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Are real

Evidence from

ABSTRACT

Although service learning

opportunities and benefits to four major constituencies

institution, it takes place in an uncontrolled environment

instructional process. Faculty might avoid this

uncertainty as additional risk that jeopardize

paper provides evidence that a major

before the end of the course, does not limit the

taxonomy levels of learning are used in a grounded theory approach to gauge learning achieved

based on students’ reflective papers from

quits during the semester. Effective strategies to manage this major challenge inherent in

experiential service learning are presented

Keywords: Service learning, real world projects, Plato’s learn

analysis, project risk, reflective essays

Journal of Instructional Pedagogies

Are real world

eal world projects worth the risk?

Evidence from service learning projects

Janis Warner

Sam Houston State University

Michael Glissmeyer


Qiannong Gu


service learning provides unparalleled real world experiential student learning

and benefits to four major constituencies – student, faculty, community and

takes place in an uncontrolled environment introducing uncertainty into the

al process. Faculty might avoid this valuable approach to instruction seeing the

uncertainty as additional risk that jeopardizes a major desirable outcome, student learning

provides evidence that a major disruptive event, in this case the client quitting the project

before the end of the course, does not limit the student learning levels achieved.

are used in a grounded theory approach to gauge learning achieved

based on students’ reflective papers from two service learning project classes where one client

Effective strategies to manage this major challenge inherent in

presented.

Service learning, real world projects, Plato’s learning levels, grounded theory

, reflective essays


world projects,

student learning

student, faculty, community and

introducing uncertainty into the

approach to instruction seeing the

student learning. This

ent quitting the project

The Plato’s

are used in a grounded theory approach to gauge learning achieved

two service learning project classes where one client

Effective strategies to manage this major challenge inherent in

, grounded theory

INTRODUCTION

The frequently asked recruiting question “Do you have experience?” is a major barrier

for many graduating seniors when interviewing to begin their careers.

provide valuable hands on experiential learning involving skills s

(Larson & Drexler Jr., 2009) and innovative technologies such as radio frequency identification

(RFID) (Zelbst et al., 2008). However, they do n

community involvement that service learning can provide.

valuable opportunities as students learn though a

world activities that address the needs of the community and clients with structured opportunities

designed to promote student learning and development (Jacoby, 1996).

Service learning has been seen as a way to go beyond the classroom activity linking it to

real-world learning (Govekar & Rishi, 2007). Service learning has also been described as a way

to create opportunities for students to grapple with the theories they learn in the classroom by

applying them to real world problems and real world needs (Kenworthy

2005). This prior research confirms

instruction and service in a positive manner. Additionally, Gale et al., (2007) suggest three

distinct elements that should be involved in service le

reflection. Each of these stages will be addressed in addition to a discussion of the impact of

service learning on Bringle and Hatcher’s (1996) four constituencies that benefit from a service

learning educational approach: students, faculty, community, and the institution.

Academics recognize further research is needed to evaluate the impact on outcome

measures of student performance for service learning project (Wilson, 2008).

examines the impact of a major disruptive event, i.e. the client quitting, on student learning. To

accomplish this investigation two different service learning projects completed in consecutive

semesters were analyzed, one semester where

and one semester with the client participating until the conclusion of the semester.

THE THREE ELEMENTS OF LEARNING

Planning

Both classes had service learning projects involving

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) or Waterfall methodology (Valacich et al., 2009) to

document the analysis for the client

Development Center based on perceived need, willingness to work with students and f

course objectives. The course objectives are: 1) Introduction to factual knowledge such as

concepts, terminology, tools and processes; 2) Learning to apply the material to improve

thinking, problem solving and decision making; and 3) Acquiring

team member. The designation Group A is used for the class with the client that completed the

semester and Group B designated the class with the client that quit after six weeks into the

semester.

Experience

The students were grouped into teams where they were instructed to complete each of

the four phases of the SDLC – Phase I: Project Planning and Selection


Are real world


for many graduating seniors when interviewing to begin their careers. Classroom projects

provide valuable hands on experiential learning involving skills such as project management

Jr., 2009) and innovative technologies such as radio frequency identification

(RFID) (Zelbst et al., 2008). However, they do not provide real world experience or the

community involvement that service learning can provide. Service learning provides these two

as students learn though a type of experiential learning taking

address the needs of the community and clients with structured opportunities

designed to promote student learning and development (Jacoby, 1996).


