areas of minor maintenance covered by this manual are--(1 ... · descriptors-building equipment,...
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 031 880 EF 002 316
Minor Maintenance. A Resource Manual for Custodians.Florida State Dept. of Education. Tallahassee.Pub Date [68]Note -197p.EDRS Price MF-50.75 HC-S9.95Descriptors-Building Equipment, Building Materials, *Bui!ding Operation, *Custodian Training, Electricity,*Maintenance, Painting. Plumbing. *School Buildings, Structural Building Systems
Areas of minor maintenance covered by this manual are--(1) electrical. (2)carpentry. (3) plumbing. (4) painting, and (5) masonry. Each area is defined, tools andequipment for maintenance are listed, and the job procedure is given. The descriptionof electrical work also covers sources of electricity and power transmission. Thedescription of plur'hing work includes pipes and pipe fittings. (LID)
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Pages 1,2,45,46,93,94,131,132,159,160191 and 192 contained duplicate titleheadings and have not been reproduced.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUClIONiii
CHAPTER I
Defining minor maintenanceCounty school policiesThe custodians duties
ELECTRICAL 1
Definitions 3
A. Understanding electricity 21
The atomThe electronPotential & voltageResistance & current flowConductors & insulators
B. Tools & equipment27
Electrical symbolsList of possible tasks
C. Sources of electricity 28
ChemicalMagnetismFrictionHeatLightPressure
D. Power transmission31
Generators and alternators
TransformersPower (watt) formulaFusing & distribution
E. Job procedure36
To replace a male plug
To wire a lamp socket
To replace a wall switch
To install a feed through switch
To replace a convenience outlet
To make a voltage tester
To test for opens & shorts
To change light bulbs or tubes
Wire splicing
CHAPTER II CARPENTRY 45
Definitions 47
A. Understanding carpentry
The maintenance manThe custodian
53
B. Tools and equipment 53
Hand toolsWork benchPower toolsNails and fasteners
C. Job procedure 72
CHAPTER III
To make cr repair shelvesTo repair furnitureTo repair joints_To replace window glassTo repair window cord & weightTo repair venetian blinds
PLUMBING 93
Definitions 95
A. Understanding plumbing 111
Water supplyWater controlWater disposal
B. Tools and equipment 116
C. Pipes and pipe fittings 116
Supply pipes (cold water)Waste pipesTraps and drains
D. Job procedure 123
To repair a leaky faucetTo repair a sloan flush valveTo repair parts of a toilet tankTo unstop toilets and drains
CHAPTER IV PAINTING 131
Definitions133
A. Understanding painting139
Exterior paintsInterior paintsEnamels & shellacsVarnish & stains
B. Tools & equipment144
BrushesScrapersSolvents etc.
C. Job procedure
CHAPTER V
To select type & color of finish
To repair a plaster wall
To repaint woodworkTo repaint a windowTo repaint exterior masonryTo apply varnishTo apply shellacTo apply metal coatings
Spray paintingTo apply penetrating seal
To apply floor varnish
To remove a finishCare of tools & equipment
146
MASONRY 159
Definitions161
A. Understanding masonry179
StoneMortarConcrete
B. Tools & equipment182
Metal toolsWood toolsLevel, plumb line etc.
C, Job procedure185
To mix concreteTo finish a slabTo cure concrete
To set bricks
mifolutAT.lom f&15. 14ELeFut_ HINTS 91
ACRICULEDGEf.EITTS
The materials in this manual were prepared by Mr. Walter E. Kowall,
Coordinator of Custodial and Maintenance Training, with the assistance
of Mr. Nelson E. Viles, Jr., Administrator, School Plant Management.
In the compilation of information, many publications were researched
to confirm consistent standards and good practice.
Appreciation is extended to the Florida School Plant Management
Association and the custodial training committee for their assistance.
The following publications have rendered an incalculable service in pro-
viding an excellent source of reference material.
A PRACTICAL MANUAL ON PENCIL SHARPENERS FOR CUSTODIANSHunt Manufacturing Co.
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES
SuffernMcGraw-Hill Book Company
BASIC ELECTRICITYHoward W. Sams and Company, Inc. The Bobbs -Merrill Company,
Inc.
CONCRETE BLOCK CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM
Dalzell & Townsend
ELECTRICITYGerrish
EXPLORATORY ELECTRICITYArnold and Schank
American Technical Society
Goodheart-Willcox Co.
McKnight & McKnightPublishing Company
FUNDAMENTALS OF APPLIED ELECTRICITY
JonesThe Bruce PublishingCompany
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITYCalvin C. Bishop
Chilton Company
INDUSTRIAL-ARTS ELECTRICITYLush & Engle Charles A. Bennett Co.,
Inc.
MASONRY SIMPLIFIEDDalzell & Townsend American Technical Society
MECHANICS ILLUSTRATED PLUMBING AND HEATING GUIDEPaul Villiard Fawcett Publications
Incorporated
MODERN GENERAL SHOPBrown, Gerrish, Wagner and Boyd Goodheart-Willcox Co.
POPULAR SCIENCEPopular Science PublishingCo., Inc.
SCHOOL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT HANDBOOKThe State Education Department The University of the
State of New York
WOODWORKING FOR INDUSTRYFeirer Charles A. Bennett Co.,
Inc.
WHAT PAINT TO USE...AND WHERE from NEW PAINTS GALORE"Excerpted by permission from CHANGING TIMES, the Kiplinger Magazine,
(June 1966 issue). Copyright 1966 by Kiplinger Washington Editors,Inc., 1729 H. Street, N.W., Washington, D. C. 20006."
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED
ByGI:um A. Eihaivt.c,1/4, Dior. 4 Rovitity.,,Klph,;0/r. (dashirj-on -Ecti4vrs , IvNe
TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OF
EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE
THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF
THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."
ii
INTRODUCTION
On the surface it would appear rather simple to arrive at a conmon
understanding concerning the duties of the custodian, and to compile a
list of duties for which he is paid to perform. Upon investigation, how-
ever, one discovers complexities in the areas of administrative structure,
philosophy, nomenclature, civil service, union restrictions, size of
school system, tax problems resulting in money available, the labor mar-
ket and the socio-economic structure of the community.
The large, highly diversified systems employ specialists in almost
every conceivable area of cleaning and maintaining a school plant. This
leads to a natural breakdown of the duties of each person under a spe-
cific classification. The large system also is subtect to Union demands
and Civil Service restrictions. Each person in such a system is classified
as to title, salary, hours, duties, etc. For example, custodial positions
in one large system under Civil Service are classified as follows.
1. Competitive Class
Building Maintenance Mechanic
Custodian
Custodian-Bus Driver
Head Custodian
Stationary Engineer
Steam Fireman
Superintendent of Buildings & Grounds
2. Non-competitive Class
Auto Mechanic
iii
Bus Driver Cleaner
Bus Driver Laborer
Carpenter
Electrician
General Mechanic
Head Maintenance Man
Painter
Plumber
3. Exempt Class
Cleaner
Groundsman
Laborer
School Caretaker
Watchman
The above list of employees have as their administrative leaders
an equally specialized group of people responsible for administering
the program. Compare this to a small county or system where there is
only one or possibly two classifications as follows:
1. Janitor
2. Mechanic
The Administrative structure to administer this program is usually
the School Superintendent and maybe one other school official such as
the purchasing Agent or Director of Special Services.
Bear in mind, both systems as illustrated have identical problems.
Each have school buildings, requiring cleaning, painting, plumbing,
iv
electrical and mechanical repairs as well as grounds to maintain. Each
has school buses, heating plants, mowers, trucks, etc. Each has the same
responsibility to provide educationalfacilities, and to protect the
investment.
It can be said that both systems meet their responsibilities, how-
ever the level or degree of satisfaction to health departments, building
inspectors, tax payers, children of the community, and local, state, and
federal standards may be questionable.
This is one reason for having schools ranging from excellent to
unsatisfactory. The comparison of these two systems is similar to com-
paring the General Practioners to the highly diversified specialists
in the various phases of medical treatment.
It is not intended to create the impression that the specialized
system is superior to the one or two man operation, provided the men are
qualified in the many overlapping areas for which they are employed.
If we are to come to a common ground on which to discuss MINOR MAIN-
TENANCE we have to decide first where custodial duties stop and mainten-
ance duties begin.
Custodial duties are generally classified as those day to day services
essential to the safety, comfort and well-being of those who attend. or
occupy the school plant.
Maintenance duties consists of those services and procedures concerned
with preserving, protecting and keeping buildings and grounds and equipment
in proper repair, as near as possible to the original condition.
V
One can readily see there is an overlapping of these two services.
For example: a window is broken impairing the safety and comfort of the
occupants; the iepair Of this item is a maintenance task although by
definition the custodian is responsible for the safety and comfort of
the persons in the building.
Who takes care of this "immediate" problem?
For conjecture, let us consider the following incident.
A common brick from the school ornamental fence is dislodged and
thrown through a classroom window breating the light fixture and striking
a wall. In the request to obtain repairs, an electrician is needed to
repair the light fixture, a mason to replace the brick, a zlazer to
replace the window, a plasterer to repair the wall, a painter to restore
the paint, and a custodian to clean up the debris. To further complicate
the issue the brick could have landed in the sink and broken the fixture
requiring a plumber.
Is this far fetched? One need only to look at the vandalism reports
from many school systems to see how many trades are involved in the repair
of one act of vandalism or even a small unprovoked accident.
In a small school system either the school custodian would repair the
entire damage or an outside contractor would be called, depending on the
capability of the custodian (janitor, cleaner, caretaker, etc.)
It appears that MINOR MAINTENANCE can be construed as that area
falling somewhere between cleaning and repairing. (In most cases this
is an immediate emergency area which needs attention so as not to affect
the safety and comfort of the occupants as well as the preser7ation rf
vi
t
the physical plant to avoid expensive repair thereby exhibiting good
economy practices.)
Do not interpret this emergency area with emergency repairs requiring
the services of a specialist in a particular field or major construction.
The following is a comprehensive list of MINOR MAINTENANCE duties that
the custodian may be called upon to perform. Custodians in some areas
may only be responsible for one or two of these duties.
List of Minor Repairs
1. Replacing broken window glass.
2. Tightening screws and bolts in furniture.
3. Attaching desks to floors.
4. Adjusting winter shade rollers.
5. Attaching shades to rollers.
6. Replacing window cords.
7. Replacing electric fuse plugs.
8. Replacing electric light switches.
9. Replacing electric light sockets and fixtures.
10. Tightening loose door knobs.
11. Replacing door knobs.
12. Adjusting door checks.
13. Removing or attaching door checks.
14. Adjusting "adjustable" desks to pupils.
15. Replacing washers in valves.
16. Pack valves in heating apparatus pumps.
17. Regulating flow of drinking fountains.
18. Replacing or adjusting balls in toilet flush tanks.
19. Cleaning traps.
20. Replacing radiator steam traps.
21. Replace water glasses.
22. General painting.
23. Varnishing woodwork.
24. Repair furniture.
25. Refinishing furniture.
26. Repairing playground equipment.
27. Sharpening tools.
28. Repair tools.
29. Cleaning a clogged toilet or drain.
30. Fastening loose trim or molding.
32. Repairing pencil sharpeners.
32. Repair fans.
33. Repair and replace transom rods.
vii
34. Paint fire escapes.
35. Repair of hardware.
36. Repair of hand rails.
37. Others as assigned.
The idealistic approach to this much needed area of instruction
would be a tailor-made course for each system. The realistic approach
is a course designed to cover a cross-section of the problems which may
be encountered to broaden the "custodian's" background so that he may
either repair the defect or know how to intelligently evaluate the de-
fect, order parts for, and notify the proper tradesman.
The ultimate objective of this unit is to prevent undesirable
"patchwork" service and to eliminate the "trial and error" system of
a man evaluating his own potential, while on-the-job, thereby affecting
good economy of labor.
viii
ct-tAe c 16Leci-Rtc4L._.
DEFINITIONS - ELECTRICAL
ALIVE - Carrying a voltage or current. (LIVE)
ALTERNATING CURRENT - An electric current that reverses its direction
of flow at regular intervals.
ANBER - A yellowish resinous substance that can be used to produce
static electricity by friction.
AMERICAN WIRE GAUGE - The gauge is used for designating the sizes
of solid copper wires used in United States. Formerly called
Brown and Sharpe (Best gauge).
AMMETER - The instrument that indicates the rate of flow of electri-
city through a circuit.
AMPERE - The practical unit that indicates the rate of flow of electric-
ity through a circuit.
AMPERE-HOUR - The quantity of electricity delivered by a current of
one ampere flowing for one hour. Used in rating storage batteries.
ARTIFICIAL MAGNET - A manufactured permanent magnet, as distinguished
from natural magnets.
ATOM - The smallest particle or unit of matter that can be chemically
united.
AUXILIARY CIRCUIT - Another circuit besides the main circuit; often
a control circuit.
AUXILIARY SWITCH - A switch operated or controlled by the action of
another circuit.
BX - A term often used for flexible armored cable.
BAKELITE - A moulded insulating material.
BAYONET SOCKET - A lamp socket that has tuo lengthwise slots in the
sides of socket and at the bottom the slots make a right angle
turn. The lamp base has two pins in it that slide in the slots
in the socket. The lamp is held in the socket by being given
a slight turn when the pins reach the bottom of the slots.
BRAIDED WIRE - A conductor composed of a number of small wires twist-
ed or braided together.
BRANCH CIRCUIT - That part of the wiring system between the final
set of fuses protecting it and the place where the lighting
fixtures or drop cords are attached.
BROWN AND SHARPE GAUGE - The gauge used in United States for copper
wires. Same as American wire gauge.
BURN OUT - Damage to electric machine or conductors caused by a heavy
flaw of current due to short circuit or grounds.
B-X CABLE - Trade name for armored cable made by General Electric Co.
commonly used to refer to armored cable.
CABLE - A conductor composed of a number of wires twisted together.
CABLE BOX - A box which protects the connections or splices joining
cables of one circuit to another.
CABLE CLAMP - A clamp used to fasten cables to their supports.
CAPACITY - Ability to hold or carry an electric charge. The unit of
capacity is farad or microfarads.
CARTRIDGE FUSE - A fuse inclosed in an insulating tube in order to
confine the arc or vapor when the fuse blows.
CELL - A jar or container holding the plates and electrolyte of one
unit of a storage or primary battery.
CHARGE - That quantity of static electricity stored between the plates
of a condenser.
CIRCUIT - The path taken by an electrical current in flowing through
a conductor from one terminal of the source of supply to the other.
CIRCUIT BREAKER - A device used to open a circuit automatically.
CLOCKWISE ROTATION - Turning in the same direction as the hands of
a clock; right-handed rotation.
CLOSED CIRCUIT - A complete electric circuit through which current
will flow when voltage is applied.
CONDENSER - Two conductors separated by an insulating material that
is capable of holding an electrical charge.
CONDUCTANCE - The ease with which a conductor carries an electric
current; it is the opposite of resistance. The unit of conduct-
ance is the mho (word "ohm" spelled backward).
CONDUCTOR - A wire or path through which a current of electricity
flows; that which carries a current of electricity.
CONDUIT - A pipe or tube, made of metal or other material, in which
electrical conductors or wires are placed.
CONDUIT BOX - An iron or steel box located between the ends of the
conduit where the wires or cables are spliced.
CONDUIT BUSHING - A short threaded sleeve fastened to the end of the
conduit inside the outlet box. Inside of sleeve is rounded out
on one end to prevent injury to the wires.
5
CONDUIT COUPLING - A short metal tube threaded on the inside and
used to fasten two pieces of conduit end to end.
CONDUIT ELBOW - A short piece of conduit bent to an angle, usually
to 45 or 90 degrees.
CONDUIT RIGID - A mild steel tubing used to inclose electric light
and power wires.
CONDUIT ROD - A short rod which is coupled to other rods and push-
ed through the large conduit to remove obstructions and pull a
cable into the conduit.
CONDUIT WIRING - Electric light wires placed inside conduit.
CONTACT - A place where a circuit is completed by a metallic point
being pressed against a conductor. When the pressure is removed,
the circuit is opened and flow of current stopped.
CONTACT SPARKING - The spark or arc formed at the contact points
when a circuit carrying current is opened.
COPPER - A metal used for electrical conductors because it has less
resistance than any other metal except silver.
CORD - Two insulated flexible wires or cables twisted or held to-
gether with a covering of rubber, tape, or braid.
COTTON-COVERED WIRE - A wire covered with a layer of thin cotton
threads wound spirally around it.
COTTON-ENAMELED WIRE - An enameled insulated wire covered with a
layer of cotton threads.
COTTON-SLEEVING - A woven cotton sleeve or tube slipped over wires
to insulate them.
6
COULOHB - The quantity of electricity passing through a circuit. It
is equal to amperes times seconds. An ampere hour = 3600 coulombs.
CURRENT - The flow of electricity through a circuit.
CURRENT STRENGTH - The flow of current in amperes.
CYCLE - The flow of alternating current first in one direction and
then in the opposite direction in one cycle. This occurs 60 times
every second in a 60-cycle circuit.
D.C. - Used as an abbreviation for "direct current", or "double contact."
D.P. - Used as an abbreviation for "double pole."
D.P.S. - Used as an abbreviation for "double pole snap switch."
D.P.S.T. - Used as an abbreviation for "double pole single throw."
D.P.D.T. -Used as an abbreviation for "double pole double throw."
DEAD WIRE - A wire in which there is no electric current or voltage.
DE-ENERGIZE - To stop current from flowing in a circuit or an elect-
rical part.
,DIELECTRIC - Insulation between conductors of opposite polarity; term
generally used only when induction may take place through it.
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH - Ability of a dielectric to withstand electrical
pressure before breaking down. This is measured in volts neces-
sary to puncture the dielectric.
DIFFERENCE OF POTENTIAL - Difference in voltage between two con-
ductors or two points along one conductor carrying an electric
current.
DIRECT CURRENT - Electric current flowing over a conductor in one
direction only. Abbreviation - D.C.
7
DISCONNECT - To remove an electrical device from a circuit, or to
unfasten a wire, making part or all of the circuit incperative.
The word is particularly applied to the act of severing a tele-
phone connection to permit repairs.
DISTRIBUTION BOX - Small metal box in a conduit installation, giving
accessibility for connecting branch circuits.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM - The whole circuit and all of its branches which
supply electricity to consumers.
DOUBLE-POLE - A term designating two contacts or connections on
a device, for instance, a double-pole knife switch. See D.P.
DOUBLE -THROW SWITCH - Switch which can be operated by making con-
tact with two circuits. Abbreviation D.T.
DROP OF POTENTIAL OR VOLTAGE - Decrease of voltage at points along
a circuit, caused by resistance.
DUPLEX CABLE - Cable consisting of two wires insulated from each other
and having a common insulation covering both.
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY - Electricity in motion as distinguished from
static electricity.
E - Symbol for volts.
EARTH - Synonym of "ground," meaning the grounded side of an elect-
rical circuit or machine.
ELBOW - Hollow fixture for connecting two lengths of conduit at an
angle, usually fitted with a removable cap to facilitate drawing
the wires through one conduit and then inserting them in the other one.
8
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT - Path through which an electric current flows.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL - Pressure or voltage of electricity.
ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - Installation consisting of a prime mover driv-
ing a generator to produce electricity.
ELECTRIC UNITS - Standards of measurement of electrical properties;
for instance, ampere, volt, ohm, farad, henry, etc.
ELECTRICAL CODES - Rules and regulations for the installation and
operation of electrical devices and currents.
ELECTRICITY - Invisible energy capable of moving 186,000 miles per
second. Electricity is really not capable of being defined
exactly, with present knowledge.
ELECTROCHEMICAL - Pertaining to the interaction of certain chemicals
and electricity, the production of electricity by chemical
changes, the effect of electricity upon chemicals, etc.
ELECTROMAGNET - Soft iron core having a coil wound around it through
which an electric current is passed. The core is magnetized
while the current flows, but is demagnetized when the current stops.
ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION - Repulsion between like poles of an electro-
magnet.
ELECTROMAGNETISM - Science dealing with electricity and magnetism
and their interaction.
ELECTRON - Electrical particle, of negative polarity.
ELECTRON THEORY - Theory that all matter consists of atoms which in
turn comprise a positive nucleus and number of negative electrons,
9
which may be detached from the atom under certain conditions,
leaving it positively charged.
ELECTROTHERMAL - Pertaining to the heating effect of electric currents
produced by heat, as in thermo-couple.
ENAMELED WIRE - Wire having a coating or enamel baled on, which
serves as insulation.
ENCLOSED FUSE - Fuse inside of a glass tube to prevent ignition of
gas or dust.
EXTENSION - Length of cable or lampcord fitted with a plug and a
socket to extend a lamp or other electric device further than
the original point.
FARAD - Unit for measuring electrical capacity. It is the capacity
of a condenser which will give a pressure of one volt when a
one ampere current flows into it for one second.
FAULT - Trouble in an electrical circuit.
FEEDER - Line supplying all the branch circuits with the main supply
of current.
FEEDER BOX - Box into which the feeder is run for connection to a
branch circuit.
FIBRE CONDUIT - Insulating tubing made of moulded fibre.
FIXTURE - Device for holding electric lamps, which is wired inside and
is securely attached to the wall or ceiling.
FLEXIBLE CABLE - Cable consisting of insulated, stranded or woven
conductors.
10
FLEXIBLE CONDUIT - Non-rigid conduit made of fabric or metal strip
wound spirally.
FLEXIBLE CORD - Insulated conductor consisting of stranded wire.
FLOW - Passage of a current through a conductor.
FRICTION TAPE - Tape coated with black adhesive compound, used as
insulation on wire joints, etc.
FUSE - Safety device to prevent overloading a current. It consists
of a short length of conduction metal which melts at a certain
heat and thereby breaks the circuit.
FUSE CUTOUT - Fuse which, when melted, cuts out the circuit.
FUSE PLUG - Fuse mounted in a screw plug, which is screwed in the
fuse block like a lamp in a socket.
FUSE WIRE - Wire made of an alloy which melts at a comparatively
low temperature.
GANG SWITCH - Two or more switches installed in one box or one holder.
GENERATOR - Machine that produces electricity.
GENERATOR OUTPUT - Power delivered by a generator, measured in watts
or kilowatts.
GREENFIELD CONDUCTOR - Flexible cable having a spirally wound metal
covering.
GROUND CIRCUIT - Part of an electric circuit in which the ground
serves as a path for the current.
GROUND CLAMP - Clamp on a pipe or other metal conductor co erected
to the grolild for attaching a conductor of an electrical circuit.
