone Demonstrators


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

bulge that might house a sat-com anten-na. The project was to make use of anSRGPS (Shipboard Relative GPS) sys-tem, giving a positional accuracy of 40 cmin automated landings. Although rolledout on 30 July 2001, the X-47A did not flyuntil 23 February 2003, when it demon-strated low-speed handling and a simu-lated carrier landing using SRGPS.

One reason for the company's lack ofurgency may have been that by early 2001US Navy Ucav-N thinking was emphasis-ing a need to perform a twelve-hour surveillance mission at over 1000 kmradius, a mission that was given at least asmuch importance as carrying a warloadof 1800 kg over that distance. Aside fromcoming as an obvious surprise toNorthrop Grumman, whose low aspectratio design was clearly unsuited to loi-tering, the underlying philosophy repre-sented a new departure in combat dronethinking. Instead of using the advantagesof an unmanned design to achieve amajor reduction in vehicle size, the Navyproposed to use those advantages mainlyto achieve an increase in performanceover existing manned aircraft. The serv-ice nevertheless hoped its Ucav-N wouldprovide a 33 per cent reduction in fly-away cost relative to an F-35, and a 50 percent reduction in operating and supportcosts relative to an F/A-18C.

Beginning in 2000, the Navy hadawarded small Ucav-N study contracts to

Northrop Grumman and Boeing, leadingto a design contest between the X-47Band X-46, larger derivatives of the X-47and X-45A technology demonstrators. Inmid-2003 Darpa awarded NorthropGrumman a $ 160 million contract to pro-duce two full-scale X-47Bs.

Joint, to a PointIn October 2003, the Darpa/US Air ForceUcav and the Darpa/US Navy Ucav-Nprogrammes were combined in the J-Ucas (Joint Unmanned Combat Air

Systems). This is to demonstrate the fea-sibility, utility and value of a networkedsystem of high performance, weaponiseddrones designed for the Sead, surveil-lance and precision strike roles. The twoservices have agreed on performanceobjectives that include a 2400 km radiuswith 2040 kg warload, and two hours onstation at 1850 km radius.

The US Air Force sees the J-Ucas asperforming a first-day-of-war Sead mis-sion with lethal and non-lethal means insupport of manned strike packages, andthereafter providing "continuous vigi-lance with an immediate lethal strikecapability". Following the conflict it couldfly peacekeeping missions. For example, itcould assist in enforcing 'no-fly' zones byeliminating the threat of enemy Sam systems to friendly manned aircraft.

The US Navy sees the J-Ucas as ini-tially providing penetrating surveillance,reconnaissance and targeting to comple-ment manned assets and precision strikeweapons. However, to justify its space onthe carrier, it would also be capable ofstrike and Sead missions.The Navy's con-cept of using J-Ucas primarily as a long-range sensor platform appears to reduce

Seen landing after its first flight, the X-47A is clearly designed for stealth, although itsundercarriage doors lack the usual serrated outline. (Northrop Grumman)

The US Navy's steadfast demand for long range and increased endurance in its Ucavvariant forced a rethink at Northrop Grumman, which lead to the X-47B with anincreased aspect ratio. Note the deeper intake. (Northrop Grumman)

dependence on the land-based MMA(Multi-mission Maritime Aircraft), whichwill probably take the form of a combi-nation of manned aircraft and drones.This apparent demotion of MMA may bea reflection of America's reducing num-ber of overseas land bases.

Under the new joint programme, thetwo Boeing X-45As and the NorthropGrumman X-47A demonstrators formSpiral 0 of J-Ucas, to be followed as Spi-ral 1 by the larger, stealthy X-45C and X-47B, which are to fly in 2006, and willhave significant warload, range andendurance. The navalised X-45CN is dueto fly in early 2007. Lockheed Martin andPratt & Whitney have now joined theNorthrop Grumman team. Flight trials ofthe X-45A are planned to take place in aseries of stages, leading to Block 4 tests,which include multi-drone pre-emptiveSead. The demonstration programme isto be followed by operational assess-ments, beginning in FY2007 and provid-

An artist’s impression of the Northrop Grumman X-47B landing on a carrier, with two‘conventional’ Hornets (for which the company is principal subcontractor) waiting inthe background. (Northrop Grumman)


Com

ple

te G

uid

e

ing a basis for the development and vali-dation of J-Ucas requirements. The endproduct is referred to as the J-UcasObjective System.

It is noteworthy that in the USDefense Authorization Act for FY2001Congress set a goal, that by 2010 one-third of America's deep strike forceshould be unmanned, in order to savelives and reduce costs. That goal is nowunachievable, but the US will undoubted-ly lead the world in the deployment ofsuch vehicles.