Rishi, 2007). Service learning has also been described as a way


applying them to real world problems and real world needs (Kenworthy-U’ren &

2005). This prior research confirms what Gale et al., (2007) suggest, that service learning blends


distinct elements that should be involved in service learning projects: planning, experience, and



students, faculty, community, and the institution.

further research is needed to evaluate the impact on outcome

measures of student performance for service learning project (Wilson, 2008). This

the impact of a major disruptive event, i.e. the client quitting, on student learning. To

two different service learning projects completed in consecutive

, one semester where the client quit before the end of project completion


THE THREE ELEMENTS OF LEARNING

oth classes had service learning projects involving local real world clients and

evelopment Life Cycle (SDLC) or Waterfall methodology (Valacich et al., 2009) to

document the analysis for the clients. The clients were located through the Small Business

Development Center based on perceived need, willingness to work with students and f



thinking, problem solving and decision making; and 3) Acquiring skills working with others as a



were grouped into teams where they were instructed to complete each of

Phase I: Project Planning and Selection, Phase II: System


world projects,


Classroom projects

uch as project management

Jr., 2009) and innovative technologies such as radio frequency identification

ot provide real world experience or the

ervice learning provides these two

taking part in real

address the needs of the community and clients with structured opportunities


Rishi, 2007). Service learning has also been described as a way


& Peterson,

et al., (2007) suggest, that service learning blends


planning, experience, and



students, faculty, community, and the institution.

further research is needed to evaluate the impact on outcome

This study

the impact of a major disruptive event, i.e. the client quitting, on student learning. To

two different service learning projects completed in consecutive

end of project completion


local real world clients and used the

evelopment Life Cycle (SDLC) or Waterfall methodology (Valacich et al., 2009) to

. The clients were located through the Small Business

Development Center based on perceived need, willingness to work with students and fit with the



skills working with others as a



were grouped into teams where they were instructed to complete each of

Phase II: System

Analysis, Phase III: System Design

Completion of the project included a project book that analyzed the client’s needs, identified a

target issue(s) based on the client investigation/analysis, documented a system design for the

recommended solution(s) to the issue(s) and provided guidelines for im

maintenance of the recommended solution approach. Throughout the course students were

encouraged to: 1) Think outside the box, 2)

the client, 3) Be impartial to find the best solution for

fits the students particular area of expertise, and 4)

that anything is possible to be identified, not just what the client has always done (Valacich et al.,

2009). The goal of this approach was to create a learning space that gives the students the

opportunity to experience the process of problem

Reflection

Both the class with the client that quit mid

participated the entire semester were asked to write a reflective paper to evaluate the project on

what they had learned throughout the semester. Although the students were in two different

classes with two different clients they used the same methodology to approach the project,

including identical phases in the same sequence and identical lists of required project

documentation. Writing the reflective

about what they had learned. The analysis of these reflective essays allowed for categorization

of learning levels attained by each student.

THE FOUR CONSTITUENTS

The first constituency is students. Student benefits have been evaluated in several

different ways including potential extension of critical

enhanced ability to apply general theories and principles to specific situations (Markus et al.,

1993), retention and lasting learning of the material presented (Morton

learning for kinesthetic learners and team approach to reinforce learning (Cluskey et al., 2011)

This paper suggests that even under extreme classroom circumstances student learning is

accomplished.

The second constituency is facu

positive teaching outcomes and experiences (Caruso et al., 2006) along with greater potential

research opportunities (Strand et al., 2003).

The third constituency is the community. According to

learning benefits the community partner through improved networking opportunities, supplying

needed assistance with work outcomes, and tangible monetary benefits.

The fourth and final constituency is the institution. Truet

learning has a positive impact on recruitment and retention of students due to practical, relevant

learning experiences students encounter.

benefit the academic institution t

throughout the surrounding community. While the focus of this paper is on student learning

under differing client-based circumstances, all four constituencies are impacted suggesting the

importance of service learning as a pedagogical tool.