11
GROUNDED NEUTRAL WIRE - The neutral wire of a 3-way distribution
system which is connected to the ground.
HOT CONDUCTOR - A term used to refer to a conductor or wire which
is carrying a current or voltage.
I - An abbreviation for amperes of current.
INCOMPLETE CIRCUIT - An open circuit.
INDUCTANCE - The ability of an electric circuit to produce induction
within itself.
INSULATE - To place insulation around conductors or conducting parts
of a device or object.
INSULATING VARNISH - A special prepared varnish which has good in-
sulating property and is used to cover the coils and windings
on electric machines and improve the insulation.
JOINT - The uniting of two conductors by means of solder.
JUMP SPARK - A spark that passes between two terminals or across a
gap. It is produced by high voltage.
JUMPER - A temporary connection made around part of a circuit.
JUNCTION BOX - A box in a street distribution system where one main
is connected to another main; also a box where a circuit is
connected to a main.
KILOWATT - One thousand watts.
KILOWATT-HOUR - One thousand watt-hours.
KNIFE-SWITCH - A switch that has a thin blade that makes contact
between two flat surfaces to complete the circuit.
12
LAMP CIRCUIT - A branch circuit supplying current to lamps only,
and not to motors.
LAMP CORD - Two flexible stranded insulated wires twisted together
and used to carry the current from the outlet box to the lamp
socket.
LEADING-IN WIRES - Wires used to carry current from the outside of
buildings to the inside of buildings.
LEAK - A loss of charge in a storage battery where current can flow
through a circuit, or to ground, due to defective insulation.
LIGHT LOAD - A load that is less than the normal load on the circuit.
LIGHTNING ARRESTER - A device that allows the lightning to pass to the
ground thus protecting electrical machines.
LINE DROP - The loss in voltage in the conductors of a circuit due
to their resistance.
LIVE - A circuit carrying a current or having a voltage on it.
LOAD - The work required to be done by a machine. The current
flowing through a circuit.
LOOSE CONTACT - A poor connection that does not make proper contact.
MAGNET - A body that will attract iron or steel.
MAGNETIC COIL - The winding of an electromagnet.
MAGNET CORE - The iron in the center of the electromagnet.
MAGNETIC FIELD - The magnetic lines of force that pass in the space
around a magnet.
MAGNETIC POLE - The ends of the magnet where the magnetism enters
or leaves the magnet.
13
MAIN - The circuit from which all other smaller circuits are taken.
MAINTENANCE - Repairing and keeping in working order.
METAL CONDUIT - Iron or steel pipe in which electric wires and cables
are installed.
METAL MOULDING - A metal tube or pipe, installed on the ceiling or
walls of a building, in which electric wires are installed.
MOTOR - A machine that changes electrical energy into mechanical
power.
MOTOR-GENERATOR - An electric motor driving a generator changing
alternating to direct current or the reverse.
MULTIPLE CIRCUIT - A circuit in which the devices are connected in
parallel with each other.
MULTIPLE SERIES - A parallel connection of two or more series cir-
cuits.
N.E.C. - Abbreviation for National Electric Code; often called Under-
writer's Code.
- Abbreviation for Naticnal Electric Light Association.
N.F.P.A. - Abbreviation for National Fire Prevention Association.
NEGATIVE - The point towards which current flows in an external elec-
trical circuit; opposite to positive.
NEGATIVE CHARGE - Having a charge of negative electricity.
NEGATIVE CONDUCTOR - The conductor that returns the current to,the
source after it has passed through a device and has been used.
NEUTRAL - Not positive or negative although it may act as positive to
one circuit and negative to another.
1)4
NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR - A middle conductor of a three-wire direct-cur-
rent or single-phase circuit.
OHM - The unit used to express the resistance of a conductor to the
flow of electric current through it.
OHM'S LAW - A rule that gives the relation between current, voltage,
and resistance of an electric circuit. The voltage (E) is equal
to the current (I) in amperes times resistance (R) in ohms. The
current (I) equals the voltage (E) divided by the resistance (R) of
the circuit. The resistance (R) is equal to the voltage (E)
divided by the current (I).
OPEN CIRCUIT - A break in a circuit. Not having a complete path or
circuit.
OPEN WIRING - Electric wires fastened to surfaces by the use of por-
celain knobs. Wiring that is not concealed.
OUTLET - A place where electrical wires are exposed so that one can
be joined to the other.
OUTLET BOX - An iron box placed at the end of conduit where electric
wires are joined to one another and to the fixtures.
POLE - The positive and negative terminal of an electric circuit. The
ends of a magnet.
POSITIVE - The point in a circuit from which the current flows; op-
posite to negative.
POSITIVE TERMINAL - The terminal of a battery or generator from which
the current flows to the external circuit.
POTENTIAL - The pressure, voltage, or electromotive force that
forces the current through a circuit.
POWER - The rate of doing work. In direct current circuits it is
equal to E x I. The electrical unit is the watt.
RACEWAYS - Metal molding or conduit that has a thinner wall than
standard rigid conduit used in exposed wiring.
RATING - The capacity or limit of load of an electrical machine ex-
pressed in horsepower, watts, volts, amperes, etc.
RECEPTACLE - A device placed in an outlet box to which the wires
in the conduit are fastened, enabling quick electrical connection
to be made by pushing an attachment plug into it.
RESISTANCE - That property of a substance which causes it to oppose
the flow of electricity through it.
RUBBER-COVERED WIRE Wires covered with an insulation of rubber.
RUBBER TAPE - An adhesive elastic tape made from a rubber compound.
SAFE CARRYING CAPACITY - The maximum current a conductor will carry
without overheating.
SAFETY CATCH OR FUSE - A device that opens the circuit when it
becomes too hot; often placed in base of appliances for heating
liquids.
SAFETY SWITCH - A knife switch inclosed in a metal box and opened
and closed by a handle on the outside.
SERIES - Connected one after another so the same current will flow
through each one.
SERIES CIRCUIT - A circuit in which the same current flows through all
the devices.
16
SERVICE ENTRANCE - The place where the service wires are run into a
building.
SERVICE-WIRES - The wires that connect the wiring in a building to the
outside supply wires.
SHEATH - The outside coveting which protects a wire or cable from
injury.
SHORT - A contraction for short circuit.
SHORT CIRCUIT - An accidental connection of low resistance joining
two sides of a circuit, through which nearly all the current
will flow.
SINGLE-POLE SWITCH - A switch that opens and closes only one side
of a circuit.
SINGLE-WIRE CIRCUIT - A circuit using one wire for one side and
ground for the other side or return conductor.
SOLID WIRE - A conductor of one piece instead of being composed of
a number of smaller wires.
SOUTH POLE - The end of a magnet at which the lines of force enter.
SPLICE - The joining of the ends of two wires or cables together.
STATIC ELECTRICITY - Electricity at rest as distinguished from electric
current, which is electricity in motion.
STATOR - The stationary part of an induction motor on which the field
windsings are placed.
STEADY CURRENT - A direct current whose voltage does not change or vary.
STEP-DOWN - Reducing from a higher to a lower value.
STEP-UP - Increasing, or changing from a low to a higher value.
17
STORAGE BATTEFY - A number of storage cells connected together to
give the desired current and voltage and placed in one case.
STORAGE CELL - Two metal plates or sets of plates immersed in an elec-
trolyte in which electric current can be passed into the cell and
changed again into chemical energy and then afterwards changed
again into electrical energy.
STRANDED WIRES - Wires or cables composed of a number of smaller
wires twisted or braided together.
STRENGTH OF CURRENT - The number of amperes flowing in the circuit.
SWITCH - A device for closing, opening, or changing the connections
of a circuit.
SWITCH PLATE - A small plate placed on the plastered wall to cover
a push button tumber switch.
T-SPLICE - A connection joining the end of one wire to the middle
of another one.
TERMINAL - A connecting device placed at the end of a wire, appli-
ance, machine, etc., to enable a connection to be made to it.
TERMINAL LUG - A lug soldered to the end of a cable so it can be
bolted to another terminal.
TEST CLIP - A spring clip fastened to the end of a wire used to make
connections quickly and testing circuits or devices.
TEST LAMP - An incandescent lamp bulb and socket connected in a circuit
temporarily when making tests.
THREE-WAY SWITCHES - A switch with three terminals by which a cir-
cuit can be completed through any one of two paths.
18
t;
TINNED WIRE - Wire covered with a coating of tin or solder.
TRANSFORMER - A device used to change alternating current from one
voltage to another. It consists of two electrical circuits
joined together by a magnetic circuit formed in an iron core.
TRANSFORMER RATIO - The ratio of the primary to the secondary volt-
ages.
TRANSMISSION LINE - High voltage conductors used to carry electrical
power from one place to another.
TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT - A circuit using two wires.
UNDERGROUND CABLE - A cable insulated to withstand water and elec-
trolysis and placed in underground conduit.
UNDERWRITERS' CODE - The National Electric Code.
VOLT - A unit of electrical pressure or electromotive force.
VOLTAGE DROP - The difference in pressure between two points in a
circuit caused by the resistance opposing the flow of current.
VOLTMETER - An instrument that shows the pressure or voltage of a
circuit.
WALL BOX - A metal box for switches, fuses, etc., placed in the wall.
WALL SOCKET - An electric outlet placed in the wall so that conduc-
tors can be connected to it by means of a plug.
WATT - The unit of electric power.
WATT-HOUR - The use of a watt of power for an hour.
WESTERN UNION SPLICE - A method of uniting two wires together by
wrapping each one about the other.
19
CHAPTER I
A. UNDERSTANDING ELECTRICITY
Electricity is a potential force always available if one knows
how to release it and control it. In order to understand electricity,
we must know something about the "nature of things". Matter -- all
things may be considered matter, earth, water, wood, rock, air, etc.,
the list is inexhaustable. All matter and material is composed of
small solar-like systems, i.e., the sun, planets, moon and other
celestial bodies. Our solar system revolves around the sun (star).
If we examine a piece of wood
for example, we find that it
is composed of atoms. Each
atom is a solar system. At
the center of each atom is a
nucleus (sun) surrounded by
electrons (planets). The
electrons revolve around the
nucleus as the planets do the
sun. Our solar system has nine
SOLAR SY'Z' TS P-1
FIG. 1
known planets. Some atoms have more electrons than nine and some have
less. Science has been able to discover or distinguish 103 different atoms.
If a piece of matter has only one kind of atom it is an 'element". If
it contains more than one kind of atom it is a compound. Everything we
experience whether it be liquid, gas or solid, is either an element
or a compound. Different kinds of
atoms joined together make differ-
ent substances in physical appear-
ance and in feel, thus we have rocks,
cotton, water, wood, metal, etc.
This atomic THEORY is a simple
statement compiled after many many
years of exhausting experiments by
now famous people.
A'r 0 1".01 S
FIG2
e- Rona
1-
N tIC ELLS
What has all this to do with electricity? Certain phenomena that
has been occuring for billions, yes billions, of years has aroused the
curiosity of man.
Lightning was probably the first and still is the phenomenon that
has yet to see the day when it will be fully utilized.
The ancient Greeks have been credited with the term "electron" or
"electricity". They found that by rubbing amber, a fossil resin able to
be polished, with a cloth it would "attract" small pieces of light mater-
ial like straw, leaves, paper, etc. The
Greek word for amber is ELEKTRON, thus elec-
tricity.
In the 17th Century (1600's) experiments
began to take place. One experiment was by
FIG. 3
two men named Galvani and:Volta. They found
that by separating two unlike metals (silver,
22
copper) by salt soaked paper, a potential was developed. The potential
was not measured by meters as we know today. They used frogs legs --
they twitched when touched by this potential. Today we have GALVANOMETERS
named for Galvani. We speak of VOLTS named for Volta. In cur discuss-
ion of electricity to follow we will use terms named after other famous
men who contributed to the unravelling of the mystery of electricity.
James Watt (1736)
George Ohm (1787)
Andri Ampere (1777)
Michael Faraday (1791)
Charles Coulomb (1736)
To begin with, we said electricity is potential. Webster defines
potential as a power or force that can be released or developed. Going
back to the Atomic Solar System it was discovered that the electrons
have what is called a "negative charge" and the core or nucleus is a
positive charge. The electrons are attracted by the positive charge
and are held in ORBIT by equalization or by the proper balance, similar
to a scale.
Some of the electrons in the outer ring of the atom are said to be
less stable and not attracted tightly to the nucleus therefore, if they
were prodded a bit they would leave their orbit and begin to "fly off"
or move. If these free electrons are given direction and if the force
moving them (volts) is strong enough and continuous then we get a flow
of electrons, i.e., current flow or (amperes). If the conductor through
which these electrons are flowing is small in diameter they will encounter
23
resistance (ohms). This resistance causes friction and friction
develops heat. Thus a small diameter wire conveying a rapid movement
of electrons pushed by a continuous force will cause the wire to get
ELECTRoNS FLowIpatz III f2la!-47" Svr-E WIL
= No -AT
SLEeTltoi4s Poftc. ED -rultat>C4SMALL. blArISTER. WIRE = HEAT"
FIG. 4
very warm and possibly even glow such as a toaster wire or an electric
heater.
Some substances have a great many free electrons ready to be moved,
these are called good conductors of electricity. Copper and silver are
examples of good conductors.
Other substances have strongly attached electrons and are considered
poor conductors. Glass, rubber, cotton, and air are examples of poor
conductors. They are used to wrap a copper wire so that no other substance
or good ':tonductor will come in contact with the copper wire and offer
the electrons another path to move on.
Some electrons can be rubbed off a substance by friction as the
ancient Greeks did with "amber". When this is done the substance is
2).
.11"
Rut& E- R.
PLASTIC.
CotnAll HAVE ADDrL.twSvLATioNi
tiP P $0 E_
FIG. 5
no longer what we call neutral. If it looses electrons the substance be-
comes (4) or positively charged and the substance that picked up the elec-
trons becomes (-) negatively charged---this creates a potential (a force
ready to be dislodged) because the substance wants to return to neutral
by getting back its electrons. Lightning is a sample of this force in
action.
Po5 rr*VE
DIALECTRiC. (Alit)
FIG. 6
25
PLATE.
when air currents and wind and heat cause one cloud to lose some of its
electrons to another cloud by friction---a potential develops between
the earth and the cloud or between two clouds. i.jhen this potential builds
up to the point that the electrons can overcome the resistance of the air,
lightning results and the balance is restored. Since these electrons
follow the path of least resistance they may release themselves through
a tall tree or your house. Ellen this happens heat is created and some-
thing burns, because wood and plaster etc. are not good conductors. A
lightning rod is a good conductor and offers little resistance therefore
little heat and the potential is equalized between cloud and earth
through the rod without damage.
If at this point there is a basic understanding of the nature of
electricity then we can begin to appreciate some of the safety precau-
tions necessary while handling the flow of electricity.
ELECTRICIAN PLiER
FIG. 7
26
B. TCOLS SC EOIPV.EFT
The custodian should have certain basic tools at his disoosal to
handle a minimum of electrical problems.
1. (h) screwdrivers (small, medium, large, Phillips head)
2. (1) electricians pliers
3. continuity and voltage tests (homemade)
h. insulating electricians tape
Tasks which may be handled by the custodian;
1. Interpret electrical symbols on a blueprint for outlets and fix-
tures.
0 CEILIAIG 01,1-LET
WALL. FiR AC K
P.tU r2Ec rPrAc LS..
SPeem ft./RPOSE
1 0 1 POSH 131i TToni
BELL. on c
aCLe P$4
%06.) ITC.14
SOME C.orirtoW s%cr-I Bois
FIG. 8
27
2. Make a voltage and continuity test.
3.- Wire splicing.
h. Replace a male plug.
S. Replace a wall switch.
6. Replace a convenience outlet.
7. Replace a lamp socket. (incadescent)
8, Replace a fuse.
9. Replace a starter.
10. Replace an appliance switch.
C. SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
1. Chemical - Acids and alkalies act on metals'and this action
involves a process called ionization (an Ion is an atom or group of
atoms that has become charged negative or positive due to the loss or
gain of electrons.) An example of such a process is a simple wet
cell battery. A strip of copper and a strip of zinc are imersed in
(H2S011) Sulphuric Acid. The positive ions are attracted to the copper
and the negative ions are attracted to the zinc. Electrons are de-
posited on the zinc strip, giving it a negative charge.
UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT
LIKE CHARGES REPEL
If a wire is connected externally between the zinc and copper strips,
electrons will begin to flow through the wire from the zinc to the copper;
thus we have a current flow.
2. Magnetism - There are three kinds of magnets, natural magnets
28
or lodestones, permanent magnets, and electromagnets. The earth itself
is a natural magnet. As basic as it may seem, magnetism is still a re-
lative mystery. It will be sufficient to say here that natural invis-
ible "lines of force" surround the earth and that "lines of force" can
also be created artificially. A permanent magnet can be created by
rubbing a needle or hard steel with a lodestone or another permanent
magnet. Other methods are used such as lining up a bar of hard steel
(N. & S.) and striking it sharply with a hammer. Both these methods
"line up the molecules" so that the field around each molecule aids each
other, creating a direct line of force through the steel.
When current is aoplied to a straight wire a circular magnetic field
is formed. If the wire is wound around a nail or a bar of steel and
current is applied the nail itself is affected by the many magnetic
fields of the wire and becomes one big electro magnet.
UNLIKE POLES ATTRACT
again .
LIKE POLES REPEL
This fact lends itself directly to the movement of a rotor in a motor.
By creating progressive magnetic fields a small distance apart around
a circle, a bar can be turned as its N. pole is attracted by a S. pale
a fraction of an inch away.
3. Friction - As we have already discovered, electricity is elec-
trons in motion, Electrons can be made to move by causing an excess of
negative or positive electrons on a given substance, thereby creating
a potential. An example of this creation is to rub a comb briskly on
your sleeve, thus rubbing off some electrons on the comb. The comb
29
becomes negatively charged with excess electrons. If the comb is placed
near a piece of paper, the excess negative electrons will rush off, thus
creating an electron movement (electricity).
h. Heat - Then two strips of dissimilar metals are joined together,
and heat is applied at the joint, electrons will move from one to the
other. Heat causes electrons to move rapidly. Some electrons get so
violent in their movement they may fly off into space. The movement is
in the form of spinning. The heat principle is used in thereto - couple
instruments for measuring heat.
5. Light - Photoelectric cells are examples of using light to pro-
duce a small electron flow or current. Certain chemicals produce elec-
tron activity when exposed to light. If this chemical is applied to
metal strips or surfaces the light will cause electrons to move through
the metal and the rate of flow can be measured. Light meters in pho-
tography is one example of this application. Doors can be opened, win-
dows shut, bells can be rung all by employing the principle of the pho-
toelectric cell.
6. Pressure - Certain crystals when under pressure produce an elec-
tron movement in one direction, causing negative electrons to pile up
on one surface and positive electrons to pile up on the other surface.
This creates a potential between the two surfaces. A crystal "mike" is
an example of this principle. The underwater submarine detector is
another example of using quartz crystals to emit an impulse.
Note: It must be remembered that for any of the above 6 illustrations
there must be a complete circuit to relieve the potential before we have
30
currant flow or electricity.
Nuclear electricity is the latest method of causing electrons to
go into motion however this area is so new it will be sufficient to
just make mention of it.
7. Fuel Cell - Scientists had long sought direct ways of con-
verting into usable power the electrical energy that accompanies a
chemical reaction. They succeeded when they produced a new current-
producing device called a fuel cell.
A fuel cell receives a continuous flow of fresh liquid fuel and
liquid oxidant. Hydrogen, methyl alcohol, carbon monoxide, petroleum,
natural gas, and propane are commonly used as liquid fuels. Air and
oxygen are most often used as oxidants.
The uniform flow of fuel and oxidant assures a constant supply of
reacting substances. The energy and mass "lost" in generating elec-
tricity are therefore regularly replenished, resulting in an even
flow of electric power.
D. POWER TRANSMISSION
The reader at this point should have a simple understanding of what
electricity is and where most of our useful everyday electricity origi-
nates. The question should now follow; How do we get it to the house
or building and how do we use it?
Electricity must be conducted over long distances, from the power
generating plant to a man using an electric shaver or the housewife is
31
32
making a piece of toast. In order to satisfy a large community or city
with enough electricity, large amounts must be generated. Let us trace
the course of our electricity from the power plant and discuss some of
the devices necessary to make it useable and safe.
Once it has been determined how much power a plant is to supply,
based upon how many cities or communities it will serve, the power com-
pany has a choice to supply the necessary amperes by pushing it with
low or high voltages. It will suffice to say that high voltages are
used to transmit over long distances because low voltages result in a
large current flow (ampere movement) and therefore at high resistance
is enccuntered (ohms) resulting in a greater power (watts) loss.
Looking at Fig. 9 we see that the plant produces 15,000 volts,
this goes through a very large step up transformer. The voltage now is
100,000 and is transmitted on what is called HIGH TENSION LINES for
maybe 100 miles or more. When it reaches a city the voltage goes through
another transformer, this time it is stepped down to say 21.i00 volts.
As this 2100 volts travels to various communities, buildings, factories,.
rural areas etc., more transformers are used to step down the voltage
and supply the correct type i.e., single phase 115 volts, single phase
230 volts, three phase 230 volts etc. (note diagram). This is why
some houses have 2 wire service from the pole and others have 3 wire
service.
At this point the 3 wires go through a meter installed on or in the
house. Fram the meter the 3 wire enters a distribution box, containing
various fuses and switches.
33
TRAMS Fo.R II ERS`rtelBot.
AY PL.ANIT
iiPOW EALT"Ir RNA rok.
St sTATIoN1
:00,o00 V.
STEP 012TRANSFortmER.
ON POLE
STEP crowm'TRANI" (=a reA4SR.
t00 mikr w . V.
TRANSm ssstaf,4
.230 V.(15 V.
sr*P br,o),./ A
TR 4Ais r= aRrl E
1
CITYTPLANSM,SS104.
NorifSERVite...
FIG. 10
The distribution box may contain as many as 10 fuses. Each fuse
may be thought of as protecting one circuit in the house. A circuit
may consist of 3 or 6 convenience outlets and h or 5 more or less light
fixtures. The average home has 100 amp service, which means when all
appliances and lights are operating, the total should not exceed 100
amps. How do we know what is being consumed? Ws can use the power
formula; P P=Watts P=IxE Amps=100 or .909
1=Amps E=P 110
I E E=Volts1=2E
Example: A 100 watt light bulb on a 110 V. circuit would draw .909 amps
or almost 1 amp. This means one circuit containing a 15 amp fuse could
carry about (1h) 100 watt light bulbs.
314
For round figures you might say 1 amp is used for every 100 watts.