UCARDarpa also has the lead for the earlystages of the US Army Ucar (UnmannedCombat Armed Rotorcraft) programme,which is aimed at demonstrating anaffordable vertical take-off and landingcombat drone system for the armedreconnaissance and attack roles. TheUcar is to have a flyaway cost equal toonly 20 to 40 per cent of that of an RAH-66, and operating and supportcosts between 20 and 50 per cent of thosefor the AH-64. It is required to identifyand engage masked ground targets at suf-ficient range to limit their threat tofriendly forces. The Ucar will employnap-of-the-earth autonomous flight inday/night adverse weather conditions(apparently relaxed in 2002 from allweather conditions), and will use bothlethal and non-lethal weapons. It isrequired to be capable of dynamic re-tasking and to be compatible in perform-ance with manned systems, reducing theirrisk level, and relieving them of the dull,dirty and most dangerous missions. Inter-nal armament of up to 450 kg is expectedto consist of APKWS (Advanced Preci-sion Kill Weapon System) 70 mm rockets,and Hellfire or JCM (Joint CommonMissile) anti-armour missiles, but there isas yet no decision on the use of a gun.

The Ucar is to be designed as non-expendable, to use heavy fuel/JP-8 andaccept command and control functionsfrom either a ground station or fromanother aircraft, such as an RAH-66 orthe UH-60-based A2C2S (Army Air-

borne Command and Control System). Itis to be suitable for global deployment aspart of the initial entry force package,andsafe to operate over populated areas andin controlled airspace. These drones areto operate in packs of four to eight, flyingand navigating autonomously, but attack-ing co-operatively. Weapons release is tobe authorised by manned assets.

Ucar is an eight-year, four-phase pro-gramme. In May 2002, Darpa and the USArmy selected four teams (Boeing, Lock-heed Martin/Bell, Northrop Grummanand Sikorsky/Raytheon) for the initialtwelve-month concept development andsystems trade-off phase. In July 2003,two teams (Lockheed Martin/Bell andNorthrop Grumman) were selected to per-form the 15-month Phase II, covering pre-liminary design. One of the losers appearsto be the Boeing X-50A Dragonfly CRW(Canard Rotor/Wing) project.

At the end of FY2004 a single team is tobe selected to perform the two remainingUcar phases. Phase III, covering systemdevelopment, will lead to first flight at the

end of FY2006, and will run to mid-FY2007. Phase IV, covering system matu-ration, will lead to first flight in lateFY2008 of a Ucar that will have around 70per cent commonality with the operationalvehicle. Subject to a favourable MilestoneB decision at the end of FY2009, the leadwill be transferred to the US Army for theSDD (Systems Design and Development)phase, leading to IOC (Initial OperationalCapability) in 2015.

The Ucar concept calls for massiveadvances in sensor performance, to allowtargets to be identified at two or threetimes present ranges. It is also to exhibit anextremely high degree of trusted autono-my.If the remotely-piloted Predator has anautonomy level of one, and a completelyautonomous drone has a level of ten, thenUcar will represent a figure of aroundeight. This compares to a level of three orfour for the Northrop Grumman RQ-8AFire Scout, which the US Army has select-ed as its Class IV UAV, to provide wide-area surveillance, target acquisition andcommunications relay facilities.

Both of the Ucar finalists employfaceted airframes that are reminiscent ofthe F-117. The Lockheed Martin/Bellproposal is a compound helicopter withswept stub wings, and a lateral jet at thetail to counter the torque of the four-blade rotor. The Northrop Grummanproject has twin intermeshing two-bladerotors similar to those of the K-Max pro-duced by Kaman, a member of the team.Other members include Sikorsky, L3Communications (for the datalink andnetworking), and BAE Systems(advanced mission management).

In summary, the leaders in this fieldsee the first generation of dedicated combat drones being restricted to air-to-surface missions in high threat environ-ments, with a trend to larger, non-attrita-ble air vehicles than was originallyplanned, arguably implying less expecta-tion of major cost savings. a

For the US Army's Ucar (Unmanned Combat Armed Rotorcraft) programme NorthropGrumman is teamed with, among others, Kaman, hence the use of intermeshing rotorsas seen on the K-Max. (Northrop Grumman)

Artist's impression of a future battlefield, in which Ucars are flying nap-of-the-earth andtaking data from ground-based and airborne assets to engage a variety of surfacetargets. (Northrop Grumman)

[armada international]-complete guide to unmanned air vehicles

Documents