Are real world

Phase III: System Design, and Phase IV: System Implementation and Maintenance.

tion of the project included a project book that analyzed the client’s needs, identified a


recommended solution(s) to the issue(s) and provided guidelines for implementation and


hink outside the box, 2) Be impertinent by questioning everything done for

e impartial to find the best solution for the client not necessarily the solution that

fits the students particular area of expertise, and 4) To relax constraints to allow the assumption


The goal of this approach was to create a learning space that gives the students the

opportunity to experience the process of problem-solving and being creative in a novel situation.

Both the class with the client that quit mid-semester and the class with the client that



s they used the same methodology to approach the project,


the reflective papers provided students a chance to explore their feelings

The analysis of these reflective essays allowed for categorization

of learning levels attained by each student.

THE FOUR CONSTITUENTS


including potential extension of critical-thinking skills (Eyler & Giles, 1999), an


1993), retention and lasting learning of the material presented (Morton & Trope, 1996)

learning for kinesthetic learners and team approach to reinforce learning (Cluskey et al., 2011)


The second constituency is faculty. Two of the many potential benefits to faculty include


research opportunities (Strand et al., 2003).

The third constituency is the community. According to Bowen et al. (2009), service


needed assistance with work outcomes, and tangible monetary benefits.

The fourth and final constituency is the institution. Truethart (2003) argues service


learning experiences students encounter. Anecdotal evidence suggests that service learning may

benefit the academic institution through a positively enhanced image and greater visibility


based circumstances, all four constituencies are impacted suggesting the

of service learning as a pedagogical tool.


world projects,

and Phase IV: System Implementation and Maintenance.

tion of the project included a project book that analyzed the client’s needs, identified a


plementation and


e impertinent by questioning everything done for

the client not necessarily the solution that

o relax constraints to allow the assumption


The goal of this approach was to create a learning space that gives the students the

solving and being creative in a novel situation.

the class with the client that



s they used the same methodology to approach the project,


chance to explore their feelings

The analysis of these reflective essays allowed for categorization


Giles, 1999), an


rope, 1996), active

learning for kinesthetic learners and team approach to reinforce learning (Cluskey et al., 2011).


lty. Two of the many potential benefits to faculty include


Bowen et al. (2009), service


hart (2003) argues service


necdotal evidence suggests that service learning may

hrough a positively enhanced image and greater visibility


based circumstances, all four constituencies are impacted suggesting the

CHOOSING AN EVALUATION METHOD

One framework used to measure student learning outcomes from experiential learning is

Plato’s four levels of learning – imaging, perceptual belief, understanding and insight

al., 2008). The framework illustrates forms of awareness which can be used to identify levels of

learning or mastery of a concept or field with the final level of insight achieved once the student

is in the workforce (Sower & Fair, 2005). Addi

the Bloom Taxonomy (Zelbst et al., 2008)

Ultimately, the decision on which framework to utilize should come from the language

embedded in the student reflective essays. In this case, the coding of the examples of student

learning aligned more closely with Plato’s levels of learning. H

taxonomy is a more appropriate analytical tool

Assessing Learning through Plato’s Levels of Awareness

Plato identified four levels of awareness: imaging (eikasia), perceptual beliefs (pistis),

understanding (dianoia) and insight (noesis) (Plato, 1992). This hierarchy of awareness can be

applied to many fields as: a) Familiarity with representations; b)

Theoretical understanding; and d)

adapted the hierarchy to guide teaching methodology for radio frequency identification

technology (RFID) using experiential learning. The taxonomy of Plato’s levels of

follows.

Imaging, the lowest level of awareness or learning, is based on the representation of

concrete things (Sower & Fair, 2005). In a classroom setting textbooks and lectures can provide

these images (Zelbst et al., 2008) making students aware of the representations assoc

the course concepts.

Perceptual beliefs or personal experience leading to the second level of awareness can be

introduced through class exercises applying the images or “concrete things” presented through

the textbook and/or lecture. A hands

chemist (Sower & Fair, 2005), in a controlled

students to see how things work for themselves.