Ratings on some common appliances:
Toaster - 900 watts = 9 amp
Waffle iron - 1600 watts = 16
Electric iron - 800 watts = 8
Electric heater - 2100 watts = 21
Electric drill - 300 watts = 3
Soldering iron - 200 watts = 2
Refrigerator - 100 watts = 1
Total 60 amp
This leaves ho amps left for lighting or other appliances. (All
at once.)
Not many years ago 60 amp service was common place in houses, how-
ever, with the addition of many new and advanced electrical appliances,
it soon became evident that 60 amps was not enough.
35
E. JOB PROCEDURE
To replace a male plug.
Tools
ScrewdriverWire strippers or sharp knifeDiagonal pliers or electri-cians pliers (see fig. t1,)
Procedure
1. Cut wire about 1" from
plug or beyond any damaged
area.
2. Using wire stripper or
knife, remove insulation from
each wire about 1/2".
3. Unscrew terminal on male
plug and remove wire.
WIND LA./IRE ARDoSHANK- CLOCKWISE
LOOP WIRE ArtouNTH%S pleoNG-
13ARF oNi-c ENouGHv.) i RP TO GO ARGONS CR 1E14 S HAIQ K
36
PRE -gEND t.ti IRE.
<`1.,
4. Depending upon type of
plug-tie underwriters knot at
proper place in plug. See
figure )2. t 13-
5. Bend wire clockwise around
prongs of plug.
6. Make small loop in bare
section to fit around termin-
al screw. See figure 17...
7. Tighten terminal screws.
8. Replace fiber insulator.
To wire a lamp socket.
Procedure
1. Remove lamp socket from
lamp or fixture.
2. Separate outer casing 6A)
from base. 63)
3. Remove insulating shield.(C)
4. Loosen terminal screws and
remove lamp cord. N5. Untie underwriters knot
(if used).
6. Slip wire out of base.
37
N DER WR )TEfi S K MOT
F )
7. If wire is OK, new lamp
cord is not necessary.
8. If new cord is used, strip
insulation (about 1/2").
9. Insert in new socket base.
10. Tie underwriters knot at
proper place. (Allowing enough
wire to feed to screw terminals.)
11. Make clockwise loops on
bare sections.
12. Wrap one around each screw
terminal (clockwise) and tighten
screw.
13. Slide on insulating shield.
14. Reassemble outer casing
to socket base.
15. Re-install on lamp or fix-
ture.
To replace a wall switch.
Procedure
1. REMOVE FUSE controlling
switch.
2. Remove cover plate screws.
3. Remove screws holding
switch to box.
38
THREADEbt PPLe.
TlERTEN
SC k w
FIG 15
4. Pull switch out of box.
(Wires attached.)
5. Loosen terminal screws
and remove wire. See fig-
ure 16.
6. Select new switch (same
type and rating) and reattach
wires to same terminals-wire
loop must be clockwise.
Push switch back in box
and insert screws to fasten
switch to box.
8. Replace cover plate.
9. Replace fuse.
Note: The DOWN position
is OFF on the switch.
To install a feed through switch.
Procedure
1. Measure the length of the
switch plus 1/2" on lamp cord.
2. Carefully separate the
two wires between your mea-
surements.
3. Cut one wire at the cen-
ter.
39
Nor
CIANIG 3:4 t
TARE- S u.)Ay S rrt 14FCC 1
FAG if3
4. Lay wire in feed through
switch and cut appropriate
wire off each cut end to allow
for a clockwise loop of bare
wire around terminal screws.
5. Remove 1/2" of insulation
off each cut end.
6. Replace wire in switch
and fasten wire ends to ter-
minal screw (wind clockwise).
7. Reassemble switch.
To replace a convenience outlet(110 V).
Note: The procedure for re-
placing a convenience outlet is
the same as the wall switch. Follow
each step carefully.
To make a continuity & voltage tester.
Procedure
1. Select two (110 -230 V)
plastic or rubber lamp soc-
kets with at least 6" of so-
lid wire leads.
2. Remove 3/4" of insulation
140
1,LVT mvsr CoVER-ALL 6/ARE WiRE
SOLbERLSS.5 ors WIRE NUTCONMetrOR.
SIG. 20
from one white ana one black lead.
3. Twist the bare ends together (clockwise).
4. Fasten a solderless connector (twist clockwise).
5. Remove 1" of insulation from the other white and black
lead (leave straight).
6. Use (2) 25 watt bulbs.
141
To test for opens or shorts.
An "open" means that the lamp or motor or appliance fails to
operate because there is an "open" circuit in the line somewhere.
This may be a fuse that has blown, a switch that is broken in an
open position, or a wire that is broken and separated somewhere
in the line. An "open" constitutes a dialectric or insulation
which impedes or prevents the continous flow of electricity.
A "short" is where the two legs of a circuit containing the
potential are actually touching one another. This contact or
touching means that the electricity will flow very rapidly from
one leg to the other causing a high degree of heat. The heat is
transfered to the fuse and the fuse will blow. If the line is
overfused then the heat will destroy or burn up some other section
of wire in which the electrons are racing. Most of the time the
heat created at the point of the short, will cause the wire to
melt and create an OPEN.
Note: If the fuse blew and the short still remains and no
OPEN is created, then a new fuse will immediately blow. If a short
develops in a piece of equipment, the equipment should be unplugged
before inserting another fuse.
To change bulbs and fluorescent tubes.
Changing a bulb in itself is a very minor task, however the
location and accessibility of the fixture can make the job almost
impossible. For example an exposed bulb in a high ceiling is
112
enough of a problem, but when it
is encased.in a cover which has toROBBISR.
RSbe unscrewed and taken off, the
C-RiPPEADJusr-
Toproblem is compounded. A "bulb 'auLE,
clamp" device can be purchased to
unscrew exposed bulbs in high
places. See figure 22. A com-
plete scaffold may have to be used
in places like auditoriums and gym- U .5.171r4G-
1.0 ql1J
nasiums FoRRicHr
Some bulbs and fixtures areANGLE-s
accessible only through "catwalks"
above ceilings. This can be a
dangerous task, in-as-much as the ceiling may offer little resistance
once the custodian steps off the "catwalk".
Fluorescent tubes offer much the same type of problem, with the
additional task of having to remove light diffuser panels. The dis-
posal of the tube is also important because the glass can be very
dangerous, especially around school buildings It is not an uncommon
practice to replace all three or more of the tubes in a fixture when
one goes out, thereby reducing the possibility of setting up the same
p1G. 22.
scaffold in the near future.
h3
BARE ABCOT 6 of vJiR.E.
NOTF - TAPERED INISOL.AT !DIV CM"
WESTERN VNiotA SI-1..1c-E_
COTE - DO NOT RE-move No Re114st/1.A-rip xi TI-IAN NeEDED .
PIG-TAI L. ok RAT-TML. SPLICE
14)4 , ik-5-
T=1&.2,3
t-t-REP TER 11
CARPE-1-1Kf
DEFINITIONS - CARPENTRY
ADHESIVE - A substance used to hold materials together by surface
attachment. I. E., cements, glue, paste or mucilage.
ALIGN - To bring parts into proper position with each other.
BASE or BASEBOARD - A board placed along the bottom of a wall next
to the floor.
BASE MOLDING - A strip of wood used to trim the upper edge of a
baseboard.
BASE SHOE or SHOEMOLD - A strip of wood next to the floor on interior
baseboard. Also called a carpet strip.
BLIND NAILING - Nailing in such a way that the nailheads are not
visible on the surface.
BOND - A joining or adhering, as of two surfaces; also a substance
which causes such a joining to take place.
BRACE - An inclined piece of framing lumber used to complete a tri-
angle, thereby stiffening a structure. Also a hand tool.
BURL - A wirl or twist in the grain of the wood, usually neer a knot.
CASEMENT - A window sash which opens on hinges fastened to a vertical
side of the frame. Windows with such sash are called casement
windows.
CASING - Wide molding used to trim door and window openings.
CHECKS - Small splits running parallel to the wood grain, usually
caused by improper seasoning.
CHUCK - A broad term meaning a device for holding a rotating tool
or work during an operation.
CLAMP - A device that holds things together, often used to hold pieces
of wood together while the glue dries.
4(,147
CLEAT - A strip of wood fastened to another piece, usually to pro-
vide a holding or bracing effect.
CLINCH - Nails made to hold more securely by bending down the ends
of the protruding nails.
COUNTERBORING - To enlarge the length of a hole by boring.
COUNTERSINKING - To recess a hole for the head of a screw or bolt.
DADO - A groove cut across the grain of a board.
DRY ROT - A term loosely applied to any crumbly decay of wood, but
especially to that which, when in an advance stage, allows the
wood to be crushed easily to a dry powder. The term does not accurately
describe decay, since fungi which cause the rot require consider-
able moisture for growth.
FLASHING - Sheet metal or other material used in roof and wall con-
construction to protect a building from seepage of water.
FUNGI; WOOD - Microscopic plants that live in damp wood and cause
mold, stain, and decay.
GLUE BLOCKS - Small blocks of wood, usually triangular in shape, that
are glued along the inside corner of a joint to add strength.
HARDBOARD - A material made by exploding (a steam process) wood chips
into wood fibers and forming them into sheets, using heat and
pressure.
JAMB - The surrounding case for a door. It consists of two upright
pieces, called jambs, and a head, fitted together and rabbeted.
JIG - A device which holds the work and/or guides the tool while
forming or assembling wood parts.
KERF - The slit or space made by the blade of any hand or power saw,
ii8
KNOT - Cross section of a branch or limb imbedded in the wood during
the growth of the tree.
LAMINATE - To build up wood in layers. Each layer is called a lam-
ination or ply. The grain may run in the same direction in
each lamination or may be turned at a right angle.
LAYOUT - A full-sized drawing showing arrangement and structural
features.
LIGHT - In builders' terminology, space in a window sash for a single
pane of glass; also, a pane of glass.
LINEAR - Pertaining to a line or consisting of lines., Linear measure
refers to measurement along the length.
MITER OR MITRE - The joining of two pieces at xa evenly divided angle.
A cut made at an angle, usually 45 degrees.
MULLION - The construction between the windows on a frame which holds
two or more windows.
0.C., ON CENTER - The measurement of spacing for studs, rafters, joists,
and similar members in a building from the center of one member to
the center of the next.
PARTITION - That which subdivides space within a building; especially,
an interior wall.
Bearins. Partition - A partition which supports any vertical
load in addition to its own weight.
Nonbearing Partition - A partition which extends from floor
to ceiling but which supports no load other than its own
weight.
)49
PENNY - As applied fo nails it originally indicated the price per
hundred. The term now serves as a measure of nail length and
is abbreviated by the letter "d."
PLAIN-SAWED - Lumber that is cut on a tangent to the annular growth
rings.
PLUMB - Exactly perpendicular; vertical.
PORES - Openings on the surface of a piece of wood. These openings
result when vessels in the wood are severed during
sawing.
PUTTY - A soft, pliable type of cement, having nearly the consistency
of dough, used in sealing glass in sabh, filling small holes
and crevices in wood, and for similar purposes.
QUARTER-SAWED - Lumber that is cut at approximately a 90 degree
angle to the annular growth rings.
RABBET - Cut made in the edge of a board to form a joint with another
piece.
RIPPING - Sawing wood along the grain.
SASH - The framework which holds the glass in a window.
SCAFFOLD - A temporary structure or platform enabling craftsmen to
reach high places.
SILL - The lowest member of the frame of a structure, resting on the
foundation and supporting the uprights of the frame. The member
forming the lower side of an opening, as a door sill or a window
sill.
50
STUD - One of a series of slender wood or metal structural members
placed as supporting elements in walls and partitions. (Plural:
studs or studding.)
SPLINE - A thin strip of wood inserted in matching grooves cut on
the joining faces of a joint.
STRAIGHTEDGE - A straight strip of wood or metal with opposite faces
parallel. Uses to lay out and check the accuracy of work.
SUBFLOOR - Boards or sheet material laid on joists, and over which
a finish floor is to be laid.
TAPER - A gradual and uniform decrease in the size of a hole.
TEIPLATE - A pattern, guide or model that is used to lay out work
or check its accuracy.
TOENAIIING - To drive a nail so that it enters the first surface
diagonally and usually penetrates the second member at a slant also.
TONGUE - A projecting bead cut on the edge of a board that fits into
a groove on another piece.
TRIM - Finish materials in a building, such as moldings, applied
around openings, (window trim, door trim) or where walls join the
floor and ceiling of a room (baseboard, cornice, picture molding).
TRUSS - An assembly of members, such as beams, bars, and rods, combined
to form a rigid framework that cannot be deformed by the appli-
cation of exterior force without deforming one or more members.
VENEER - A thin sheet of wood, either sliced, cut or sawn. Veneer
may be referred to as a ply when assembled in a panel.
WARP - Any variation from a true or plane surface. In lumber it may
include bow, cup, crook or wind (twist).
51
CHAPTER II
A. UNDERSTANDING CARPENTRY:
Most of the readings that have been researched by the author in-
dicate that the actual "tasks" performed by the custodian involving
woodworking is somewhat limited, whereas the knowledgeable background
required is somewhat extensive. In actual practice, many small counties
in Florida prefer as their one maintenance man a person well trained
in carpentry and painting, with some knowledge of plumbing, heating, or
electricity.
The custodian's role is more in the area of repair rather thaw new
installations. School buildings appear to suffer most in furniture re-
pair, roof repair, window and door frame repair, and some wood floor or
stair repair. Whether the custodian attempts any repair involving wood
measuring, cutting, replacement, etc., depends upon two factors; the
county policy and the ability of the custodian. Assuming the policy
allows the custodian to do the job, this section will be devoted to pre-
paring the custodian to approach, plan and complete the task in a cre-
ditable manner.
It would be well to suggest at this point that any minor maintenance
job, that calls the custodian away from his daily cleaning duties to the
extent that the cleanliness and sanitation of the school is in jeopardy,
should be handled by other personnel.
B. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
Adequate tools must be a prerequisite for the successful involvement
in any maintenance program ne matter how minor.
The following list of tools may be considered basic:
1. Carpenters (framing) square
2. File and rasp (wood)
3. Glass cutter
4. Hammer (claw)
5. Nail set and assorted nails
t i
6. Pliers and screwdrivers
7. Saws (cross cut and hacksaw)
8. Tape, measuring 6 feet
9. Tin snips
10. Wood chisel
11. Work bench with vise
12. Star Drill: 1/4", 1/2"
1. The framing square is made of high-
grade steel. The tongue is usually 16"
long and the blade is divided into di-
visions of an inch. The framing square
is used to "square up stock", to test
large surfaces for warpage, to create
right angles, and to measure with, up
to 24". See figures 201, 202, 203.
514
To NG tiG
1111 1111 111 1 {-ri 11 TITTITT
FIG. 201
34
COr
in
PEm c. 1.
7?1C1-ir
FIG. 202
WARP ET 0ARD
FIG. 203
2. Wood files and rasps are used for shaping and rough smoothing edges
and ends of woodpieces. Small curves and some edges are difficult to
reach with other tools. The final touch is usually with sandpaper.
Files and rasps come in various sizes
and shapes. The size varies from 5 to
14 inches and the shape may be flat,
triangular, round or half round. The
file has a finer set of teeth than does
the rasp, therefore the rasp would be
used first for the roughest cut. Al-
though files and rasps are purchased
many times without handles, a handle
should be used at all times. See fig-
ures 204, 205, and 206.
55
FIG. 204
SM. rCorFiLe
Do ye s. 17-C RAsp
FIG. 205 FIG. 206
3. A glass cutter is a small metal instrument used for scoring the
glass and breaking off the unusable portion. It consists of a cutting
edge (diamond, carborundum). The cutting edge is usually a small wheel
1/8" diameter. The outer edge also has two or three square seated grooves
for gripping various thicknesses of glass -- 1/16", 1/8", 3/16". On
the opposite end from the cutter is a round ball to be used for tapping
or causing the glass to crack along the scored line. See figure 207.
et/TTINC-, W HEE L
FIG. 207
sLors FOR BREAK, kaG. o FFUN WANT ED icRTiots4
56
4. The "claw" hammer is composed of
a handle (usually wood) and the head.
The head is a very important part of
the hammer, it may be a casting or
machined steel. The size of the ham-
mer is determined by the weight of the
head, i.e., 10 oz., 16 oz, etc. This
tool is many times misused. See fig-
ures 208, 209, 210.
FIG. 208
FIG. 210
57
FIG. 211
5. The nail set is a small tool
steel instrument used for driving
the finish nail below the surface
of the wood so that the resulting
hole can be filled and sanded
smooth. Proper nail setting re-
sults in almost obscured nail holes.
See figures 211, 212.
6. Pliers - There are probably more varieties of this tool than any
other piece of hand equipment. This is accounted for by the fact that
the use intended dictates the size, shape and construction of the pliers.
For all around use by the custodian, other than electiical work, proba-
bly the combination pliers is the best. See figure 213. Another type
for general use is the channel-lock or tongue and groove pliers. See
figure 213. Both of the above types are adjustable to grip large or
small objects. Both come in various sizes from 6" to 14".
58
Six or eight inch pliers is about the best size since we may be limited
in the quantity of tools that can be stocked.
Ci4AN MEL LOCI<
FIG. 213
7. Saws are probably the oldest type
of woodworking instrument, other than
possibly the hammer. Stone saws have
been discovered dating as far back as
the stone age. There are many types of
woodworking saws -- the cross-cut, rip,
back, panel, dovetail, compass, keyhole,
and coping saws. A saw is classified as
to its type, size and points per inch.
The length of the common rip or cross-
cut saw is usually 24 and 26 inches.
FIG. 214
59
TRIP
The number of pointh tells how many
teeth there are per inch. (8 points
= 7 inches). The "rip" saw is usually
24-26" long and is rated 8 or 10
points. The panel saw is a cross-cut
saw only shorter in length, (20, 22")
and is rated 10 points. The back saw
is a five-toothed saw, 12 to 14 inches,
very firm with a rigid steel back along
the top edge. The back saw is used in
conjunction with a miter-box. The
dovetail is like a small back saw with
extra fine teeth for close cabinet work.
The compass, keyhole, and coping saws are specialized for work through
small holes and hard to get places.
It only one saw is available, the 26", 10 point, cross-cut saw is
the best all around. A 10 point saw produces a relatively smooth cut
and the cross-cut will rip, however with some difficulty.
If two saws are available, the cross cut 26", 10 point and the 26",
5 1/2 pcint rip saw should be the two saws for all around use.
CROSS C- V T
FIG. 216
60
8, The measuring tape is an essential
part of the "tools of the trade". Ac-
curate measurement cannot be overempha-
sized. Every custodian should have a
6', spring back, metal measuring tape.
This tool can be used for measuring
board length, room size, ceiling height,
and countless other situations requiring
measurement. See figure 217.
9. Tin snips come in a variety of sizes
and shapes depending upon the type of
specialized work attempted. The best
all around snip is the combination,
approximately 8 to 10" long. Tin snips
are used for cutting light guage metals,
metal straps, heavy wire, etc. See fig-
ure 218.
;KW. 218
10. Wood chisels come either in sets from 1/8 to 2", and also as singles.
A. wood chisel is essential for removing recessed sections, for door strike
plates, hinges, notches, etc. The tool must be kept sharp to function
61
as it is intended. If one chisel is to be all that is available, the
1/2 or 3/4" size is recommended. See figure 219.
STEP 1
----"414%- ......1,',
STEP Z.
Sr E P 3
FIG. 219
11. A work bench may consist of a highly refined, factory built unit
with cabinets etc., or it may simply be sturdy lumber supported about
36" high. The most practical approach to a worktable or bench would be
62
one that has no open seams on the top and contains at least 8 square
feet. The bench should be sturdy enough to support at least 100 lbs.
in the center. A vise should be mounted on the most accessible end.
Vises come in many types and sizes, however the best all around
for the custodian is a 3" to 4" jaw with up to a 6" opening and a 3"
to 4" throat depth. The jaw facings should be replaceable since they
are sometimes damaged or chipped. It is also advisable that the vise
be swivel mounted and contain a small anvil surface. The weight may
vary from 10 to 60 lbs.
POWER TOOLS
Ordinarily a course in carpentry would have an entensive section
on power tools, however keeping in mind that we are relating carpentry
to MINOR MAINTENANCE FOR CUSTODIANS, power tools does not enjoy the same
importance. Power tools are indespensable when it comes to producing
a great amount of work to exacting proportions. There is a power tool
for almost every hand operation; sawing, sanding, drillings, turning,
shaping, routing, planing, carving, edging, cutting, hammering, etc.,
however, due to the limited amount of woodworking the custodians should
be called upon to do, power tools are not one of the necessities.
63
FASTENERS
By definition, fastening may be considered the joiaing together of
two or more similar or dissimilar materials. Nails are one of the most
common type of fastener; they come in various sizes and shapes. See
figure 220. The selection of the proper nail is most important from
both an appearance and a safety standpoint. The strength of the
fastening or how well "it holds" depends largely upon the size of the
nail and the direction in which it is driven. If appearance also en-
ters the picture, then a nail should be selected that shows very little
or maybe it should be set and the hole filled and sanded smooth.
a. Nail size is designated by the term "penny". The "common" nail
is larger in diameter and has a head. It is used for rough work and
where the appearance is second to the strength factor. Common nails
are made in the widest range of sizes, i.e., from 4d to 60d (d means
penny).
b. "Box" nails are smaller in length and narrower in diametet.
They are used for lighter work such as crates and boxes. Some box nails
are barbed for the full length of the shaft. The range in size is from
4d to 16d.
c. "Finishing" nails are exactly as the name implies. When appear-
ance becomes a factor, a finishing nail should be used. A finishing nail
has a small round head and is usually "set" below the surface of the
wood, so that the resulting hole may be filled and smoothed over virtually
hiding the nail hole entirely. Finishing nails range in size from 3d to 9d.
61j
i-i,4 J41 BOX
<lt I 1 CO 0
FINISIUNG-
-dr _ it" Qi CAs INC-
!MIMI
11111ittatirit
FIG. 220
CUT
13RAb
ANHUI-AA. TPRE:A
SPIRAL TNR.EA
bOv St.E. NFAbED
MA S oN
AN Pit) LA R TWD. RooFtMG-
V V VFIG. 221
65
d. "Casing" nails are very similar to finishing nails, however the
head is cone-shaped, giving it better holding power. Casing nails are
used for interior trim and some cabinet work. Some are resin coated to
increase the holding power. The range in size for the casing nail is
usually from 4d to 10d.
e. "Brads" are just like small finishing nails. Brads are used
for very fine work where strength is not of primary importance, however
appearance is uppermost. The brad, when driven and set leaves only a
small obscure hole and can be hidden very easily. In many cases gluing
accompanies the use of the brad. The range in size is usually 1" or less.
(Notice for this small nail the term "penny" changes to parts of an inch.)
f. "Special purpose nails" come in a wide variety. A few examples
are shown in Figure 220. These nails come in many types of material
such as copper, iron, steel, aluminum and bronze and are designed for
maximum holding power. The various corrugation designs and coatings
tend to increase the cost considerably.
There are a few rules to follow when selecting and using nails:
1. The nail should be 3 times the length of the thickness of the
first board.
2. The diameter of the nail should not be too thick so as to split
the wood.
3. Drill pilot holes in hard woods such as maple, oak, etc.
4. Don't put nails in your mouth while working.
66
g. Staples and corrugated fasten-
ers are also used to join materials.
See figure 222. The corrugated fas-
tener. is used to join two pieces of
the same size wood, at corners, or
butt joints as in picture framing.
The fastener is driven at a right
angle and across the seam. See fig-
ure 222.FIG. 222
h. Wood screws -- screws provide much more holding power than nails,
and also provide for disassembly of the project. They are considerably
more expensive and therefore are used usually in finer cabinet work,
higher priced furniture construction.
Wood screws are classified as to length, diameter, head shape, and
type of material. Screws are manufactured in sizes from 1/4" to 6" in
length and range in diameter from 0 to 24. See figure 223. The shape
of the head may be round, flat or oval. The material may be brass, steel,
iron, or aluminum. An example of proper ordering for wood screws would
be: 1 1/2 - #10, round head, bright. This would indicate a 1 1/2", .190
diameter, round standard slotted head made of bright steel possibly
nickel plated. The head of the screw may be standard slotted or phillips
head. See figure 223.
67
A
L
1H
ROI.; N F-LAT
SLOTTSZ
FIG. 223
The proper method for driving a wood screw is to:
OVAL
1. Select the proper size of screw (approximately 2/3 of the screw
should be in the second piece of wood). Where thickness of
material will not permit, use "good judgement".
2. Select the desired type head and finish.
3. Drill a pilot hole in both
pieces to be fastened. (The To E? ei:-VGGe-M
COUNTER. 501;?..Esize to be the same as the
"root" diameter of theHA0 K. (GuAo-e)
Courirr5K UtriK
screw.) See figure 224.
4. Drill a shank hole in the p)1,07- (FtooT Omp
first piece only. (The size
is the same as the diameter
of the screw.)
68
FIG. 224
Rial-i-r
SC(' t:RivER.Ti Pk.
SC RE W DRIv ERM tICTFIT-
S Lor
l Teo NG.
FIG. 225
69
5. Drill a countersunk hole from 1/8 to 1/4" below surface of
the first piece of wood. (The size to be the same as the
diameter of the head).
6. Counterbore to the depth of the counter sink. (Same as screw
head diameter).
7. Select proper screw driver. See figure 225.
8. After inserting screw to full tightness (careful not to strip
threads in wood), fill bored hole with putty or plug.
9. Sand and smooth.
Note: Where a round head screw is used, steps #5 and #6 may be eliminated.
Where appearance is not paramount, step #6 may be eliminated.
Other types of screws are the lag screw, screw eye, screw hook and
cup screw. These screws are used for special purposes. The lag screw
has a bolt head and must be driven with a wrench instead of a screw
driver. (Do not use pliers as the head will be damaged.)
Pilot holes should be used for all wood screws, as this not only
makes them easier to drive, but prevents the splitting Of the wood.
i. Corner irons and corner brackets are the most common type of
special joining devices. See figure 226. One needs only to glance in
a well stocked hardware department to see the wide variety of such items.
Brackets and irons are used to strengthen corners and butt joints. Where
the bracket shoWs, a fancy type should be used.
4.
70
I o o
FIG. 226
j. For the purpose of grouping, we will include "adhesives" as a
fastener of materials. An adhesive is glue, cement, or mucilage. The
selection of an adhesive may appear to be a very simple operation, how-
ever, there are some very important considerations.
1. What materials are to be joined? Wood is porus; more porus
on end grain.
2. How much gap is left between the joint? Some adhesives
require a gap, others do not. Some joints have to be
slotted to create an open space for the adhesive.
3. Some adhesives "set" or dry fast, requiring utmost speed
in assembly.
4. Some adhesives are slow setting, requiring a clamp arrange-
ment until the joint is permanently set.
Adhesives may be purchased already prepared and mixed, ready to use.
Other adhesives require mixing either with water or a prepared catalyst.
(Such as some epoxies). Usually a nail or a screw used in conjunction
with a glue joint creates the best and most permanent construction. The
use of an adhesive is usually limited to fine cabinet or expensive construction.
71
C. JOB DESCRIPTION AND METHOD:
I. SHELVING: Shelving may be constructed as free standing, wall
mounted, floor mounted or ceiling mounted. Obviously the prime consi-
derations should be strength and appearance. Almost all custodians
build shelves in their own custodial storerooms and custodial closets
to hold cleaning supplies and equipment. Many times shelves are re-
quested in the halls, classrooms, locker room, cafeteria, etc., pri-
marily to hold school books.
FREE STANDING SHELVES
A free standing shelf or shelves means that the construction is a
unit that depends upon itself to be stable and true without the aid of
a wall. Movable book cases are typical examples of free standing shelves.
The principle parts of free standing shelves are:
a. top shelf
b. bottom shelf
c. intermediate shelves
d. sides
e. back
f. feet or legs
Tools needed:
a. crosscut hand saw
b. screw driver
c. carpenters square
d. hand drill and bits
e. hammer
f. nails and screws
72
Procedure:
1. Determine height, width, depth.
2. Determine how rmay shelves.
3. Decide whether legs or not. (The two sides and back may act
as legs, allow at least 5" from floor to first shelf for
cleaning underneath).
4. Sketch simple diagram showing corners and measurements. See
figure 227. a.t
FIG. 227
5. Shelf stock is usually 1" x 12" x 48" (anything over 48" will
require additional support to prevent sagging).
6. Square up and saw to size the two sides. (36" less th.<1 thickness
of the top shelf 3/4"). One inch stock is finished at 3/4".
See figure 228.
4,M1TOP SPIELS 1" STocK IS DRESSED
COT SIDES To_OVERAL L lat4T
LESS a." To A glow FOR "TeP41"
fIG. 228
73
7. Square up and cut top shelf - 48".
8. Square up and cut bottom and intermediate shelves 36" less
the thickness of the two sides - 1 1/2".
9. If blocks are used to support shelves - square up and cut blocks
(use quarter round or any suitable strip up to 1" x 1").
10. Shelves may be supported in various ways. See figure 229.
131.ocx.
tB urr DAD 0
FIG. 229
11. A complete backing of either 1/4 plywood or 1/8 fiber board
is used to keep the unit square and also to prevent objects
being pushed through the shelves. Square up and cut backing
48" x 36" or the height from lower edge of bottom shelf to top
edge of top shelf.
WALL MOUNTED SHELVES
Wall mounted shelves are not as strong as other types therefore a
narrower board (1 x 8) should be used to preclude heavy objects being
placed on them.
Materials needed:
a. 2 shelf brackets
b. shelf 1" x 8" x 48"
714
c. Wood screws - 1/2 #8 flat head
d. 2 toggle or molly bolts. See figure 230.
ToaGL5 Bot.T*
FIG. 230
e. 2-1 1/4, #10 flat head wood screws
f. 2 plastic or lead shields
g. adhesive (optional)
rio Bo LT
Procedure:
1. The floor is assumed to be level therefore measure up from the
floor, the desired height of the shelf and draw a light pencil
line (horizontal).
2. Draw another line 3/4" beneath the first line.
3. Hold shelf bracket in position with top against the lower pencil
line.
4. With pencil mark both holes on wall.
5. Do the same with second shelf bracket. j'&4v
Allow 6" in from each end. See fig-
ure 231.
75
MARK FloLESON WALL
RIG. 231
6. Determine wall construction (hollow or solid).
7. If hollow, drill appropriate size hole through wall to fit
toggle or molly.
8. Fasten both shelf brackets by sliding in toggle or molly and
tightening firmly with screwdriver.
9. Square up, and cut shelf stock (refinish at this point). See
Chapter for wood finishing.
10. Center shelf on brackets and insert wood screws.
Note: If wall is solid, use a lead shield, and drill appropriate
hole to fit the shield -- then proceed as directed. See figure 232.
_
DRILLHOLF-'
f`1SERTSHIC-Lb
FIG. 232
SCREW Ind(30 LT On SCREW
FLOOR MOUNTED SHELVES
The difference between free standing and floor mounted shelves is
primarily that floor mounted shelves depend upon two factors for perm-
76
7
anent support:
1. the floor
2. a wall or another permanent vertical structure
Free standing shelves depend upon:
1. the floor only
Wall mounted shelves depend upon
1. the wall only
Materials Needed:
a. vertical supports (may be 1 x 2, 2 x 2, 1 x 6, 8, 10, 12)
b. appropriate shelving (1 x 6, 8, 10, 12)
c. necessary finishing nails or flat head wood screws
d. shelf support strips (optional)
e. wall plate strip or angle irons
f. toggle, molly or shields
g. adhesive (optional)
Procedure:
1. Decide on type of vertical support, size of shelf, and number
of shelves, depending upon the use.
2. Determine spacing between shelves.
3. Decide on method of support (for each shelf and on the wall.)
4. If 1 x 2, 2 x 2, or 2 x 4 supports are used:
a. Cut to length and notch out all four supports at the pro-
per intervals by using a crosscut saw and cutting 1/3
the thickness of the support. See figure 233.
77
NOTC H A1 x2,. or- 2$1-
To FIT S wri-P
FIG. 233
CUT 51.162T Le/40-711slx7_ rt zx4
1S TArtCE eETWSAW S I-) SI- A"01,Mau Tv stYPP5RT
b. Square and cut the shelves to length.
c. Fasten each shelf in the four notches provided, by nail or
wood screw. Counter sink if desired. See figure 233.
d. Complete assembly for all shelves and stand against wall.
5. If vertical supports are to be 2 solid
a. Square and cut both end pieces
to length.
b. Measure distances between shelves
on both end pieces.
c. Start finishing nails or drill for
wood screws at proper places.
See figure 234.
d. Square and cut shelves to length.
78
P-oR SC ftEui
FIG. 234
e. Fasten each shelf to end supports.
f. Add shelf support strips if desired.
g. Assemble all shelves.
h. Stand against wall.
6. In order to achieve stability the shelf unit must be supported
by the wall.
a. Cut a wall strip to proper length.
b. Make sure unit is plumb. See figure 235.
c. While holding strip against the wall immediately underneath
top shelf draw a light pencil line on wall.
d. Prepare wall for strip by drilling proper hole for 2 toggles,
mollys or shields.
FL v r-1
FrG. 235
79
r--;
e. Fasten strip to wall.
f. Secure top shelf to strip by nails, screws or 2 angle irons.
Note: Adhesive may be used at all shelf joints along with nails or
screws.
II. FURNITURE REPAIR (wood): School furniture, although constructed
rather sturdy, is sometimes in need of repair. When we speak of repair,
we mean replacing or re-securing broken members or parts, and then re-
finishing the surface. To determine whether the custodian tackles such
a job depends upon, policy and severity of the damage.
The type of furniture repair usually encountered is listed:
1. Broken rungs or stools or chairs.
2. Broken or cracked wooden seats.
3. Broken legs on tables, chairs or stools.
4. Loose joints on corners, drawers, rungs, legs.
5. Peeling veneers.
Again for the purpose of "Minor Maintenance", the procedures that
follow will refer only to repair rather than replace (fashion or con-
struct a new member).
LOOSE JOINTS
Factory made joints are usually glued and may have nails or screws
added for strength.
Procedure:
1. If possible, remove the member completely from its socket; or
separate if it is a corner.
80
2. Completely clean the joint or socket. Note: If socket is en-
larged and the wood is deteriorated, a tight, strengthened soc-
ket will have to be created.
3. Examine the joint or socket carefully, and use plastic wood
or shims to repair splintered areas.
4. If screw holes have been stripped, make new holes as close as
possible or fill the old ones. See figure 236.
('r EX)Sc ArldiE
INse-Kr woo Deli MATC tt S'S
A Mb BREAK 0 g g FivoS1-4
lAirrW SURFACE of HALE
S AT vgAT w (T14 GLuEAltb Re ASSEmaJatm-r
FIG. 236
5. Apply adhesive to joint and reassemble members.
6. Reinsert screws or nails if necessary. (longer screws may be
advisable)
-81
7. Devise a clamp arrangement to hold members together until
adhesive is set. See figure 237.
WAS HER.
PULL ROPEX.:kiTIGHT A m
R.AP A It toJA1VS D F
_ CL4rnP
boueLeHINGE
FIG. 237
W G E 51 -DCi1S
CRACKED, FRACTURED OR BROKEN MEMBERS
Whether the broken or splintered section can be repaired depends
upon the type of break and its location.
If the broken member is a support piece it may not be advisable
to repair it.
82
If the broken member is a decora-
tive piece that has no structural sig-
nificance then it may be highly advis-
able to repair it. There are various
kinds of breaks and each requires def-
inite analysis before attempting to
do a repair. See figure 238.
N POSSI
FIG. 238
Most school furniture is purchased in quantity and over a period of
yeafs a few pieces may have been rendered useless. Some schools have
a storage area where extra rungs, legs, etc. are available for replace-
ment parts. Where the parts are identical, replacement can be made,
which proves highly satisfactory.
III. WINDOW GLAZING AND REPLACEMENT: Cracked or broken window
glass enjoys probably the highest rate of incidence over any other
single accident or vandalism problem. Aside from the appearance aspect,
there is a safety factor involved.
Broken glass in windows, doors, or showcases must receive immediate
attention by the custodian, even if the county policy dictates that the
Maintenance Department must make the repair. At the very least, the
custodian should sweep the broken glass, remove all loose glass in the
lite, and cover all raw edges. It is advisable to wear gloves during
this operation.
83
REMOVAL OF BROKEN PANE
Procedure:
1. Start at top of lite and
remove putty with a knife.
See figure 239.
2. Remove glazing points if
used.
3. As soon as upper sections
of the broken glass are
free of putty and points,
remove the glass and place
in a container. Continue
until all glass is removed.
4. As the glass is being re-
moved, grip each piece well
with a glove.
5. Small pieces and slivers can
be handled with parallel jaw
pliers by attaching a small
piece of masking tape to the
pieces to be removed. See
figure 240.
6. The sash should be cleaned of
all old putty and points.
REmovsPerry
RepioVE uPPER1, -LASS izIRST
, I,G IR ir wiTW 01,,,c_. I
8!
,FIG. 239
.
7. The opening may now be covered by inserting (to size) plywood,
hardboard, cardboard, or any other suitable material to protect
the interior from the elements.
REPLACEMENT WITH NEW GLASS
Procedure:
1. Measure opening -- height
and width.
2. Select matching glass
(strength, etc.)
3. Cut glass 1/8" under the
measured opening.
4. Lay in a bead of back
putty around the perimeter
of the opening. See fig-
ure 241.
5. Insert new glass and press
into bead, forming a seal
between the wood and the
glass.
6. Insert.glazing points. See Co r-spouti
figure 242.
BD la ofBACK Purry
FIG. 241
.RZSti LT irsiG. sNEAL.,EF(77te.. FINAL
comPoor4bis A Li SD
BAcg Purr/
Cl-AzINcr.Pc I,4
GLAzINIG-
85
FIG. 242
1. Lay in a bead of glazing
compound and trim with
putty knife. The putty
should not be thicker
than the interior wood
sash frame. See figure
243.
8. Clean glass both sides.
9. Prime and paint the new
putty to prevent drying
and cracking.
FIG. 243
GLASS CUTTING
Procedure:
1. Select a level surface to work on.
2. Lay down several thicknesses of newspaper (smooth-no wrinkles).
3. If a large piece of wrapping paper is available, place it over
the newspapers.
4. Using a framing square, draw the exact size of the glass.
5. "Square up", twc sides of the glass over the diagram.
6. With a rag or brush wet the surface of the glass over the line
to be cut with mineral spirits.
7. Using a straight edge, firmly held against the glass, "SCORE"
the upper edge about 1/4" with the glass cutter. See figure 244.
86
'*
FIG. 244
CLASS Sorb oRni tios.-. 117 71-11$
PDINT BEF0 RESCORIMG. R tr-s-r o
S
8. Holding the glass cutter firmly against the straight edge and
over the line, using even firm pressure, draw the cutter down
along the edge in one continous stroke, until off the glass.
(Do not score back and forth, or try to go over the line again.)
9. Slide the glass over the edge of table -- Grip the unwanted
portion with a glove hand applying a slight downward pressure--
smartly tap the underside directly under the score with the ball
on the handle of the glass cutter. See figure 245.
87
FIG. 245
10. Glass should split along the scored line, without irregular-
ities. See figure 246.
Note: If the glass splits in a curve off the line, repeat
step 9 from opposite end. Glass will now have a irregularity
as in figure 247. Use the notches in the glass cutter to chip
off the unwanted portions. Take precautions against flying
chips.
Extra Note: Glass that has been inaccurately measured and
cut slightly overside, is Extremely Difficult to trim and
should not be attempted.
11. After the glass has been cut, the sharp edge should be either
filed with a fine file or abrased with emory cloth.
88
"FIG. 246
Si.ecr.?ROPE Z3 Lor
FIG. 247
89
g
IV. WINDOTJS
To repair a venetian blind.
The principle parts of a venetian blind are:
1. Header or top rail
2. Bottom rail
3. Slats
t. Cord (tilting & raising)
5. Tape
6. Cord lock
7. Tilter
The header contains the hardware i.e., pullies, tilting mechanism,
and cord lock. See figure 248.
Procedure (To replace all or part)
1. Remove blind from window.
2. Hang blind (fully extended)
by looping around extreme ends
of header. (Two hooks with loops
attached can be pre arranged in
the custodial room.)
3. Untie knots in cord at bot-
tom rail.
Z,. Pull old raising cord com-
pletely out of blind.
5. Remove slats.
6. Remove tape (usually stapled
to top and bottom rail).
90
CORD
MAUI Rocr)S..
TorTAPE RAIL
I I
TAP erAeiCF b TORAtt.s
fso-rromRout.
K Nor .
FIG. 248
7. Check pullies & remove tilting cord.
8. Clean all parts i.e., slats, rails etc.
9. Cut new tape to exact length of window so that when blind is in-
stalled and extended the bottom rail is about 1/14H above sill.
10. Retack new tape to both rails.
11. Replace cleaned slats, one on each loop.
12. Cut new raisins cord h x the length of the blind, plus (1) width.
13. Thread new cord through lock, pullies and slats and knot under
bottom rail.
lh. Cut new tilting cord (1 3/h) x the length of the blind and in-
stall through tilting mechanism.
15. Check workings before installing in window.
16. Pull cord should be knotted about 3/h way up the blind to enable
even raising of both sides.
To repair cord & weight in double orsingle hung windows.
A double hung window is one in
which both the upper half and the
lower half can be raised or lowered.
In a single hung window, the lower
half only is able to be raised.
Procedure
1. Remove the inside stop on both
sides (careful not to destroy the
wood, otherwise replacement may be
necessary).
B LC. A S 1 G
RTI
STiti
91
FIG. 2)49
2. In some cases the parting strip will also have to be removed.
3. Slide window out and remove the chain or cord fastened to the
sash on either side.
). Remove the pocket. (If there is no pocket, the inside trim and
blind casing will have to be removed to expose the weights.) See
figure 2149.
5. Unfasten the old cord or chain from the weights.
6. Cut new cord the same length as the old one.
7. Thread cord through pulley by using a string & weight first,
then pull the cord through.
8. Fasten new cord to both weights and window sash.
9. Replace casings or pockets.
10. Reset window.
11. Check movement of window.
12. Reinstall inside stop.
13. Bar soap rubbed on edges of sash can prevent binding.
92 , 93
Cti-ArrcR titPLOti6(Nlq
PLUI.D3I1 G DEFINITIONS
ADJUSTABLE PIPE HANGER - A pipe hanger consisting of a beam clamp,
an adjustable rod, and an adjustable ring.
AIR ESCAPE - A contrivance for discharging excess air from a water
pipe. It consists of a ball cock which opens the discharging
air valve when sufficient air has collected and closes it in
time to prevent loss of water.
AIR TRAP - A water-sealed trap which prevents foul air or foul odors
from rising from sinks, wash basins, drain pipes, and sewers.
BACK FLOW The flow of water or sewage in the direction opposite to
its normal flow.
BACK FLOW VALVE - A contrivance inserted in the drain of a house or
other building to prevent a reversal of the flow of sewage. Its
chief function is to prevent a flood and the resulting damage
which might be caused by the overflowing of a combination type of
public sewerage.
BACK PRESSURE - Air pressure in pipes when it is greater than the
atmospheric pressure.
BACK VENT - A pipe for ventilating purposes, attached to a waste pipe
on the sewer side of its trap to prevent siphonage of waste or
superfluous fluid.
BACKWATER FLAP - A type of valve in which back flow of a liquid is
prevented by a hinged metal flap fitted in an intercepting chamber,
so as to allow the flow of water in one direction only.
BACKWATER VALVE - An automatic valve placed in the sewer lateral, to
keep sewage from backing into the basement or into plumbing
fixtures during times of heavy rains and flood periods.
BALL COCK A self-regulating faucet which is opened or closed by
the rising and falling of a hollow ball floating on the surface
of the water.
BALL VALVE - A type of water valve which regulates the flow of water
in a tank by means of a floating ball; this ball fits on the end
of a leger, and by its rise-and fall, due to suction and its own
weight, allows water to flow, then shuts it off when it reaches
a certain height.
BELL-AND-SPIGOT-JOINT - A common type of joint for cast-iron pipes,
each length of pipe being made with an enlarged or bell end and
a plain or spigot end; the spigot end of one length fitting
into the bell end of the next length, the joint being tight by
calking. Sometimes called spigot-and-socket joint.
BIB - A faucet or tap. A water faucet threaded so a hose may be
attached to carry water. Also spelled bibb.
BIBCOCK - A faucet fitted with a nozzle curving downward, used as a
draw-off tap.
BIB NOZZLE - A faucet or stopcock bent or curved downward.
BIB VALVE - A draw-off tap of the type used for a domestic water supply.
It is closed by the screwing down of a leather-washered disc
onto a seating in the valve body.