Understanding is the next level of learning achieved through

knowledge learned in previous levels of imaging and

utilized an in-class applied experience recognizing that; “It is not sufficient for students to have

simply ‘heard about RFID’ to be succe

technology” (Zelbst et al., 2008, p.420). Service learning projects for project management

(Larsen & Drexel Jr., 2009), banking and economics (Govekar

management courses (Govekar and Rishi, 2007) are examples of outside the classroom applied

experiences that have been used to achieve the understanding lev

the level where the impact of service learning is evident and aligned with the learning sp

(Kolb & Kolb, 2005) where skills acquired in the perceptual belief level are reinforced and

deepened.

This sequence of learning levels, understanding coming after perceptual beliefs, is the

determinant for using Plato’s framework in this study. In o

understanding through service learning, the skills necessary to complete the client deliverables

must be pre-existing, through prior coursework experience.


Are real world

CHOOSING AN EVALUATION METHOD


imaging, perceptual belief, understanding and insight



Fair, 2005). Additional frameworks for potential analysis include

(Zelbst et al., 2008), or Cognitional Theory by Lonergan (1968).



learning aligned more closely with Plato’s levels of learning. Hence, Plato’s level

a more appropriate analytical tool for this analysis.

Assessing Learning through Plato’s Levels of Awareness


ding (dianoia) and insight (noesis) (Plato, 1992). This hierarchy of awareness can be

amiliarity with representations; b) Personal experience; c)

heoretical understanding; and d) Creative insight (Sower & Fair, 2005). Zelbst et al. (2008)


technology (RFID) using experiential learning. The taxonomy of Plato’s levels of

lowest level of awareness or learning, is based on the representation of

Fair, 2005). In a classroom setting textbooks and lectures can provide

these images (Zelbst et al., 2008) making students aware of the representations assoc



hands-on experience, such as a laboratory experience for a

in a controlled classroom setting provides the opportunity for

to see how things work for themselves.

Understanding is the next level of learning achieved through the application of the

knowledge learned in previous levels of imaging and perceptual beliefs. Zelbst et al. (2008)

class applied experience recognizing that; “It is not sufficient for students to have

simply ‘heard about RFID’ to be successful … [in their field] they must ‘understand’ the


Drexel Jr., 2009), banking and economics (Govekar & Rishi, 2007) and nonprofit

ekar and Rishi, 2007) are examples of outside the classroom applied

experiences that have been used to achieve the understanding level of learning. Understanding is

the level where the impact of service learning is evident and aligned with the learning sp

Kolb, 2005) where skills acquired in the perceptual belief level are reinforced and


determinant for using Plato’s framework in this study. In order to “deepen” students’


existing, through prior coursework experience.


world projects,


imaging, perceptual belief, understanding and insight (Zelbst et



tional frameworks for potential analysis include

(1968).



levels of learning


ding (dianoia) and insight (noesis) (Plato, 1992). This hierarchy of awareness can be

ersonal experience; c)

st et al. (2008)


technology (RFID) using experiential learning. The taxonomy of Plato’s levels of learning are as

lowest level of awareness or learning, is based on the representation of

Fair, 2005). In a classroom setting textbooks and lectures can provide

these images (Zelbst et al., 2008) making students aware of the representations associated with



, such as a laboratory experience for a

setting provides the opportunity for

the application of the

. Zelbst et al. (2008)

class applied experience recognizing that; “It is not sufficient for students to have

ssful … [in their field] they must ‘understand’ the


Rishi, 2007) and nonprofit

ekar and Rishi, 2007) are examples of outside the classroom applied

of learning. Understanding is

the level where the impact of service learning is evident and aligned with the learning space

Kolb, 2005) where skills acquired in the perceptual belief level are reinforced and


rder to “deepen” students’


Plato placed insight as the highest level of awareness

individual would use creativity combined with concrete knowledge to produce entirely new

products and/or applications (Sower

students could use creativity to innovate beyond the

EVALUATION PROCESS

Following the grounded theory methodology utilized by Warner et al. (2010) three raters

with background in both classroom project and experiential learning were chosen to evaluate the

reflective papers. The raters were independent of the instructor of the classes. To prepare for the

analysis, the raters trained together to ensure they were consistent with the language they saw

emerging from the papers. The raters first completed their reviews of each reflective es

each class independently then met to identify similarities or differences in coding. The raters

identified a few major categories or second level constructs which suggested that the best form

of analysis would be Plato’s levels of learning rather

ratings were assigned based on Plato’s four levels of learning with the lowest level, imaging,

receiving a 1, through the highest level, insight, receiving a 4. When differences between the

ratings occurred the raters discussed the differences

the students reflective essay language, and came to a consensus.

Student Learning After a Major Disruptive Event

Criteria were established for the three raters to use for evaluati

essay. Consensus was reach between the raters as to each essay’s score.

standard deviation of each group

of 2.58 and Group B reached an average of

passed the level of perceptual awareness and were approaching a level of understanding in

Plato’s hierarchy (Table 1). Each student

seen in Figure 1. As can be seen, the majority of the students reached or exceeded the level of

understanding or level 3.0.

STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CLIENT PARTICIPATION DISRUPTIONS

“One way of defining ‘risk’ is risk is a problem that has not happened

p.256). One of the top risk factors consistently experienced

commitment (Keil et al., 1998), for example the client quitting before the course is completed.

Several strategies developed during these course experiences

mitigate the effects of this major

1) Build in a safety net for such a major risk in a real world client project by structuring the

project with a “backup” client. For thes

Center (SBDC) was not only a source of clients, but a secondary client as well. Even

when the primary target client quit, the SBDC consultant was eager to learn about the

student project outcomes to use the informa

can serve as secondary or “backup” clients such as the local

Rotary Club.

2) The first step of risk management and assessment is risk identification (Cervone, 2006),

Therefore, one recommend


Are real world

Plato placed insight as the highest level of awareness or learning. At this level, an


products and/or applications (Sower & Fair, 2005). Achieving the level of insight means that the

could use creativity to innovate beyond the current paradigm.



were independent of the instructor of the classes. To prepare for the


emerging from the papers. The raters first completed their reviews of each reflective es



of analysis would be Plato’s levels of learning rather than a different taxonomy. Reflective essay



raters discussed the differences, showed support for their arguments using

the students reflective essay language, and came to a consensus.

Student Learning After a Major Disruptive Event

Criteria were established for the three raters to use for evaluating each student’s reflective

essay. Consensus was reach between the raters as to each essay’s score. First, the mean and

standard deviation of each group were examined. The students in Group A reached an average

of 2.58 and Group B reached an average of 2.5. This indicates that both classes as a whole had


ch student was categorized by the level they reached as can be

. As can be seen, the majority of the students reached or exceeded the level of


“One way of defining ‘risk’ is risk is a problem that has not happened – yet”

ne of the top risk factors consistently experienced is a a failure to gain user

, for example the client quitting before the course is completed.

Several strategies developed during these course experiences have been found effective t

mitigate the effects of this major disruption and thereby better manage this type of

Build in a safety net for such a major risk in a real world client project by structuring the

project with a “backup” client. For these courses the Small Business Development



student project outcomes to use the information for other clients. Other sources of clients

can serve as secondary or “backup” clients such as the local Chamber of

The first step of risk management and assessment is risk identification (Cervone, 2006),

recommendation is to make risk management be a significant part of the


world projects,

t this level, an


Fair, 2005). Achieving the level of insight means that the



were independent of the instructor of the classes. To prepare for the


emerging from the papers. The raters first completed their reviews of each reflective essay for



than a different taxonomy. Reflective essay



showed support for their arguments using

ng each student’s reflective

the mean and

The students in Group A reached an average

2.5. This indicates that both classes as a whole had


by the level they reached as can be

. As can be seen, the majority of the students reached or exceeded the level of


(Cervone, 2006,

is a a failure to gain user

, for example the client quitting before the course is completed.

have been found effective to

disruption and thereby better manage this type of risk:

Build in a safety net for such a major risk in a real world client project by structuring the

e courses the Small Business Development



tion for other clients. Other sources of clients

hamber of Commerce or

The first step of risk management and assessment is risk identification (Cervone, 2006),

risk management be a significant part of the

curriculum for real world projects.

client for the project, has been highlighted in this paper

proactively manage the project risks

3) The traditional saying “w

Emphasizing the great rewards such as service learning and career building aspects of

real world projects can provide reasons

To support the strategies outlined above a resource list is provided to support service learning

project planning (see Appendix).