BULLHEAD TEE - A tee with a branch longer than the run; also, one having
an outlet larger than the opening on the run.
96
CALIDUCT - A pipe for conveying hot air, hot water, or steam for heat-
ing purposes.
CALKING TOOL - A tool used for driving tarred oakum, cotton, and other
materials into seams and crevices to make joints watertight and
airtight. The calking tool is made of steel and in appearance
somewhat resembles a chisel.
CALK JOINT A joint packed with oakum and finished with molten lead.
CAST-IRON PIPES Pipes made of cast-iron to meet the various require-
ments of a sewerage or drainage system.
CATCH BASIN - A cistern, or depression, at the point where a gutter
discharges into a sewer to catch any object which would not read-
ily pass through the sewers; a reservoir to catch and retain
surface drainage; a receptacle at an opening into a sewer to
retain any matter which would not easily pass through the sewer;
a trap to catch and hold fats, grease, and oil from kitchen sinks
to prevent them from passing into the sewer.
CESSPOOL - A pit or cistern in a drain for the reception or detention
of sewage. Also, a small square wooden box, lined with lead,
which serves as a cistern in the gutter of a parapet at a point
where the roof water is discharged into a down pipe.
CHECK VALVE - A valve preventing the backflow of water or other liquid
by automatically closing.
CLEANOUT - A unit with removable plate or plug affording access into
plumbing or other drainage pipes for cleaning out extraneous
material.
97
CLEANOUT FOR HOUSE DRAIN - A branch pipe which leads from the main
drain pipe through the floor of a building. The clean-out pipe
is equipped with a removable brass cover, making access to the
main pipe possible when it becomes necessary to remove waste
material which clogs the system.
CLOSE NIPPLE - A nipple twice as long as standard pipe thread, with
no shoulder between the two sets of threads.
COCK - A type of valve with an opening to permit the passage of liquids,
a faucet or tap, as over a kitchen sink.
COLLECTION LINE - That part of a plumbing system which receives the dis-
charge of all soil and waste stacks within the building and conveys
it to the house sewer. It may be installed under ground or it
may be suspended from the basement ceiling.
CONDENSATION PUMP - In fitting steam pipes, a device for removing liquid
condensation from steam returns.
CONDUCTOR - A pipe for conveying rain water from the roof gutter to the
drain pipe. Also called leader, downspout, or down 24 22.
CORPORATION COCK - A device installed to serve as a control stop
for the city-water service, when the main is tapped without
shutting off the city-water supply.
CORROSION - The oxidation, or rusting, of metals caused by contact and
chemical union with oxygen in a damp atmosphere.
COUPLING - A short collar, with only inside threads at each end, for
receiving the ends of two pipes which are to be fitted and joined
together.
98
CUP JOINT - A socket joint formed between two small pipes in the
same line, by opening out the end of one pipe to receive the
tapered end of the other. The joint is then made firm by
filling the space surrounding the lapped ends with moulten solder.
CURB BOX - A contrivance which usually consists of a tube-like casing
or a long piece of pipe, placed over a curb cock, through which
a key is inserted to permit the turning of the curb cock.
CURB COCK - A control stop installed in a water-servi:e pipe between
the curb and the sidewalk. Such a device makes it possible to
shut off the water supply from a building if it is to be closed
for any reason, or in time of an emergency, such as a flood.
DEAD END - The extended portion of a pipe between a closed el:d and
the connection nearest to it, forming a dead pocket in which
there is no circulation, hence permitting the stagnation of water
or air contained in the extended and closed end of the pipe.
DEEP-SEAL TRAP - A. waterseal trap which has twice the depth of a
common-seal tram. The deep-seal trap, having a water column of
four inches in depth, is used ordinarily for only abnormal conditions.
DISTRIBUTION TILE - Concrete or clay tile without Dell mouths. These
tile are laid with a little space at each joint, in lines which
fan out from a septic tank distribution box.
DOG-EARED FOLD - A folding joint formed at the corner of sheet lead
tray.
DOWN PIPE - A spout or pipe, usually vertical, to carry rain water
from a roof to the drain.
99
DRAIN - Any pipe, channel, or trench by means of which waste water or
other liquid is carried off, as to a sewer pipe.
DRAIN COCK - A small valve placed at a low point in a pipe line to
allow for draining.
DRAINTILE RECEPTOR - A device consisting of a P trap of deep seal,
into which an ordinary cast -iron tee is calked. The top opening
of the tee may be provided with either a clean-out plug or a
floor-drain strainer.
DRIFT PLUG - A wooden plug driven through a lead pipe to straighten
out a kink.
DROP ELBOW - An elbow used for joining pipes, having one or two ears
or lugs for attachement to a wall; also, a small ell frequently
used where gas is put into a building. Such fittings have wings
cut on each side to permit fastening to a wall or framing timbers.
DROP TEE or T - A small tee piece which has the same type of wings
as a drop elbow.
ELBOW - In pipe work of any kind, a short fitting connecting two pipes
at a right angle. Also-called ell.
FLASHING - Piece of lead, tin, or sheet metal--either copper or gal-
vanized iron--used around dormers, chimneys, or any rising
projection, such as window heads, cornices, and angles between
different members or any place where there is danger of leakage
from rain water or snow. These metal pieces are worked in with
the shingles of the roof or other construction materials used.
FLOAT VALVE - A valve consisting of a hollow ball floating on the
100
surface of water, shutting off the supply at the intake, as in
a toilet tank.
FLOOR DRAIN - A plumbing fixture used to drain water from floors into
the plumbing system. Such drains are usually located in the
showers, restrooms, and near the furnace and are fitted with a
deep seal trap.
FLUSH VALVE - A valve by means of which a fixture is flushed by using
water directly from the water-supply pipes or in connection with
a special flush tank.
FULLER'S FAUCET - A faucet in which a rubber ball is forced into the
opening to stop the flow of water.
GALVANIZED IRON - Sheet iron which is protected against rust by a coating
of zinc.
GASKET - Plaited hemp or cotton yarn wound around the spigot end of a
pipe at a joint. The hemp or cotton is forced into the socket of
the mating pipe to form a tight joint.
GAS PLIERS - Stout pliers having narrow jaws whose gripping faces are
concave with the edges notched like teeth; to provide a secure
grip on small pipe or round objects.
GATE VALVE - A valve consisting of a brass casting into which is fitted
a brass gate. The gate is lifted and lowered by means of a screw
stem which is operated by a cast-iron wheel handle. A slight
pressure of the hand turns the handle.
GLOBE VALVE - A kind of valve in which a disk which is operezed by a
screw and hand wheel seats on a circular opening; so installed
that pressure is applied on the underside of the seat.
101
WATER SYSTEM - Any water system in which flow occurs under
the natural pressure due to gravity.
GREASE TRAP - An interceptor, or trap, placed in the drain or waste
pipe, to prevent waste grease from passing into the sewer system
where it will eventually cause trouble in the plumbing.
GROUND WATER - A term applied to water naturally contained in, or
passing through, the ground or subsoil.
HYDRAULIC JOINT-- A type of joint used in large water mains where
sheet lead is forced tightly into the bell of a pipe by the
hydraulic pressure of a liquid.
INCREASER - In pipe work of any kind, a coupling with one end larger
than the other. In plumbing, the increaser is generally used
at the top of the vent stack as a means of preventing vapor from
freezing and clogging the stack in severe climates.
INTERNAL-PARTITION TRAPS - A type of trap which forms its seal by
means of an internal partition.
INVERT - The lowest portion of the inside surface of the cross section
of any drain pipe or sewer conduit which is not ve.tical.
LAVATORY - A basin for washing the hands and face; a place in a hotel
or school building for washing the face and hands; any room
equipped with running water, drainpipe, and fixed bowls, or
basins, for washing the face and hands.
LEADER - A pipe or downspout which carries rain water from the gutter
to the ground or to a sewer connection; in a heating system, a
pipe which conducts warm air from the furnace to the various
rooms which are to be heated.
102
LEAD JOINT - A term usually applied to the forming of a joint between
successive lengths of large water pipes. This is done by pouring
molten lead into the annular space between a bell and spigot and
then making the joint tight by calking.
LEAD WOOL - A specially prepared lead fiber consisting of fine threads
which is used in place of molten lead in making pipe joints.
LINE PIPE - A test pipe having recessed and taper-thread couplings,
usually with greater length of thread than Briggs' standard.
LIP UNION - A particular type of union which has a lip for preventing
the gasket from being squeezed into the pipe so as to obstruct
the flow.
LOOP OR CIRCUIT VENT - The extension of a horizontal soil pipe beyond
the connection at which liquid wastes from a fixture enter the pipe.
The extension usually is vertical directly beyond its connection
to the soil or waste pipe. The base of the vertical portion of
the vent may be connected to the horizontal portion of the soil
or waste stack between the fixtures which are connected to the pipe.
MALLEABLE-IRON PIPE HANGER - A pipe hanger consisting of a lag screw,
a piece of pipe, a socket, and an adjustable ring.
MECHANICALLY SEALED TRAP - A type of sealed trap, provided with a hollow
metal ball which drops into the seat after each flush of the fixture.
METER STOP - A device placed on a water service-pipe to serve as a
controlling stop for the building installation.
NIPPLE - A short length of pipe threaded externally at both ends, for
fitting into and connecting two lengths of internally threaded pipes.
103
OFFSET PIPE - In pipe work of any kind, a section of pipe which leads
around some obstacle.
ON CENTER. - A term used in taking measurements, meaning the distance
from the. center of one structural member to the center of a
corresponding member, as in the spacing of studding, girders,
joists, or other structural members.
OVERFLOW PIPE - A pipe provided to carry off excess water from a
tank; also, an emergency outlet for a tank.
PILLAR FAUCET - A faucet or valve joined vertically to a source or
supply of water. Also called pillar tap.
PIPE COUPLING - A short collar consisting of a threaded sleeve used to
connect two pipes.
PIPE CUTTER - A tool used for cutting steel or wrought-iron pipes. The
curved end of the tool partly encircles the pipe and carries
one or more cutting disks. As the tool is rotated around the pipe,
a screw regulates the feed of the cutter.
PIPE DIE - A screw plate used for cutting threads on pipe.
PIPE FITTINGS - A term used in reference to ells, tees, and various
branch connectors used in connecting pipes.
PIPE HANGERS - A term applied to various types of supports, such as
clamps and brackets, for cast-iron or galvanized steel soil pipes.
PIPE THREAD - A V-shaped thread cut on a taper of 3/4 of an inch per
foot, which insures a perfectly tight joint; used on pipes and
tubing.
PIPE VISE- There are two kinds of pipe vises used in the plumbing
104
trade--the hinged-side type with V jaws for small pipes and
the chain type used for large pipes.
PLUG - A threaded fitting used to close the end of a valve, union or
coupling.
PLUMB - "True" according to a plumb line; perpendicular; vertical; to
true up vertically as a wall by use of a plumb line.
PLUMB BOB - A weight attached to a line for testing perpendicular
surfaces for trueness; also, to test or adjust with a plumb line.
PLUMB LINE - A strong, heavy string or cord with a weight on one end.
It is used to establish a perpendicular line.
POURING ROPE - An asbestos rope used during the process of making a
horizontal calk joint. After the joint has been filled with
oakum, the pouring rope is placed in position and held with a
clamp. A small quantity of clay is then applied to the rope which
is built into a well into which the hot lead is poured to complete
the calking of the joint.
REDUCER - Any one of the various pipe connections, such as a reducing
sleeve, reducing ell, or reducing tee; so constructed as to permit
of the joining of pipes of different sizes.
RISER PIPE - A vertical pipe which rises from one floor level to another
floor level, for the purpose of conducting steam, water, or gas
from one floor to another.
ROOF TaMINAL - The upper end of a soil pipe, usually consisting of a
cast-iron pipe which extends about 18 inches above the surface
of a roof. In cold climates, roof terminals are designed to resist
closure by frost.
105
ROUGHING-IN - In building, a term applied to doing the first or rough
work on any part of the construction, as roughing-in plastering,
plumbing, and stairs.
RUN - That part of a pipe or fitting which continues in the same
straight line as the direction of flow in the pipe to which it
is connected.
RUST JOINT - A watertight joint between adjoining lengths of guttering
or pipes, in which some oxidizing agent is employed either to
cure a leak or to withstand high pressure. Such a joint is
formed by packing the socket with a mixture of iron filings.
crushed sal ammoniac, and sulphur.
SEAL - The presence of water in the lower section of the U of a trap,
the purpose of which is to prevent noxious gasses and/or odors
from finding their way from the sewage system into the residence
or other structure being served.
SERVICE ELL - An elbow having an outside thread on one end.
SERVICE PIPE - A pipe which connects a structure with a water or gas
main.
SERVICE TEE - A tee having inside threads on one end and on the branch,
but having outside threads on the other end of the run.
SEWAGE - Any waste material carried away by a sewer. Also called sewerage.
SEWER - A pipe or closed channel for carrying away sewage, storm water,
or waste water from industrial plants for sanitary purposes.
SEWER GAS - A self-generated combustible gas which collects in sewer
pipes and tanks. It has a slow rate of flame propagation.
106
SEWER. PIPE - A conduit or pipe for carrying off water or sewage. Such
pipes usually are made of cast iron or clay tile.
SEWER TRAP - A device in a sewer system which prevents sewer gas from
entering a branch pipe leading to a building.
SILL COCK - A. water faucet which is placed at about sill height on
the outside of a building. Sometimes called hose cock or hose
bib.
SINK BIB - A device such as a stopcock used for starting and stopping
the flow of water into a kitchen sink; a bib nozzle.
SIPHON TRAP - A trap fitted to water closets and sinks having a double
bend like an S on its side, the lower bend containing the water
seal which prevents the reflux of foul odors and gases.
SLOP SINK - A type of sink used for the disposal of scrub water and
for other purposes. It is constructed with a trap standard to
the floor or to the wall. The basin receptacle is deep enough
to allow a pail to be placed under the water supply device.
SOIL PIPE - A vertical drain pipe conveying waste matter from a water
closet to the drainage system of a building.
SOIL STACK - The main vertical pipe which receives waste material from
all fixtures.
SPIGOT - The plain end of a pipe which enters the enlarged end of the
next pipe to form a joint between the two lengths; the plug or peg
used to close the vent in a pipe. A term sometimes applied to a
faucet or cock.
SPIGOT-AND-SOCKET JOINT - Each length of cast-iron pipe is made with a
107
plain or spigot end of cue length fitting into the enlarged or
socket end of the next length.
STACK PARTITION - A partition wall which carries the stack or soil
pipe; sometimes constructed with 2 x 6 or 2 x 8 studs, and con-
tinuous from first floor to attic lines.
STANDPIPE - A tall vertical pipe for holding a liquid such as water;
used to secure a uniform pressure in a city water--supply system.
STILLSON WRENCH - The pipe wrench which is commonly used by plumbers;
named for its inventor.
STOPCOCK - A type of valve consisting of a body with a tapered opelting
into which a plug of corresponding taper is fitted. The flow can
be turned on or off by turning the plug through an arc of 90
degrees.
STRAIGHT TEE - A tee which has all openings of the same size.
STRAP PIPE HANGER - A pipe hanger consisting of a metal strap or band
nailed or screwed to the ceiling or a rafter, and slung around
a suspended pipe.
SUMP - A pit or depression in a building where water is allowed to
accumulate; for example, in a basement floor to collect seepage
or a depression in the roof of a building for receiving rain
water and delivering it to the downspout. A device used for
removing water from such a depression is known as s sump pump.
SWEAT JOINT - A type of joint made by the union of two pieces of
copper pipe which are coated with solder containing tin. The
pipes are pressed together and heat applied until the solder melts.
108
TEE - In pipe work of any kind, a fitting used in connecting pipe lengths,
one of which is to be fixed as a branch of the other; also, a
fitting for connecting pipes of unequal sizes, or for Changing
the direction of a pipe run.
UNION - A connection or coupling for pipes.
UNION JOINT - A pipe fitting in which two pipes are joined so they can
be disconnected without disturbing the pipes themselves.
VENT FLUE - A vertical pipe providing an escape for foul gases from
a sanitary fixture and leading into the vent stack.
VENT PIPE - A flue or pipe ccnnecting any interior space in a building
with the outer air for purposes of ventilation; any small pipe
extending from any of the various plumbing fixtures in a structure
to the vent stack.
VITRIFIED TILE - In building construction, pipes made of clay baked hard
and then glazed so they are impervious to water; used especially
for underground drainage.
WARNING PIPE - A pipe fitted to receptacles, such as cisterns, to give
warning of - defective valve which may cause an overflow of water.
WASHER - A small metal piece of disk, usually flat, used under a nut
to distribute pressure, or between jointing members to insure a
tight fitting joint.
WASTE - Material carried away as sewerage.
WASTE PIPE - A pipe for carrying off waste or superfluous fluid, the
outlet pipe at the bottom of a lavatory, bathtub, or sink.
WASTE TRAP - A device designed for use in connection with waste pipes
109
leading from sinks and lavatories, to prevent the escape of
sewage gas from the waste pipe.
WATER CLOSET - A room equipped with toilet fixtures and facilities.
WATER-PIPE FITTINGS - Cast-iron pipes used for conveying water or gas
are connected by various types of fittings, consisting of tees,
elbows, curves, and other special types.
WATER SEAL - The water contained in a trap to prevent the flow of air,
foul odors, or gas from one side of the trap to the other side.
WIPED JOINT - A joint formed between two pieces of lead pipe. Molten
lead is poured upon the joint until the two pieces of pipe are
of the right temperature. The joint is then wiped up by hand
with a moleskin or clothe pad while the solder is in a plastic
condition.
WYE - A fitting or branch pipe, either of cast or wrought iron, which
has one side outlet at any angle except a right angle; usually
a 45-degree angle unless otherwise specified.
YOKE - A Y shaped fitting for a soil-pipe connection.
110
CHAPTER III
A. Underst4aing Plumbing
Plumbing is basically obtaining, controlling, and disposing of water.
If we keep these three phases constantly in mind, understanding will be
much easier.
I Supply
Today water is supplied in two ways; by the city or community and
by private wells.
City water is piped from the water treatment plant, underground down
city streets in large pipes called water "mains". Smaller pipes are
tapped off the main and brought to the property line or easement, and
a meter is installed. From the meter a pipe is brought to the building.
The size of these pipes depend upon the estimated consumption. From
this point all the pipes that bring water to various fixtures are called
"supply" lines.
s t t.g 14"
SUPP
FIG.300
111
14orr, co-roFFs t
II Control of Water
Between the water meter and the building should be a MAIN cut-off
valve. The main cut-off is usually a gate valve. A gate valve should
be used when water is to be turned full on or full off. To use a gate
valve as a regulator, for a trickle of water or (3/4 on), may result
in damage to the gate and improper sealing. See figure 301.
A globe valve is used
to control Lim amount of
water through the line.
It may be from a trickle
to full open or any amountGAT E
in between. Globe valvesVA L V EL
FIG. 301
are installed on water ap-
pliances such as water
heaters, sinks, toilet
tanks etc. Globe valves
or a form of globe valve
may be had in a variety
of configurations. See
figure 302.
A check valve is one that allows the water to flow in one direction
only. Check valves are used in the supply lines of private wells. The
purpose here is to prevent the water from returning down the pipe back
to the well, thus losing the prime. Heating systems may also employ a
check valve to prevent water from running in reverse in the system.
112
GLoNE VA LVEs
FIG, 302
In addition to the common valves discussed there are countless other
control devices, such as:
1. Float valves - A device that floats on the level of the water
and as the water rises the float causes a mechanical arm to close
off the supply. An example of this would be the mechanism in the
tank of a water closet, or (in reverse) the low water cut-off on
a boiler.
2. Solenoid valves - A solenoid valve is actually a time clock
that allows A flow of water for a pre-set amount of time.
3. Water diffusers and strainers.- When it is desirable to have
a spray of water rather than a steady uncontrolled stream, you
may employ a sprinkler, a shower head, a mixer (for hot and cold
water) etc. A screen may also be employed to aireate or foam the
113
water, such as the attachment on the end of a kitchen faucet.
III Disposal of Water
After water has been utilized, some method of disposal must be in-
corporated. There are (2) basic methods of disposal; to a city sewer
or to a septic tank. We
are primarily concerned
with the piping from the
fixture to the entrance
to the sewer or ,:x tic.
Waste pipes are usually
larger in diameter than
supply lines. There must
be installed between the
V eNT STACK.
CLEAN OUT_
,,,A........./-.....,,
.......
fixture and the drain or
waste pipe, a "U" shaped
trap. See figure 303.
The purpose of the trap
is to prevent sewer gases from having a direct open line back into the
room where the fixture is. After draining or flushing a fixture, clean
TRAPPEDWATER.
FIG. 303
water settles in the low end of the "U" trap and forms a block so that
gases and vapors cannot pass through. In most cases there is a cleanout
plug installed next to the trap so that any obstructions may be removed
without going into a major plumbing problem. The cleanout is usually
a threaded section that can be removed with a wrench.
Soli or waste pipes are cast iror
and the various sections are fast-
ened by a caulking method rather than
threaded. See figure 304. Any re-
pairs or replacements to those sec-
tions should be handled by an exper-
ienced plumber.
Copper pipe is usually used to
drain from the fixture to the cast
iron soil pipe. Copper joints are
sweated together rather than caulked
or threaded. See figure 305. Again
this is an area hat should be hand-
led by an experienced plumber. Most
of the custodians work involving the
drain or disposal system will be in
unstopping and cleaning floor drains
and toilet drains.
FIG. 304
"5
B. Tools & Equipment
1. One adjustable
or crescent wrench
2".
2. Two screwdrivers
(standard, phillips)
3. Set of allen
wrenches.
C. Pipes & Pipe Fittings
Supply pipes may be
galvanized steel poly-
ethylene, polyvinor-chlor-
ide, rigid copper, flexi-
ble copper or brass. See figure 306. All come in various size diameters,
and all have a variety of fittings. There is also special methods of
0406 L
FIG. 306
90. REtuCER 44..
UP4Iol4
116
RECkuGert.
STReF L -45%,
PLVG-
CoL,PIANC-
joining one type to ano-
ther when the need re-
quires it.
Galvanized pipe and
brass pipe is installed
by threading. For long
straight above ground
runs, where accessibility
is no problem, galvanized
pipe would be advisable.
Connection from the fix-
ture faucets to the in-
wall galvanized "rough-in"
71-Me-Abe) E DBRAss Ftrrim
So.ai=RNo l'HiteatS
FIG. 307
clo !-ADA P-rER.
is usually flexible copper tubing, (see figure 307) or threaded brass
pipe.
Plastic pipe may be used for underground supply lines and for sprink-
ler systems. Plastic pipe tends to expand in freezing conditions thereby
preventing cracked joints and split pipe. Joining is done either by a
special cement which bonds the two surfaces, or by a clamp arrangement
similar to the water hose on your car radiator. See figure 308.
Flexible copper tubing is readily used where many curves and corners
are involved. It is used above ground and is approved for in-wall in-
stallation. By being able to bend the copper tubing almost all fittings
are eliminated. Rigid copper is frequently joined to the flexible
117
copper by using a sleeve
and sweating the j oint.
See figure 309. Rigid
copper is used where
straight runs are impor-
tant; it makes a neat,
orderly looking job.
Since most joints are
standardized to certain
angles (45°, and 900),
it is important that the
straight runs be true
i.e., verticals should be
plumb. Forcing pipe to
fit "T", "Y", and "L" joints
etc. is the mark of an
amateur. See figure 310.
The plastic type sup-
ply lines are used for
cold water lines only.
Hot water lines must be
galvanized, copper, or
brass. It should be
noted here that when
copper is fitted to
FeTrING
SPECIALdem ENT
PIG. 308
SWEAT 13ort4 301N TSSOLISR.
118
FIG. 309
galvanized pipe in a hot water line, electrolysis or galvanization takes
place. Electrolysis is a chemical reaction between the two metals where
they meet. This causes corrosion and will mean ultimate replacement.
To prevent this action a "buffer" fitting usually vinyl is inserted be-
tween the joint so that neither metal touches each other.
The custodian should not tackle any defects in the supply lines up
to the faucets on the fixture. Repairs in supply lines should be hand-
led by an experienced plumber. The custodian should however, be thorough-
ly familiar with the main cut-off valve and all branch cut-off valves,
so that if a serious emergency occurs, flooding can be stopped.
Water disposal pipes may be cast iron, rigid copper, ABS-DWV, and
cast brass. ABS stands for Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene and the
119
DWV stands for Drain, Waste, and Vent. Each of the above pipes may be
joined to each other by special adapters. Fittings are all standardized
and made in a great variety to meet all situations. See figure 311.
Cast iron pipe has no threads. The joints are filled with oakum
which is hammered into the joint. Molten lead is then poured in to
tightly seal the joint. This is a special operation requiring consid-
erable skill and should not be done by the custodian. See figure 304.
ABS pipe connections-are made by cementing the overlap together.
This is also a specialized procedure, and should not be attempted by
the custodian.
There are three important features of the drainage system.
1. The proper pitch.2. Proper traps.3. Adequate venting.
$Lit4 !TA R."( T
120
45 Y
Pitch - Every pipe in the drainage or waste system must be pitched
downward to the sewer connection or the septic tank from each fixture.
There should never be sharp angles or obstructions at the joints.
Usually the diameter of the pipe increases progressively from the fix-
ture to the sewer. See figure 312.
vrar
51 M 'T' Tt A"? Z
C LEAN! our
It
SLooPE To
FIG. 312
plAir treSots, PiT"E
SEw Eit
ArPRox 014S To Stiou.3 11-IeRTSA S E.
O'N. SE PT C
Traps - Every drain from sinks, showers, toilets etc. must have a gas
trap to prevent sewer gas from backing up and out through the fixture
drain. This is accomplished by the "U" shaped pipe in which water forms
the trap in the "U". See figure 313.
Vents - To prevent pressures between the trap and the sewer connection,
a vertical vent is installed. The installation is close to the fixture
and in the wall. The vent ascends vertically thru the roof and is us-
ually capped with a rain and rodent guard. As the vent goes through
the roof, flashing should be installed to prevent leaks. See figure 314.
121
a TO CzooF
CLEANgor FIG. 313
122
I
1
D. Job Procedure
1. To repair a leaking faucet.
a. Shut water off to fixture.
b. Remove handle (usually a
chrome plated screw in the
center of the handle.) See
figure 315.
c. Unscrew cap nut with a
crescent wrench. Care must
be taken so as not to scratch
or mar the chrome.
d. Unscrew stem or spindle
from the faucet. If a second
lock type nut is underneath
cap nut, this will have to be
removed.
e. The washer can now be seen
on the end of the stem. It
is held by a brass bolt. Un-
screw bolt and remove washer.
See figure 316.
f. Select new washer (same
type) and install--level side
toward bolt head.
g. Examine the seat where the
SCREW
CAP11 UT
HA,,bLe--ftzzzz7---7
123
STEM
FIG. 315
WAS )4
SE4T
FIG. 316
washer rides. If it is rough
or cut, the seat will have to
be resurfaced. An inexpensive
tool is available for this pur-
pose.
h. Reassemble faucet putting
each part back in order.
2. To repair a sloan valve.
a. Shut off water supply.
b. Remove large cap nut. (Care-
ful not to mar the finish.)
See figure 317.
c. Remove brass pressure plate.
d. Remove brass valve and rub-
ber diaphragm with valve guide
attached.
e. Unscrew valve guide and
remove large diaphragm.
f. Clean brass seats and re-
place with new diaphragm.
g. Reassemble all parts care-
fully.
h. Check for leaks.
121!
CA? Nur
PLATE
BRASS VALVE_
St_rzEVE
Ri./13gER.RU13135SZ D1APH RA t-,1
5 EA I., WWI
tPNor
BRASS vzo_v
SLIP Ntrr
PAMbIE
RettesR _SEAT
PM. 517SlecipM vALV %-lAkibLE
ASS Er-161ED
If handle leaks;
a. Remove slip nut around
handle with wrench--careful of
the chrome. See figure 318.
b. Take out handle.
c. Take off washer.
d. Unscrew nylon seat, con-
taining rubber seal.
e. Remove spring and plunger.
L. Replace nylon seat, rubber
seal arA washer.
g. Reassemble all parts.
h. Check for leaks.
tAILC hi SEAL FIG: 318
3. To repair workings of a water
closet tank. [Shut off supply
valve] If water does not cut
off;
a. Remove tank cover.
b. Raise float manually one
inch or so.
c. If water cuts off, the
float may be defective or the
ball support may have to be
bent slightly downward. Bend-
ing the arm downward will also
limit the amount of water en-
tering tank. See figure 319.
125
A.NibLE
FLOAT A R211
SLIP HUT
.F I OAT
FIG. 319
d. If water still does not cut
off after checking floats the
valve may be defective.
e. Remove turn screw on hori-
zontal lever and raise lever
(You may have to remove float
arm support.) See figure 320.
f. As lever is raised the
plunger containing a washer
will be pulled up. See figure
321.
g. Remove screw holding washer
(washer may be only a force fit).
h. Replace with washer of same
type.
i. Reassemble all parts in re-
verse order.
If water continues to run in
bowl;
a. Remove tank cover.
b. Inspect ball, ball guide,
wire loop, and trip lever.
c. The complete linkage must
be all lined up and operating
smoothly.
126
-FIG. 320
ft-
d. Replace any visible broken
wire, make sure guide is over
center of ball. See figure 322.
e. Inspect flush valve seat
for calcerous deposits or for-
eign matter restricting proper
seating of the ball.
f. Unscrew ball from vertical
copper wire.
g. Replace with new ball.
h. Reassemble and check all
linkage.
Note: The tank mechanism is
subjected to deterioration from
corrosion. Inspect all parts
while cover is off and replace
obviously worn wires, balls or
drains.
4. To unstop a clogged toilet;
a. Remove any visible obstruc-
tions such as toilet paper etc.
b. Use a rubber plunger (the
round ball type). See figure 323.
c. Pour a bucket of water in
toilet and observe action.
Ov PI-0141
ITANK BALL.GUIDe..
TA
I
CENTER.I birtgcrLY
OVER EAU,
F1. t.) )4
VALVE
UM. .Z
Sear
W
127
ob -ro i4Abwr.
Rob To To /ZALL,
LooP
7G8AuiDE
FIG. 322
d. If water recedes or appears
to flush through the trap, the
obstruction is removed.
e. If water rises the obstruc-
tion still remains. Use a small
anger (5') to force through the
trap. See figure 324.
f. Pour a bucket of water in
bowl. At this point if the
water flushes or recedes ra-
pidly, the obstruction is re-
moved.
g. If water remains, the ob-
struction may be further into
the drain system and will re-
quire an experienced plumber.
Note: Usually if the obstruc-
tion is well along the drain
lines, more than one fixture
will be stopped.
5. To unstop a sink drain.
a. Remove drain stopper (us-
ually a twist to the left).
Check for obvious debris such
as hair etc. See figure 325.
128
reR. FLATDRAINS
SNIZSFLooRS
FossTot LETS
FIG. 324
Some stoppers must be dis-
connected from rod under bowl.
Excessive hair can jam the stop-
per almost to the point where
it will not move. Patient ro-
tating and pulling out small
pieces can eventually remove
the stoppage.
b. If water still does not
flaw easily down the drain,
the brass-chrome trap may have
to be taken loose (if a clean
out plug is installed remove
plug and clean trap.) See
figure 326.
c. To remove trap, use a large
crescent wrench or channel lock
plier, being carefull not to
scratch the chrome. Unscrew
both collars holding "U" in
place. (Have a large bucket
under trap to catch water &
sludge.)
d. Clean trap and reassemble.
If joints leak, reassemble us-
JOLEPo R.
LEVER
SFAL
WASH-GR.
Frs._ t..oeK Ntrr
S Li PNOT
EIG. 325
129
FIG. 326SOMC wAvis
DRA tm PLUGSTo DRAIN WATER..
ing string wound in threads
with compound if available.
e. If trap is clear, then the
stoppage is further along in
the line near the vent stack.
This operation requires a snake.
See figure 327.
f. When all above procedures
fail, leave the job to an ex-
perienced plumber.
130)
(3
AFTER tVPANTiarDEFINITIONS - PAINTING
ABRASIVES - Substances rubbed on wood to smooth it before or between
applications of finish coats. Flint, garnet, aluminum oxide, and
silicon carbide are common abrasives.
BENZENE (BENZOL) - A material derived from coal tar and widely used
as a solvent. Also used for cleaning after finishing.
BENZINE - A liquid obtained from petroleum. Used in dyeing, painting,
and as a cleansing agent.
BLEEDING - The movement of stain or dye from the wood into surface
coats. For example, a white enamel applied over a mahogany
oil stain will bleed (develop pink spots).
BLEND - Mixture, as of two pigments to obtain a desired color.
BLISTERS - Flat, cloudy, or milky-looking spots on finished surfaces.
CASEIN GLUE - An adhesive substance composed of casein (the curd of
milk), lime, and sodium salt. It comes as dry powder to which
water is added.
DRIER - A solution added to drying oils to quicken the drying.
ENAMEL - A kind of paint in which the vehicle is a drying oil or
combination of drying oil and resin. It dries to an even, hard
finish. Usually it leaves a gloosy surface, but the addition
of a flatting agen can reduce the glossiness.
EVAPORATE - To pass off in vapor or to change a liquid into vapor
or gas.
FILLER (WOOD) - A heavily pigmented preparation used for filling and
leveling off the pores in open-grained woods.
132, 133
FLAT PAINT - An interior paint, containing a high proportion of
pigment, which dries to a flat or lusterless finish.
FLATTING OIL - A special liquid used with pigment-oil paste to
produce a flat paint. It is a clear liquid, consisting primarily
of thickened drying oils and turpentine.
GLAZING - Application of a thin transparent color over a previously
finished surface to produce a hard finish and provide luster,
or to produce a blended effect.
GLOSS - A shiny, lustrous finish which reflects light. The term also
refers to paint or enamel that dries to a high sheen or luster,
usually with a hard, smooth coat.
HOLIDAYS - Areas of surface missed by a painter.
INFLAMMABLE - Capable of being easily set on fire.
LAC - A natural resin secreted by insects that live on the sap of
certain trees in oriental countries. The base for shellac.
LACQUER - A varnish-type solution used for finishing wood, metal,
porcelain, and similar materials. Lacquers dry quickly and leave
a tough, durable, flexible, light-weight film. They should not
be used over oil-base paints because they contain solvents that
will cut such paints. There are several types of lacquers.
Cellulose lacquers have a base of nitrocellulose or pyroxyline; others
have a resin base.
LINSEED OIL - A vegetable oil pressed from the seeds of the flax plant.
Used extensively in the manufacture of oil base paints and finishes.
MINERAL SPIRITS - A petroleum solvent; a substitute for turpentine.
1314
NAPHTHA - Any of several volatile, inflammable liquids obtained by
distilling certain materials containing carbon. Naphtha is used
as a solvent or thinner in varnish making and as a fuel. Pet-
roleum naphtha is also known as benzine.
NATURAL FINISH - A transparent finish, usually a drying oil, sealer
or varnish, applied to wood for the purpose of protection against
soiling or weathering. Such a finish should not seriously change
the original color of the wood or obscure its grain pattern.
OIL PAINT - A paint in which the vehicle is oil.
OIL VARNISH - A. varnish consisting of a hard resin combined with a
drying oil and drier thinned with a volatile solvent. After
application, the solvent dries first by evaporation, then the
oil dries by oxidation.
OXIDIZE - To unite with oxygen - a chemical reaction.
PIGMENT - Finely ground powders that are insoluble and provide color
and body to a finishing material.
PRESERVATIVE - Any substance that, for a reasonable length of time,
is effective in preventing the development and action of wood-
rotting fungi, borers of various kinds, and insects that make
wood deteriorate.
PRIMER - The first coat of paint in a job that consists of two or
more coats; also the paint used for such a coat.
RESIN - A sticky material obtained from the sap of certain trees and
plants (natural resins) or produced synthetically by chemical
combinations of coal-tar derivatives and other organic substances
(synthetic resins). Resins are widely used in making varnishes
and paints. 135
ROSIN - A hard resin used in making certain varnishes.
RUBBER-EMULSION PAINT - Paint, the vehicle of which consists of fine
droplets of rubber or synthetic rubber dispersed in water.
RUBBING COMPOUND - An abrasive material used to produce a smoothly
finished wood surface.
RUNS - Also called "sags" and "curtains." Irregularities in a
surface finish usually caused by too heavy an application.
SAG - An uneveness or irregularity in a coat of paint, varnish, or
lacquer. It results if too much of the liquid is allowed to
collect in one spot or area.
SANDING - Rubbing sandpaper or similar abrasive over a surface before
applying a finish.
SEALER - A finishing material, either clear or pigmented, that is
usually applied directly over uncoated wood to prevent subsequent
coats of paint of varnish from seeping into the wood.
SEMIGLOSS PAINT OF ENAMEL - A paint of enamel made so that its
coating, when dry, has some luster but is not very glossy.
SHELLAC - A. preparation made by dissolving lac in alcohol, and used
commonly in the finishing of wood. Lac is a resinous substlnce
secreted by a tropical insect.
SIZING - (1) Working material to the desired size. (2) A coating of
glue, shellac, or bther material applied to a surface to prepare
it for painting or other method of finish.
SOLVENT - A liquid in which things can be dissolved. Lis°, more
136
loosely, a liquid in which tiny particles of a substance can be
dispersed in suspension, without actually dissolving. Selvents
commonly used in wood finishing are turpentine, alcohol, and
petroleum and coal-tar distillates. The solvent in a finishing
material usually evaporates, leaving the pigment or other nec-
essary ingredients dry on the finished surface.
SPAR VARNISH - A varnish consisting mainly of drying oil and the hard-
er types of resins. It is waterproof and strongly resistant to
the damaging effect of moisture and sunlight.
SPRAY BOOTH - A sheet-metal booth or small room used for spray
finishing.
STAIN - A discoloration in wood. It may have such diverse causes
as micro-organisms, metal, or chemicals. The term also applies
to materials that are used in coloring wood.
STAIN, SHINGLE - A form of paint, very thin in consistency, intended
for coloring rough-surfaced wood, such as shingles, without forming
a coating of significant thickness or gloss.
TACK RAG - A piece of cheesecloth or cbtton rag moistened with thinned
varnish. It is used to pick up small particles of dust.
TACKY - Not quite dry; sticky.
THERMOSETTING GLUES AND RESINS - Glues and resins that are cured with
heat and do not soften when subsequently subjected to high
temperatures.
THINNERS - Volatile liquids that are used to regulate the consistency
(thickness) of finishing materials.
137
TINT - A color produced by adding white pigment or paint to a colored
pigment or paint, with the amount of white greater than the
amount of colored.
TUNG OIL - A yellow drying oil obtained from the seed pods of tong
trees, and widely used in water-resistant varnishes, laquers, and
high-gloss paints.
TURPENTINE- A volatile solvent used in wood finishes, which is
made by distilling the gum obtained from the pine tree.
UNDERCOAT - A coating applied prior to the final or top coat of
a paint job.
VARNISH - A thickened preparation of drying oil, or resin and drying
oil. When applied to a surface it leaves a hard glossy, trans-
parent coating. It may also be mixed with pigments to make enamels.
Clear varnish is a slightly yellow, semi-transparent liquid.
VEHICLE - The liquid portion of a finishing material; it consists
of th binder (nonvolatile) and thinners (volatile).
VOLATILE - Easily vaporized.
WATER PAINT - A paint in which the vehicle is a water emulsion.
WATER REPELLENT - A liquid designed to penetrate into wood to make
it resist water.
WATER STAIN - A colored dye that is soluble in-water.
WAX - A fatty material obtained from the honeycombs of bees or from
similar plant, animal, or mineral substances, and used for pro-
viding an attractive, protective coating, as for wood.
138
CHAPTER IV
A. UNDERSTANDING PAINTS AND FINISHES
The term "surface finishing" is a broad term and includes all types
of finishes and surfaces involved. It might be difficult to ascertain
exactly how far back people were engaged in applying a finish to a given
surface. We can however, assume that any application used by ancient
civilizations had a purpose other than providing employment. The reasons
for surface finishing today is basically the same as in ancient times, i.e.,
protection and appearance.
Advances in technology have produced a wide variety of surface finishes.
Not many years ago paint was limited to oil or water base (calcimine).
Prior to 1920, house paints were composed primarily of linseed oil and
white lead. Since 1920 a new material was introduced called titanium-
dioxide. This improved the whiteness of the paint, by allowing a self
whitening action to take place as the paint wore away. Color fast qualities
began to appear" such as acrylic resin and alkyd resins. Industrial
chemical manufacturers are constantly introducing new additions to make
the colors last, wear longer, and make application easier. The same
type of advancement applies to enamels, varnishes, epoxies, etc.
In crder to aid the student, finishes may be classified as follows:
PAINTS
EXTERIOR
1. White Lead Paint -- consists of carbonated white ..ead, linseed
oil, drier, coloring and thinner. Where moisture is a problem, this is
a good paint to use.
139
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Excerpted by permission
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Kiplinger Magazine,
(June,1966). Copyright
1966 by the Kiplinger
Washington Editors, Inc.
1729 H. Street, N. W.,
Washington, D. C.
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Excerpted by permission
from CHANGING TIMES,
the Kiplinger Magazine,
Oune,1966). Copyright
1966 by The Kiplinger
Washington Editors,
Inc.:, 1729 H. Street,
N.W., Washington,D.C.
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2. Titanium lead-zinc -- consists of more mineral spirits and
driers. T.L.Z. paints tend to chalk easy to insure constant whitening,
therefore, colors may present a problem by fading quicker.
3. Titanium zinc -- is less expensive than those containing lead.
Where industrial gases may tend to discolor the lead, T.Z. paint may be
the answer.
4. Latex paint -- may be a synthetic rubber, vinyl or acrylic.
The solvent is water instead of turpentine or mineral spirits. At
first they were limited to interior use, however improvements have
been made to provide:
a. easier application
b. use on damp surfaces
c. use on exterior
d. ease of cleaning equipment
5. Water thinned powders are commonly used where the lasting
quality is not paramount. Calcimine, whitewash and portland cement are
all mixed with water and applied with a special wide bristle bruclh.
Successful application is usually over masonry or block work.
6. }fetal primers are used to help prepare the metal surface for
a final ooat or two of enamel or aluminum. Some primers contain acid
to etch the surface thereby creating a good bond. Rust inhibitors
are also added to most metal primers and metal paints.
7. Porch and Deck paint are usually oil based paint with a
varnish-like finish creating a hard wearable surface that resists
scuffing, scratching and peeling.
1112
8. Special ingredient paints are those that contain mildew
and fire resistant qualities and insect repelling ingredients.
INTERIOR
1. Latex paints -- are most pppular today because of their
odorless, fast drying qualities.
2. Flat alkyds -- are also popular for their coverage and ease
of application (dripless). These also are very washable and can be
applied to all interior surfaces including metal. Water is the
solvent for latex and alkyd paints.
3. Enamels and semi-gloss paints -- are very desirable for wood
trim, doors windows, etc. They may be obtained in colors to exactly
match the flat wall paints or in very vivid greens, reds, blues, etc.
Theysolvent for enamels is turpentine.
4. Shellac -- is an old finish made from the Lac Bug, found in
India. Because of its transparent quality it is used where wood is
exposed. If moisture is a problem, shellac should not be used as it
may become cloudy. Shellac is fast drying and has good penetrating
qualities, therefore it is often used as a sealer of raw wood before
varnishing or painting. Alcohol is the solvent for shellac.
5. Varnish -- is a high quality hard gloss finish. It is made
from gum, resins and oils. Varnish drys slowly, therefore, dust may
create a problem, Turpentine is the solvent for varnish.
6. Stains -- come in three varieties; oil, water, and spirit.
Oil and spirit stain has good penetrating qualities and is more
expensive than water stain. Water stain is a mixture of aniline dyes
and hot water, however, it will raise the grain on the wood and has a
tendency to fade after drying.
1)43
7. Varnish stain -- is a combination of an oil stain and varnish.
The principle advantage is that staining and varnishing can be done
in one operation.
8. Special types of finishes -- include the epoxies, plastics,
methane, etc. These finishes usually come in two separate containers
and must be mixed just prior to application. They are expensive and
somewhat more difficult to apply, however durability and color fastness
make them very satisfactory.
9. Spray paint. Not many years ago spray painting was left to
the professionals in manufacturing appliances, toys, cars, etc., how-
ever with the advent of the compressed gas can everyone can obtain a
professional-like finish. The technique of spraying is discussed on
page 154 . All types of colors and finishes are available in spray cans.
B. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The actual task of painting or repainting any object or structure
from the "time involved" standpoint is very minor, however, the time
involved in "preparation" may be considerable. To do any painting job
right, certain tools and equipment must be available. The list that
follows does not include all items necessary for furniture refinishing,
auto painting, appliance refinishing, etc. The custodian may be called
upon to paint or repaint a plaster wall, masonry wall, floor, shelves,
woodwork, etc. With this approach in mind, consider the following list.