CONCLUSION

Listening to lectures and reading textbooks, the conventional modes of

particularly vulnerable to producing superficial understanding (Colby et al.,2003

verifying the achievement of the desirable learning levels in an experiential service learning

approach, despite the advent of a major

motivation for faculty to make the extra effort to

groundwork for the students to achieve greater learning. Th

that educators do not need to avoid the risks of the uncontrolled real world when using service

learning in a classroom environment because the evidence points to the students reaching the

same level of learning whether or not a significant

The reasons for using a service learning approach to education can be summed up by

Colby, et al. (2003) who suggests “lecture courses often do not support deep and enduring

understanding of ideas and are even less well suited to devel

communication, and interpersonal skills” (p. 132). These interpersonal skills, communication

skills, and problem solving skills are exactly what corporate recruiters are looking for in future

employees (Kolb & Kolb, 2005) and address the question asked at the beginning of this

“Do you have experience”?

This evidence and analysis supports the students as a major constituency of the service

learning method. Final support comes from the students themselves

‘hands-on’ project like this was definitely a great plus”, “Being able to offer worthwhile

information and advice to real people is a meaningful experience”, and “This semester I learned

and gained insights I believe will help me in the wor

the dozens of positive student evaluations of the service learning method

reflective essays analyzed for this study

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The traditional saying “with greater risks comes greater rewards” appears to apply here.


real world projects can provide reasons for working with greater risks.

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).

Listening to lectures and reading textbooks, the conventional modes of learning, are

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APPENDIX

Resource List

• Small Business Development Centers. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.sba.gov/content/small

• U.S. Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.uschamber.com/about

• Rotary Club International. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.rotary.org/EN/ABOUTUS/Pages/ridefault.aspx

• National Service Learning Clearing House. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.servicelearning.org/

• Educating Citizens – Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic

Responsibility. By Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, Elizabeth Beaumont, Jason Stephens.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Table 1: Summary Statistics

Students

(number)

Statistics

Mean

Group A (12) 2.58

Group B (10) 2.50

t-test critical value=0.229; P


Are real world

Warner, J., Gu, Q., Glissmeyer, M. & Zelbst, P. (2010). When project failure is a

pproach in the classroom. International Journal Management in Education

earning benefits and opportunities for business programs.

Issue XVII, 54-64.

Green, K. (2008). An experiential approach to develop an

International Journal Management in Education, 2(4),

Small Business Development Centers. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.sba.gov/content/small-business-development-centers-sbdcs

U.S. Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

://www.uschamber.com/about

Rotary Club International. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.rotary.org/EN/ABOUTUS/Pages/ridefault.aspx

National Service Learning Clearing House. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

http://www.servicelearning.org/

Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic

Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, Elizabeth Beaumont, Jason Stephens.

Bass.

Statistics

Mean Standard deviation % (LL ≥

3.0)

2.58 1.00 66.7

2.50 0.50 60.0

critical value=0.229; P-value=0.821; LL: level of learning


world projects,

ailure is a success: An

Management in Education,

programs. Business

evelop an understanding

2(4), 419-431.

National Service Learning Clearing House. Retrieved 8/10/11 from website:

Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic

Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, Elizabeth Beaumont, Jason Stephens.

≥

Figure 1: Student learning levels comparison

25.0%

10.0%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

1Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

rep

ort

ed

stu

de

nts

Comparison on Plato learning


Are real world

Figure 1: Student learning levels comparison – Group A vs. Group B

0.0%

66.7%

8.3%

30.0%

60.0%

0.0%

2 3 4

Plato learning levels

Comparison on Plato learning

Group A

Group B


world projects,

Group A

Group B

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