1. Drop cloth.
2. Variety of brushes. See Figure 402.
3. Scraper. See Figure 403.
TRIM
4-o3
PvT1tCm ti=e
404-
F 1G- 406
r1 Cr 4-05"
1145
4. Putty knife. See Figure 404.
5. Wodd filler, caulking compound. See Figure 405.
6. Rags.
7. Solvent.
8. Glass scraper and cleaner. See Figure 406.
9. Newspaper and masking tape (if spray is used).
10. Roller and pan (if used). See Figure 407.
C. JOB PROCEDURE
To select type of paint:
1. Consult table on page 141 .
2. Consult with authorities on
proper colors for schools.
(county offices, principals,
etc.)
To prepare and repaint a plaster
wall:
1. If water damaged, the leak
should be repaired first.
2. Remove all hardware (switch
plates, outlet covers, etc.)
3. Remove all loose and scaled
paint or plaster.
4. Seal all cracks and joints
with patching plaster. See
Figure 408.
FIG. 408
5. Sand all repairs so that the
surface is smooth and even.
6. Sweep up area.
7. Wipe wall down with a damp
rag if latex paint is to be
used. (Mineral spirits if
oil paint is used.)
8. Lay down a drop cloth and
cover all stationary fix-
tures (radiators etc.).
9. Open can of paint and mix
thoroughly (stir).
10. Use a step ladder with a
shelf attached.
11. If a roller is used--"cut
in" with a brush 2" from
ceiling, corners and wood-
work.
12. Place brush in solvent. FIG. 409
13. Start at the ceiling and work down. (Roll in vertical ztrokes--
brush in horizontal strokes and finish in vertical strokes)fea-
ther edges. See figure 409.
To repaint woodwork:
1. Select type of paint from table on page 141 .
1h7
2. Remove all scaled and loose paint.
3. Reset all loose nails and/or drive new finish nails.
4. Wood fill nail holes.
5. Sand all of surface especially if the previous paint is enamel.
(Feather any edges of heavy chips removed.)
6. Wipe surface down with proper solvent.
7. Lay down drop cloth and cover permanent fixtures.
8. If color is to be a complete change, a prime coat of white may
be advisable.
9. Open can and stir paint. Make sure pigment and solvent is tho-
roughly emulsified. DO NOT SHAKE ENAMEL.
10. Select proper brush. See figure 402.
11. Starting at top of trim, paint with the length of the wood
(careful of wall and floor around shoe mold).
To repaint a wood window:
1. Select proper paint, page 140 .
2. Remove all loose and scaled paint.
3. Remove all loose putty around window glass.
4. Reputty if necessary.
5. Look for dry or wet rot or termite damage and assess the repair.
6. Caulk or recaulk around complete window.
7. Wipe complete window down to remove dust.
8. Select proper brush. See figure 402.
9. If much wood is exposed, a primer coat may be necessary.
10. Paint the smaal strips first then the cross rails. Do trim
1148
and casings last.
11. After paint has set slightly, move window up and down occasion-
ally to prevent binding.
To repaint an exterior masonary wall.
1. Remove all loose and scaled paint from wall.
2. Widen and caulk all masonry and mortar cracks. See figure 410.
SrlooTHScn.i* wITH
W 111E14czAcKs;
FIG. 410
3. Stiff brush wall to remove excess powdering and dust.
4. If water based paint is to be used, hose down the wall to
dampen the surface.
5. Mix paint thoroughly--keep stirred.
6. If a roller is to be used--"cut in" all corners, edges, and
around windows. See figure 411.
1)49
Cur ,.1 ALL
oep-aRgbcf 6-
RoLLE.:-/ ;!3
FIG. 411
7. Paint from the top down, feathering the edges to prevent visual
overlaps.
8. If oil paint is used, the wall must be thoroughly dry.
9. Use drop cloths to cover shrubs and walkways. See figure 412.
10. Mildew should be removed with tri -sodium phosphate (2 oz. to
1 gallon.) and rinsed well with clear water.
FIG. 412
150
To apply varnish:
1. Select type of varnish. Page 141.
2. Select brush. See figure 402.
3. Completely wash surface with solvent (turpentine) to remove
old oils or waxes.
4. If surface has bare wood, brush on shellac to seal its surface.
5. Rub with steel wool or garnet paper.
6. Brush on first coat of varnish very even and smooth. (may
be thinned with turpentine)
7. Allow to dry 24 hrs. and rub down with very fine wet dry sand
paper or garnet paper.
8. Brush on second coat of varnish (unthinned) and allow to dry.
(48 hrs.)
9. Rub down between each coat except the last coat.
10. Apply a good grade of paste wax and polish (spray wax may be used).
Note: New wood should be sealed with shellac before varnishing
(a substitute for shellac could be varnish thinned 1/21)
To apply shellac:
1. Dust surface after sanding all surface and edges.
2. Dilute shellac or varnish 3-1 for first soaking coat - brush on
evenly (extra care over knots). See figure 413.
3. Dry one hour and smooth with steel wool.
151
4. Dilute shellac or varnish 2-1
for second coat - brush on
evenly.
5. Dry 8 hrs. and rub down with
fine steel wool.
6. Brush on shellac for final
coat, and allow to dry 24 hrs.
7. Rub down with fine steel wool
and apply a coat of furniture
wax.
To apply metal finishes:
FIG 413
Actually any good grade of enamel or epoxy can be used on metal
surfaces. Many types of corrosive and chemical resistant coatings
are manufactured for surfaces exposed to fumes, acid, alkalies, and
moisture. Metal coatings may contain lead, zinc, chlorinated rubber
etc., and may be applied by brush, roller or spray.
1. Wire brush metal surface tovivrel5 BRVSI4
remove loose scale. See fig-It
suRFACeS
ure 414.
2. Scrape stubborn scale until
there is no question that the
paint that is left is secure-
ly bonded. See figure 415.
3. Sand paper or abrase rusted
152
FIG. 414
areas to remove all reddish
brown color and leave bright
metal. (Feather edges)
4. Wipe thoroughly with the sol-
vent for the paint.
5. Lay dawn a drop cloth to pro-
tect walks etc.
6. Apply a prime coat containing
a rust inhibitor and allow
to dry thoroughly.
s'ArWPAPeR ARoOrtbwoo 0 5Locg.
7. Apply finish coat of corrosion, or chemical resistant enamel
or flat paint of the proper color.
Spray painting:
1. Make sure article is clean,
smooth and ready for spraying.
2. Mask with tape any parts that
are not to be painted.
3. Create a spray area or booth
with cardboard or newspaper
to contain any overspray.
See figure 416.
4. Thin lines, stripes or small
areas requiring a different
color should be dome first.
153
(Masking for this operation
may not be required)
5. After stripes or lines are
thoroughly dry, cut the mask-
ing tape and covet the line.
6. Keep nozzle 6 - 9 inches from
article.
7. Keep nozzle 90° to surface.
8. Move left to right and back
again. (In a straight line,
do not arc) See figure 417.
9. Overlap each stroke and re-
lease trigger at the end of
each stroke to prevent a build up and possible runs.
10. Go over entire surface once lightly- -wait a few minutes for the
HOLt CAki
hi-9" FRovs SvRFAce.
FIG. 417
paint to set and go over again.
even density and true color.
Note: Never hold nozzle still on
a given spot. Runs will
Repeat until surface shows
surely result! A thin spot
can be covered usually by
two sweeping strokes. Alin SPRAY BELowOR A eove EDGE. To
Extra Note: When spraying edges, PREVEtvr Rums Amp ExcEss.i'Ath,r
aim the center of the nozzle
slightly away from the edge
15)4
FIG. 418
toward the air. See figure 418.
To apply penetrating wood seal:
1. Sweep and scrub floor thoroughly with a good floor cleaner.
2. Allow to dry thoroughly.
3. Select a good penetrating wood seal.
4. Apply one coat of seal with a mop or applicator to worn traffic
areas. (Feather edges) See figure 419.
1:-.642-AmR
Fri ?axe:A 7-Ei.0 FIG. 419
5. Allow to dry as specified on container.
6. Buff with 3/0 steel wool.
7. Apply second coat, smoothly and evenly, over complete floor
with applicator or mop.
155
8. Buff entire floor with 3/0 steel wool.
9. Apply a coat of floor finish (wax or waxless).
10. Buff if necessary.
To apply floor varnish or surface seal:
1. Strip floor with abrasive pad to remove old wax and possibly a
portion of the old varnish or surface seal.
2. Vacumm floor to remove all dust.
3. Using a mop or applicator apply one thin coat of finish. (Fea-
ther edges)
4. Allow to set at least 48 hrs.
5. Apply second coat as in step #3.
Note: Avoid puddles, and holidays.
To remove a finish (except floors):
1. Select a good paint or varnish remover, and a cheap brush.
2. Apply over entire surface until the finish begins to bubble and
13(166LEO3 22cAcE .1"--
-/. reser
.110,Ker, ..
t
49ilMpa
a A0.
6woob
off. Use a scraper or putty .;E:i/eV-';-dot rs,
..!t7
4"4-44-0;dp
4. Wipe onto old newspapers and-%.1 7-
dispose of residue.scRAPER
5. Apply a second coat over stub-
born spots and repeat until FIG. 420
swell.
3. When surface is softened (10-
15 min.) scrape old finish
knife. See figure 420.
156
all finish is removed.
6. Wash surface with turpentine or a neutralizing agent as
recommenddd by the container.
7. Lightly sand the surface and treat as new wood. (Seal surface
with shellac or "cut down" varnish)
Care of tools and equipment:
1. Clean all paint brushes, roll-
er or spray nozzles if used,
with the prescribed solvent.
i.e., water and soap, turpentine
alcohol, benzine etc.
2. Hang all brushes to dry.
Drill a hole in handle. See
figure 421.FIG. 421
3. After brush is clean, dipping it in kerosene impregnates the
bristles and protects the brush.
4. Clean the rim of the paint can before recovering, and aeal tightly.
5. Clean all tools (screwdriver, pliers, putty knives, scrapers, etc.
before storing.
6. When drop cloth is dry, roll or fold and store away.
7. Wooden ladders should not be painted. Scrape off obvious stains
and store properly.
8. Store all flamables in outdoor well ventilated storage areas.
Oily rags should be in approved lock-lid containers.
157
9. During painting operation and until paint is dry, signs should
be posted WET PAINT. See figure 422.
10. If possible rope off the area. Traffic should be directed
around scaffolding or ladders at a safe distance to prevent
spattering etc.
FIG. 422
158
Cti-IWTGKSoN K`(
DEFINITIONS - MASONRY
ACCELERATOR - Material added to Portland cement concrete during the
mixing to hasten its natural development of strength.
ADJUSTABLE CLAMP - Any type of clamping device that can be adjusted to
suit the work being done, but particularly clamps used for holding
column forms while concrete is poured.
ADOBE - An aluminous earth from which unfired brick are made, esp-
ecially in the western part of the United States; an unfired brick
dried in the sun; a house or other structure built of such mater-
ials or clay.
AERATED CONCRETE - A lightweight material made from a Epecially pre-
pared cement, and used for subfloors. Due to its cellular structure,
this material is a retardant to sound transmission.
AGGREGATE - ',. collection of granulated particles of different substances
into a compound, or conglomerate mass. In mixing concrete, the
stone, or gravel, used as a part of the mix is commonly called
the course aggregate, while the sand is called the fine agamtzl.
AIR POCKET - An airspace which accidentally occurs in concrete work.
AMERICAN BOND - A method of bonding brick in a wall whereby every fifth,
sixth, or seventh course consists of headers, the other courses
being stretchers. This type of bond is used extensively because
it 13 quickly laid.
BACK FILLING - Course dirt, broken stone, or other material used to
build up the ground level around the basement or foundation walls
of a house to provide a slope for drainage of water away from the
foundation.
161
BALL PEEN HAMMER - A hammer having a peen which is hemispherical in
shape; used especially by metal workers and stonemasons.
BASE COURSE - A footing course, as the lowest course of masonry of a
wall or pier; the foundation course on which the remainder rests.
BED JOINT - In brickwork, the horizontal joint upon which the bricks
rest, also, the radiating joints of an arch.
BLOOM - An efflorescence which sometimes appears on masonry walls, esp-
ecially on a brick wall. Also a defect on a varnished surface
usually caused by a damp atmosphere.
BOND - In masonry and bricklaying, the arrangement of brick or stone
in a wall by lapping them upon one another, to prevent vertical
joints falling over each other. As the building goes up, an in-
seperable mass is formed by tying the face and backing together.
BREEZE CONCRETE - A concrete composed of coke breeze, sand, and Port-
land cement. It is a relatively cheap concrete and nails can be
driven into it, but it has inferior fire-resistive properties.
Also called coke breeze concrete.
BRICK - Block of.material used for building or paving purposes. The
brick are made from clay or a clay mixture molded into blocks
which are then hardened by drying in the sun or baking in a kiln.
American-made brick average 2 1/2 x 4 x'8 inches in size.
BRICK CEMENT -,A, waterproofed masonry cement employed for every kind of
brick, concrete brick, tile, or stone masonry, and also ±n stucco
work.
162
BRICKLAYER'S HAMMER - A tool used by bricklayers for dressing brick. It
has both a sharpened peen and a hammer head.
BRICK TROWEL - In masonry, a flat triangular-shaped trowel used by brick-
layers for picking up mortar and spreading it on a wall.
BRICK VENEER - A brick facing applied to the surface of the walls of a
frame structure, or other types of structures.
BUILDING BLOCK - Any hollow rectangular block of burned clay, terra cotta,
concrete, cement, or glass, manufactured for use as building material.
BUTTERING - In masonry, the process of spreading mortar on the edges of
a brick before laying it.
BUTTERING TROWEL - In masonry, a flat tool similar to, but smaller than,
the brick trowel; used for spreading mortar on a brick before it
is placed in position.
CAPPING BRICK - In masonry, brick which are specially shaped for capping
the exposed top of a wall.
CEMENT - In building, a material for binding other material or articles
together; usually plastic at the time of application but hardens
when in place; any substance which causes bodies to adhere to one
another, such as Portland cement, stucco, and natural cements; also
mortar or plaster of Paris.
CEMENT COLORS - A special mineral pigment used for coloring cement for
floors. In addition to the natural coloring pigment obtained from
mineral oxides, there are manufactured pigments produced especially
for cement work.
163
CEMENT GUN - A mechanical device used for spraying fine concrete or ce-
ment mortar by means of pneumatic pressure. Same as Cement Gun,
the trade-mark for a machine used to apply Gunite.
CEMENTING TROWEL - A trowel similar to the plasterer's trowel, but often
of a heavier gauge stock.
CEMENT MORTAR - A building material composed of Portland cement, sand,
and water.
CINDER BLOCKS - Building blocks in which the principal materials are
cement and cinders.
CINDER CONCRETE - A type of concrete made from Portland cement mixed
with clean, well-burned coal cinders which are used as coarse ag-
gregate.
COURSE AGGREGATE - Crushed stone or gravel used to reinforce concrete;
the size is regulated by building codes.
CODE - Any systematic collection or set of rules pertaining to one par-
ticular subject, and devised for the purpose of securing uniformity
in work or for maintaining proper standards of prodedure, as a
building code.
COMMON BOND - In masonry, a form of bond in which every sixth course is
a header course, and the intervening courses are stretcher courses.
Sometimes varied, so a header bond is used every fourth or fifth
course.
COMMON BRICK - Any brick commonly used for construction purposes; pri-
marily made for building and not especially treated for texture or
color, but including clinker and overburned brick.
1614
CONCRETE - In masonry, a mixture of cement, sand, and gravel, with water
in varying proportions according to the use which is to be made of
the finished product.
CONCRETE BLOCKS - In masonry, precast, hollow, or solid blocks of con-
crete used in the construction of buildings.
CONCRETE INSERT - A type of metal anchor used to secure structural wood
parts to a concrete or masonry wall.
COURSE - A continuous level range or row of brick or masonry throughout
the face or faces of a building; to arrange in a row. A row of
bricks, when laid in a wall, is called a course.
CUBIC CONTENT - In building construction, the number of cubic feet con-
tained within the walls of a room or combination of rooms and used
as a basis for estimating cost of materials and construction; cubic
content is also important when estimating cost of installing heating,
lighting, and ventilating systems.
CURB EDGER - In masonry and cement work, a tool specially designed for
shaping curved sections which must be finished smooth and true,
such as the borders of driveways or pavements.
DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND - A bond in which both the inner and outer faces of
an exposed masonry wall are laid in Flemish bond, with all headers
true or full headers.
DUTCH BOND - In masonry, a bond having the courses made up alternately
of headers and stretchers.
ECONOMY BRICK - Modular brick related to every four-inch module in height,
thickness, and length. Economy brick are always cored brick. Size
3 1/2" x 3 1/2" x 7 1/2".
165
ENAMELED BRICK - In masonry, brick with an enamel-like or glazed
surface.
ENGLISH BOND - In brickwork, a form of bond in which one course
is composed entirely of headers and the next course is composed
entirely of stretchers, the header and stretcher courses alter-
nating throughout the wall; a type of bond especially popular
for use in a building intended for residential purposes.
EXPANSION JOINT - In masonry, a bituminous fiber strip used to sep-
arate blocks or units of concrete to prevent cracking due to
expansion as result of temperature changes.
FACEBRICK - The better quality of brick such as is used on exposed
parts of a building, especially those parts which are prominent in
view.
FIELD TILE - A type of porous tile which is placed around the outside
of a foundation wall of a building, to absorb excess water and
prevent seepage through the foundation.
FIREBRICK - Any brick which is especially made to withstand the effects
of high heat without fusion; usually made of fire clay or other
highly siliceous material.
FIRE CLAY - Clay which is capable of being subjected to high temperatures
without fusing or softening perceptibly. It is used extensively
for laying firebrick.
FLAGSTONE - A kind of stone that splits easily into flags, or slabs;
also, a term applied to irregular pieces of such stone split
into slabs from 1 to 3 inches thick and used for walks or terraces.
A pavement made of stone slabs is known as flagging.
166
FLASHING - Piece of lead, tin, or sheet metal, either cooper or
galvanized iron, used around dormers, chimneys, or any rising
projection, such as window heads, cornices, and angles between
different members, or any place where there is danger of leak-
age from rain water or snow. These metal pieces are worked in
with shingles of the roof or other construction materials used.
FLEMISH BOND - A bond consisting of headers and stretchers, alter-
nating in every course, so laid as always to break joints, each
header being placed in the middle of the stretchers in courses
above and below.
FLOATER - A tool used to smooth and finish cement work.
FLOATING The process of spreading, plastering, stucco, or cement on
the surface of walls to an equal thickness by the use of a board
called a float.
FLUSH JOINT - In masonry, a mortar joint formed by cutting surplus
mortar from the face of a wall. If a rough texture is desired,
the surface of the joint may be tapped with the end of a rough
piece of wood after the mortar has slightly stiffened.
FLYING BOND - In bricklaying, a bond formed by inserting a header
course at intervals of from four to seven courses of stretchers.
FOOTING FORMS - Forms made of wood for shaping and holding concrete
for footings and columns which support beams and girders.
FORMS - In building construction, an enclosure made of either boards
or metal for holding green concrete to the desired shape until
it has set and thoroughly dried.
167
FORM STOP - In concrete work, a term applied to a device consisting of
a plank nailed to a 4 x 4 placed in the forms at the end of a day's
pouring.
FRACTURE - In masonry, the breaking apart or separation of the continu-
ous parts of a wall of brick or stone, caused by a sudden shock
or excessive strain.
GARDEN BOND - A type of masonry construction consisting of three stretchers
in each course followed by a header. However, this bond may have
from two to five stretchers between headers.
GLAZED BRICK - Building brick prepared by fus4g on the surface a glazing
material; brick having a glassy surface.
GLAZED TILE - A type of masonry tile which has a glassy or glossy sur-
face.
GRANITE - An igneous rock composed chiefly of feldspar but containing
also some quartz and mica, used extensively in construction
work and for monuments. It extremely hard and will take a
high polish.
GREEN MORTAR - A term sometimes applied to mortar before it has set
firmly.
GROUND COURSE - A horizontal course, usually of masonry, next to the
ground.
GROUT - A mortar made so thin by the addition of water it will run
into joints and cavities of masonry; a fluid cement mixture used
to fill crevices.
GUNITE - A construction material composed of cement, sand or crushed
168
slag, and water mixed together and forced through a cement gun by
pneumatic pressure. Sold under the trade-mark Gunite.
GYPSUM - A mineral, hydrous sulphate of calcium. In the pure state
gypsum is colorless. When part of the water is removed by a
slow heating process the product becomes what is known as plaster
of Paris, used extensively for decorative purposes.
GYPSUM BLOCKS - A type of building material usually grayish white
in color; because of its friable texture it is used only in
nonload-bearing partition walls.
HALF BAT - A term applied to one -half of a building brick.
HERRINGBONE BOND - In masonry, the arrangement of bricks in a course
in a zigzag fashion, with the end of one brick laid at right
angles against the side of a second brick.
HIEARLY CEMENT - A contraction of the more generally used term high
early strength Portland cement or concrete.
HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS - A type of precast concrete building block
having a hollow core.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT - A type of cement which hardens under water.
HYDRAULIC MORTAR - In masonry, a mortar which will harden under water;
used for foundations or any masonry construction under water.
IRREGULAR-COURSED - In masonry, rubble walls built up in courses of
different heights.
JOINTER - In masonry, a flat steel tool used by bricklayers to form
the various types of mortar joints between the courses of bricks
upon the face of a wall in pointing, as the V, the concave, and
169
weather joints.
JOINTING - In masonry, the operation of making and finishing the
exterior surface of mortar joints between courses of bricks
or stones.
KEYSTONE - The wedge-shaped piece at the top of an arch which is re-
garded as the most important member because it binds, or locks,
all of the other members together.
LA FARGE CEMENT - A cement produced as a by-product during the calcination
of hydraulic lime. It is nonstaining and is imported. It dev-
elops almost as much strength as Portland cement.
LINEAL FOOT - Pertaining to a line one foot in length as distin-
guished from a square foot or a cubic foot.
LINTEL - A piece of wood, stone, or steel placed horizontally across
the top of door and window openings to support the walls
immediately above the openings.
MARBLE - Any limestone capable of taking a high polish; used ex-
tensively for both interior and exterior finish of buildings;
because of the wide range of colors from white to dark gray
and brown, marble is much used in architectural work for decor-
ative purposes.
MASONRY - A term applied to anything constructed of stone, brick,
tiles, cement, concrete, and similar materials; also, the work
done by a mason who works in stone, brick, cement, tiles, or
concrete.
MASONRY NAIL - A hardened-steel nail of specialized design, used for
170
fastening wood, etc., to masonry work.
MINERAL AGGREGATE - In masonry work, an aggregate consisting of a
mixture of broken stone, broken slag, crushed or uncrushed
gravel, sand, stone, screenings, and mineral dust.
MORTAR - In masonry, a pasty building material, composed of sand
and lime, or cement mixed with water, which gradually hardens
when exposed to the air- Mortar is used as a joining medium in
brick and stone construction.
MORTAR BOARD - In masonry, a small square board, with a handle under-
neath, on which a mason holds his mortar.
MORTAR JOINTS - Joints which represent a wide range of types in
finishing the mortar in stone or brickwork.
MOSAIC - A combination of small colored stones, glass, or other_material
so arranged as to form a decorative surface design. The various
pieces are inlaid usually in a ground of cement or stucco.
OLD ENGLISH BOND - In masonry work, a bond consisting of alternating
course? of stretchers and headers, with a closer laid next to
the-corner bricks in every course of headers.
OUT OF TRUE - In shopworking and the building trade, a term used when
there is a.twist or any other irregularity in the alignment of a
form; also, a varying from exactness in a structural part.
PLASTER Any pasty material of a mortar-like consistency used for
covering walls and ceilings of buildings. Formerly, a widely
used type of plastering composed of .a mixture of lime, sand, hair,
171
and water. A more durable and popular plastering is now made of
Portland cement mixed with sand and wat I
PLASTER BOARD - A rigid insulating board made of plastering material
covered on both sides with heavy paper.
PLASTER LATH - Thin, narrow strips of wood nailed to ceiling joists,
studding, or rafters, as a groundwork for receiving plastering.
POINTING-- A term used in masonry for finishing of joints in a brick
or stone wall.
POINTING TROWEL - A small hand instrument used by stone masons or brick-
layers for pointing up joints, or for removeing old mortar from
the face of a wall.
PORTLAND CEMENT - A hydraulic cement, commonly used in the building
trades, consisting of silica, lime, and alumina intimately mixed
in the proper proportions, then burned in a kiln. The clinkers
or vitrified product, when ground fine, form an extremely strong
cement.
PORTLAND CEMENT PAINT - A specially prepared paint made by mixing
cement and water; used on concrete walls as a finish, and to
protect the joints against water from rain and snow.
PRESSED BRICK - A high-grade brick which is molded under pressure,
as a result of which sharp edges are formed by the meating of
two surfaces and a smooth face, making it suitable for exposed
surface work.
PROJECTING BELT COURSE - A masonry .erm used when referring to an
elaboration of a plain band course or cut-stone work projecting
beyond the face of a wall for several inches.
172
PROMENADE TILE - In masonry, unglazed machine-made tile; same as
quarry tile.
QUARRY-FACED MASONRY - Squared stone as it comes from the quarry, with
split face, only squared Llt joints having the face left rough
as when taken from the quarry, as building stone; masonry built
of such stone.
QUARRY-STONE BOND - In masonry, a term applied to the arrangement of
stones in rubble work.
QUARRY TILE - In masonry, a name given to machine-made, unglazed tile.
Also called promenade tile.
RAKED JOINT - In brick masonry, a type of joint which has the mortar
raked out to a specified depth while the mortar is still green.
RAMMER - In building construction, a term applied to an instrument
which is used for driving anything by force, as stones or piles, or
for compacting earth; in concrete work, a kind of "stomper," used
to pack concrete by removing the air bubbles.
RANDOM WORK - Any type of work done in irregular order, as a wall
built up of odd-sized stones.
REINFORCED - To strengthen by the addition of new material, or extra
material, for the reinforcement of concrete, iron or steel rods
are embedded to additional strength.
REINFORCED CONCRETE - Concrete which has been strengthened by iron or
steel bars embedded in it.
ROUGH RUBBLE - In masonry, a wall composed of unsquared field stones
laid without regularity of coursing, but well bonded.
173
41.
1
ROWLOCK - In masonry, a term applied to a course of bricks laid on
edge. Also, the end of a brick showing on the face of a brick
wall in a vertical position.
RUSTICS - In masonry, bricks which have a rough-textured surface,
often multicolored.
SCRATCH COAT - The first coat of plastering applied to a wall.
SCREEDS - Narrow strips of plaster put on a wall as guides for the
workmen. The strips usually are about 8 inches wide with a thick-
ness of two coats of plaster, serving also as thickness guides
when applying the remainder of tLe plastering; also a strip of
wood to act as a guide for plaster or concrete work.
SELF-FACED - In masonry, a term applied to stone, such as flagstone,
which splits along natural cleavage planes and does not require
dressing.
SIEVE - In masonry, a screen or open container with a mesh bottom;
used for removing stones and large particles from sand.
SLIP JOINT - In masonry, especially in brickwork, a type of joint made
where a new wall is joined to an old wall by cutting a channel or
groove in the old wall to receive the brick of the new wall. This
method of joining the two walls forms a kind of telescopic, non-
leaking joint.
SOLDIER COURSE - In masonry, a term applied to a course of bricks where
they are laid so that they are all standing on end.
SPLAYED BRICK - A purpose-made brick having one side beveled off.
1714
STABBING - In masonry a term used when referring to the process of making
a brick surface rough in order to provide a key for plasterwork.
STANDARD MODULAR BRICK - A brick, size 2 1/6" x 3 1/2" x 7 1/2", related
to the 4 inch module, every 8 inces in height, if the mortar joint
is 1/2 inch. Thus, 3 bricks, plus 3 one-half-inch joints, add up
to an even 8 inches.
STAR DRILL - A tool with a star-shaped point used for drilling in stone
masonry.
STAR EXPANSION BOLT - A bolt or screw having a shield of two semicircular
parts which spread apart as the bolt is driven into the shield.
Used for securing structural wood parts to a masonry wall.
STRETCHER - In masonry construction, a term applied to a course in which
brick or stone lies lengthwise; that is, a brick or stone is laid
with its length parallel to the face of the wall.
STRUCK JOINT a:- In masonry, a mortar joint which is formed with a recess
at the bottom of the joint. The struck joint is used extensively,
but chiefly for interior-wall surfaces, since it is inferior for
outside joints because of its lack of weather-resisting qualities.
The recess at the bottom allows water for rain or snow to seep into
the wall.
STUCCO - Any of various plasters used as covering for walls; a coating
for exterior walls in which cement is largely used; any material
used for covering walls which is put on wet, but when dry becomes
exceedingly hard and durable.
TERRA COTTA - A clay product used for ornamental work on the exterior of
175
buildings; also, used extensively in making vases, and for
decorations on statuettes. It is made of hard-baked clay in
variable colors with a fine glazed surface.
TERRAZZO - A type of Venetian marble mosaic in which Portland cement is
used as a matrix. Though used in buildings for centuries,
terrazzo is a modern floor finish, used also for bases, borders,
and wainscoting, as well as on stair treads, partitions, and
other wall surfaces.
TESSERA - Any one of the small square pieces of marble, stone, tile, or
glass used in mosaic work, such as in floors or pavements.
TILE SETTING ADHESIVES - Specially formulated glues or mastics, used
instead of mortar bed, for tile setting, They are said to be clean,
waterproof, less expensive, and faster.
TOPPING - A mixture of cement, sand, and water, used in creating the
finished surface of concrete work such as walks and floors.
TRIPLE BRICK - A solid masonry unit whose nominal dimensions, which
include allowance for the mortar joint described for use with it,
are 4" x 5 1/3" x 12".
TROWEL - A flat, steel tool used to spread and smooth mortar or plaster.
TWIN BRICK - Modular brick related to the 4 inch module, every 12 inches
in height. Size 2 1/2" x 7 1/2" x 7 1/2". A double-sized brick.
VENTILATING BRICK - A brick which has been cored to provide an air
passage for ventilating purposes.
VITRIFIED TILE - In building construction, pipes made of clay, baked
hard and then glazed, so they are impervious to water; used esp-
ecially for underground drainage.
176
V TOOLED JOINT - In masonry, a mortar joint formed with a special tool.
After excess mortar has been removed, the tool is run along the joint.
WATER JOINT - In stone work, a joint protected from rain and snow by
sloping the surface of the stone away from the wall, so it will
shed water easily.
WATER LIME - A lime or cement which will harden under water; hydraulic
cement.
WHITE CEMENT - When a white surface is required, a cement which has
been specially burned to make it white is used. This cement has
the same qualities as Portland cement.
WIRE TIES - Short lengths of wire in various shapes and gauges for
reinforcing the bond between two members. They may be embedded in
mortar; nailed, twisted around and between masonry, wood, or metal.
Wire ties are usually of cement-coated steel or galvanized metal.
ZONOLITE CONCRETE - A form of concrete which acts as insulation; used
as parts of floor slabs for houses without basements.
177
CHAPTER VMASONRY
A. UNDERSTANDING MASONRY
For centuries man has used stone as a building material. At first,
walls were erected by placing stone on stone without the aid of a bind-
ing material. The shape and the tremendous weight of the stones was
enough to make the structures quite stable. Early history tells us,
however, that man soon learned that by wedging smaller stones in the
joint, the heavier stone would set better and leave less holes and ca-
vities. From the wedge came a form of mortar. The Egyptians used Nile
mud and straw for both a mortar and the "manufacture" of bricks. This
type of clay wall is durable only in areas where there is little or no
rainfall. As the technology progressed, the Babylonians and the Assy-
rians used burnt brick and alabaster slabs. Gypsum and sand were used
as a cementious binder.
As near as can be determined lime was first used by the Greeks. The
Romans adopted the process of using slaked lime and sand and attained
great perfection in its use: Remains today bear out the fine workmanship
employed by the Romans. Both the Greeks and the Romans soon found that
by adding volcanic ash powder to the lime and sand, a very durable mor-
tar resulted. The excellence of Roman mortar is attributed to the tho-
rough balanced mixture and the ramming and careful application.
The knowledge of this type of mortar carried over into England is
basically the same process as used today. The obvious advantage of
using mortar over unbound stones is that the stones or brick can be
much smaller thereby cutting down on the weight of the structure. Less
labor was needed to handle the light bricks and buildings could be made
higher.
Modern mortar is made of hydraulic lime, portland cement and sand.
Mortar is usually gray in color, however, white mortar is available for
special uses. Regulations and usage dictate that mortar must not har-
den to quickly, must retain plasticity until the bricks are set in place,
must not shrink or separate, and must meet the A.S.T.M. (American Society
for Testing Materials) specifications. Mortars fall into types (A, B, C,
and D) and they are arrived at by the proportions of cementious mater-
ials (lime, portland cement, masonary cement) and aggregate (sand). Even
the sand used must be of a certain type. All clay must be removed from
the sand and each particle has to be "sharp" not rounded like beach sand
that has been ground by constant pounding. Mortar is only one phase of
the masonry classification; concrete is another mixture and has other
uses.
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, and rock. Both the sand and
the rock is called "aggregate". Sand is fine aggregate and crushed rock
is coarse aggregate. When water is added to the proper mixture, the ce-
ment and water from a "cement paste ". The whole mixture, when properly
blended, forms a continuous rock like mass with the sand fitting in the
spaces between the rock, and the cement paste holding the entire mass
together.
Some structures or conditions require a better quality concrete than
others. This is accomplished by:
180
1. The varying proportions of sand, rock and cement.
2. The size of the aggregate.
3. The amount of water used.
Kinds of Concrete
1. REGULAR CONCRETE is composed of ordinary sand, rock and cement.
It is heavy (about 150 lbs. per square ft.), and very durable.
2. HIGH EARLY - STRENGTH CONCRETE hardens very quickly and is more
costly. This is used where construction has a deadline and time is im-
portant.
3. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE uses an aggregate that is considerably
lighter than crushed rock. Cinder is used as the aggregate. A new
material called HAYPITE is exceptionably lightweight. Such concrete
is used in ceilings and upper floors.
h. GUNITE is applied with a compressed air gun. It is used pri-
marily for repair work and for places that are inaccessible.
5. RUBBLE CONCRETE is a rough concrete, very heavy, and is used
for dams, retaining walls, bridge piers etc. The coarse aggregate is
large.
Concrete without reinforcing steel is called "plain concrete". When
steel is used it is called reinforced concrete. Steel rods are imbedded
in the concrete to prevent any cracks from opening and to give greater
strength to the sections.
181
D. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
1. Wood float.
2. Steel trowel.
ST Eet-3. Jointer. -rRo w
h. Curb edger.
5. Brick layer trowel.
6. Plumb line.
7. Level.
8. Shovel.
9. Hoe.
w ciobOAT
eulkiaEDGE R
FIG. 501
FIG. 502
182
Table I. Recommended Proportions ofWater To Cement and Suggested TrialMixes
Kind of Work
Add U.S. Gals. of
Each Sack of Cement
if Sand isWater to
Suggested Mixture
for Trial Batch
Cement
Sand
Crushed
Rock or
Very
Wet
Damp
Sacks
Cu. Ft.
Gravel
Wet
Cu. Ft.
Five-Gallon Paste for ConcreteSubjected to Severe Wear, Weather or
Weak Acid and Alkali Solutions
Colored or plain topping for
heavy wearing surfaces and
all two-course work for
pavements, tennis courts,
floors, etc
1/is
Maximum
Average
sand
14 1/2
size aggregate
4 3/4
3/8
1
inch
11212----.
One-course industrial,
creamery, and dairy
floors
and all concrete in con-
tact with weak acid or
alkali solutions
3 3/11
Maximum
size aggregate
1/2
3//4
1
inch
1 3/11
Seven-Gallon Paste for Concrete
Not Subjected to Wear, Weather orWater
Foundations, walls, foot-
ings, mass concrete, etc.,
not subjected to weather,
water pressure or other
Average
sand
exposure .
..
4 3/4
5 1/2
6 1/14
12 3 Li
Lt
Table I continued
.
Six-Gallon Paste for Concrete to
be Watertight or Subjected
to Moderate Wear and Weather
Watertight floors such
as in-
dustrial plant, basement,
dairy barn, etc
Watertight foundations.
..
Concrete subjected to md-
erate wear or frost action
such as driveways, walks,
tennis courts, garage
floors, etc
All watertight concrete for
swimming and wading
pools, bird baths, fish
ponds, septic tanks, stor-
age tanks, etc
All base course work such
as floors, walks, drives, etc.
Steps, chimney caps, blocks,
concrete masonry, fire-
places, etc
All reinforced concrete struc-
tural beams, columns, lin-
tels, slabs, residence floors,
etc
14 'A
Maximum
Average
sand
5
size aggregate
5 1/2
1
1
1/11Ta
2 1/1i
3
Note.---- It may be
necessary to use a richer cement paste in
some cases.
For example, a swimming
pool ordinarily is made using
a 6-gallon paste.
However, in strongly alkaline soil
a 5-gallon paste
should be used.
C. JOB PROCEDURE
To Mix Concrete
1. Select the proper proportions
of ingredients from Table I.
2. Mix dry ingredients thorough-
ly on a large flat container. See
figure 503.
3. Add water according to Table I
mixing with a hoe as you proceed. See
figure 50h.
4. Transfer mixture to previously
prepared form, by wheelbarrow or sho-
vel etc. within 30 to 1i5 minutes.
Note: A mechanical mixer may be
used instead. See figure 505.
"I-Tc) ri LES S. Box
FIG. 505
185
ohlro.).;-
: 4J.,?
FIG. 503
FIG. 501
VSVALVT TWO Cu131c.
Poor CA PA LITT
To Finish a Slab
1. Slab should be at least L"
thick, reinforced with 6x6-#10 road
mesh. See figure 506.
2. Level off surplus with a
rake and screed the entire slab with
a straight edge (2x)s or 2x6), using
the forms as a leveling device. See
figure 507.
3. Using wide flat boards to
kneel on, float the surface to ob-
tain a smooth texture.
h. If a finer texture is desired
use the steel trowel. See figure 508.
Note: Using the steel trowel too
soon, raises the fine dust like par-
ticles to the surface resulting in a
powdering effect when set.
43VPPoRre -5) FoRr-i ,. :-
Ar4 b B124c,ING.
7LI:lae t° ("VS
- IDt Ga
4x 46f- i?c1.44) /.4 Ash?
_it-leak pea I" s AAa
FIG. 506
Ruby Fa,1..0A7 III y
F11401#4aryl
10., Or
c Ss, /
FIG. 507
186
To Cure Concrete
1. Apply wet burlap, canvas or
sand on the entire surface as soon as
it is set hard enough so marring will
not take place.
2. Keep the entire surface wet
for several days.
jri o ItT A 2- AT'
ONE iMGI4H I c.14.
To Set Bricks
1. Select the type brick to be
used.
2. Select the type of bond to be
used. See figure 512.
3. Mix dry ingredients of the mor-
tar; 2 1/2 to 3 parts, sand to 1 part
cement, add water to a good working
consistency.
I. Using careful leveling and cal-
culations, "lay in" a line of mortar
about 1" thick on the footing. See
figure 509.
5. Press bricks into place allow-
ing the mortar to ooze out at the edges.
See figure 510.
6. As each brick is ready to set
187
FIG. 509
FIG. 510
DF-R- peP`- rii5a
ci-eso'
eittcP5113°P11)
0 Or414P40
FIG. 511
188
apply mortar (3/14") to the end butting
against the previous brick. See figure
512.
wel.
7. Strike the joint with a tro-
8. "Joint" the courses before
the mortar has set. See figure 5l3.
FIG. 512
189, 190
FIG. 513
tot t s c LLAi\coo s I 1.1 FoR ti AT tO At'(3 t4E LP F t-- (-UNITS
ifirecmCDOoz-GuracoU
PEleriorinozooraa fiE
fluorescent lamps can bepuzzlers. Besides dying
an uncomplicated naturaldeath, they suffer from vari-ous ills. Some of the problemsmay be due to the outsidecontrols required for theiroperation, but making sure ofthe tube itself is the first stepyou should t?ke.
Check the tube. Turn itgentry in the socket to besure the connection is good.Replace it with a lamp thityou Imow is gobd if it failsto come
Check the starter. Replaceit with one that you Imow isgood, but make sure its theproper size. Lamp makerssuggest putting in a newstarter with every second bulbreplacement.
Check the fixture. Be surethe wiring from the lampholders and starter socket iscorrect and tight. Watch forshorts, open circuits, andgrounds.
Check the ballast. If theabove tests do not remedy thetrouble, try another 'ballastyou know is good.
There are peculiarities towatch for with fluorescents.They are fussy about tem-perature. They put out thegreatest amount of light be-tween- 70 and 80 degrees.Below that, light output fallsoff badly. Cool breezes blow-ing around the fixture maycause erratic operation of thetube.
liff=.1.24-#0).1.
ors,..00°
SWIRL OR FLICKER
BLINKING OFNEARLY NEW LAMP
NOISE
rI
Obvious differences when alamp is changed in a two-lamp fixture may be due tothe fact that fluorescents aremade to be extra bright dur-ing the first 100 hours of life.Three shades of white on themarket may account for acomparative color difference,too. Changing both pairedtubes at once may be a goodidea.
When buying a replace-ment tube, check the etching.In some sizes, you can choosefrom three types of lamps: In-stant Start, Preheat RapidStart, and Preheat. Whenrnaling replacements, use alike tube whenever possible.While Preheat Rapid Starttubes will work satisfactorilyin most fixtures designed forPreheat tubes, Instant Starttubes will burn out the ballastor fail to light in circuits de-signed for different tubetypes.Phil McCafferty.
1. Starter -near end of life. 2. Wrongballast.3. New lamp may flicker, shouldimprove as lamp ages.
1. Low temperature; cold draft hittinglamp. 2. Defective tube. 3. Defectivestarter. 4. Loose contact. 5. Voltagelow.'
1. May be normal transformer hum. 2.Overheated ballast. 3. May require spe-cial lownoise ballast. 4. Ballast trans-former loose.
EARLY BLACKENING
1. If ends of lamp remain lighted, short-circuited condenser or starter-switchcontacts welded together. 2. If pro-longed flashing or off-on blink at eachstart, defective starter. 3. Voltage toohigh.'
"Reprinted courtesy ot Popular Science
Monthly (c) 1967 by Popular Science
Publishing Company, Inc."
1. Too many lamp starts per burninghour. 2. Below-average tube. 3. Too;high or too-low line voltage.° 4. Defec-tive starter.
SHORT LAMP LIFE
Grayish feathers are mercury usuallyseen on lower or cooler parts of bulb.Try rotating lamp to evaporate.
.....asieemem
DARK STREAKSALONG TUBE
1. Sometimes signals near end of tubelife. 2. Occurring early indicates exces-sive current.° 3. May be bad tube.8
© pDENSE BLACK SPOTNEAR END
SITARDGRAY RINGS
Fairly common condition that may occurabout r from one or both ends. Doesnot affect lamp operation.
Illustrations courtesy Champion Lamp, Works.
192,193
°Ballast at fault
"PERMISSION TO REPRODKE THIS
COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED
BY Popokr SciEsta: Pu iSltivriiR0(.6 M. VE(ct=001
TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING
UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OF
EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE
THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PfPM1SSION OF
THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."
MAINTENANCE
14114---------Mount SECURELY
Some tips on mounting sharpeners
A little forethought in selecting a location for a mounted sharpenerwill pay off later. Instead of settling on the easiest place to screw itdown," or putting the sharpener in the back room, try to see thatpencil sharpener is placed:
where the handle will not be brushed by the elbowsor sleeves of passers-by.
where it cannot be struck by sliding file drawers orswinging doors.
at a sufficient height so it cannot be bumped as chairs
and other furniture pieces are moved about. Elbowheight is generally best for wall mounts.
where there is sufficient light to permit easy removaland replacement of the chip receptacle, proper setting
of hole-size on pencil guides, easy use of self-feeders
and setting of point-adjusters.
HOW TO INSTALL NEW CUTTER CARRIER-ASSEMBLYOR NEW CUTTERS ONLY
1. Remove receptacle. 2. Using waste paper to protect left hand, holdcutter carrier frame while turning handle in reverse. This will unscrewhandle from threaded end of carrier shaft. Withdraw old carrier cutterframe. 3. Insert the new carrier cutter frame making sure that gearsmesh, before turning. Hold firmly as shown while replacing handle.4. If you wish to replace cutters only, remove cutter pins, replace withnew cutters and refasten with pins. Insert reassembled carrier intomachine as shown in #3. 5. Ranger double bearing modelRemove 2screws and take off rear bearing plate as shown. This gives you completeaccess to Ranger cutter carrier and parts.
191i